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I I A Symbol of Two |lations

 The Tirlip:
a Symbol of Tlvo Nations

edited by

Michiel Roding
Hans Theunissen

M. Th. Houtsma Stichting / Ttr.rco-Dutch Friendship Association

Utrecht / Istanbul 1993
 Cover illustrations:

Pieter Holsteyn the Younger, 'Semper Augustus

private coll.

Melchior Lorichs, Panolamic view of istanbul (detail)

dlawing, dated 1559
Leiden University Libraly

Tiles from the Rüstem Paça Mosque (1561), istanbul

O by authors

Covet design: Roelol Koebrugge

Lay out: Michiel Roding / Jan de Ruiter
Printed by: Waanders, Zwolle

This volume can be ordered from:

M. Th. Houtsma.Stichting
Drifr 15, 3512 BR Utrecht
The Netherlands

Turco-Dutch Friendship Association

Türkiye-Hollanda Dostluk DerneÉi
Prof. Mazhar Ökdel Sokak Kazaz Ìçhanr No. 313 80760 giçli istanbul

CIP.GEGEVENS KONINKLIJKE BIBLIOTHEEK, DEN HAAG

Tulip

The tulip : a symbol of two nations / [ed. M.J. Roding et al.]

- Utrecht : M.Th. Houtsma Stichting ; istanbul lTurkish-
Netherlands Association. - Ill.
rsBN 90-90062t0-6
Trefw.: tulpen ; cultuurgeschiedenis / tulpen in de Islamitische
kunst / tulpen ; kunstgeschiedenis ; Nederland.
Contents

paSe

Introduction & Editors' Introduction 7

Tulips portrayed. The tulip trade in Holland in the 17th century 9-24
Sam Segal

Turkish tulips and delft flowerpots 25-39

Ronald Brouwer

Tulips. Turks and tiles 40-49

Johan ten Broeke

The tulip in Istanbul the Ottoman period 50-56

Turhan Baytop

Tulips in Ottoman Turkish culture and art 57-75

Yrldrz Demiriz

Notes 78-83
Abraharn Mignon, Still life with flowers in a vase

ctt. 1670
Museum Boynans-van Beuningen, Rottetdam
Introduction
The Turks and the Dutch seem to enjoy a special relationship
based on more than 400 years of trade and 300 years of
peaceful lelations. Over the last few decades both countries
have g|own even closer togethel thanks to the existence of
numerous international organisations, increasing bilatelal
ties, tourism and last but not least the presence of more than
200.000 people of Turkish origin in the Netherlands. This
special lelationship even extends to the cultural field.
One unique enthusiasm which the Turks and the Dutch have
in common is their love of the tulip. The 'Lâle Devri' ('Tulip
Ela') was a period ofpeace and cultural enlightrnent in
Turkey while the tulip has become almost synonymous with
Holland.
This book is about a shared passion for the tulip as a soul'ce
of inspiration lor Dutch and Turkish artists and men of
science. The book has been published in conjunction with
the exhibition 'The Tulip: a Symbol of Two Nations' which
for the first time brings together fi'om Turkey and the
Netherlands a wide lange of lTth and l8th-century celamics,
textiles, books, prints and paintings containing tulip designs.
The Turco-Dutch Friendship Association, under whose
auspices this book and the exhibition have been ploduced, is
grateful fol the support leceived fi'om the Tulkish and Dutch
business, cultural and scientific communities. Special thanks
go to the M. Th. Houtsma Stichting (Utlecht) and Mrs.
Nazan Ölçer, the director of the Museum of Turkish and
Islamic Art (istanbul), fol the way she helped the
Association to furthel its aims of enhancing understanding
and friendship between Tulkey and lhe Nethellands.
Jan J. Jonkcr Roclants
P re sident of t he Tttrco - Dutch Frientlsl'ri¡; Associutiort
7
Editors' Introduction
Ovel lecent yeals the interest in the historical and cultural
lelations between Turkey and the Nethellands has increased
considelably. Two exhibitions, Topkapr (in Rotteldam and
istanbul) and Turkornanie (in Leeuwalden), both held in
1990, wele a filst indication of this new interest in the
fascinating historical and cultural ties which have existed
between both countlies. In conjunction with these exhibitions
two books dealing with Tulkish-Dutch political and cultulal
lelations were published (Topkap & TLtrkonnnie, Amsterdam
1989 and Basjibozoek, Utrecht/Leeuwalden 1990). Both the
exhibitions and the publications were eye-openel's and cleally
demonsh'ated that there was still much mole to discover'.
One of the relatively unexploled fields of shaled intelest is
the subject ofthe present volume: the tulip. Instead of
coveling Turkish-Dutch lelations in general, the exhibition
and the present book deal with one palticulal featule of both
cultures in detail. When studying the role of the tulip in
Turkish and Dutch culture, we came across intelesting
diffelences but also many similarities. While the tulip in
Turkish culture was more or less a symbol of Paladise on
earth and had an almost divine status, in the Nethellands this
precious and beautiful flower represented the tlansitoliness
oflifle. However, such elevated notions about the tulip did not
plevent both the Turks and the Dutch from seeking financial
gain by speculating in the tulip mat'ket. During the period of
the tulipornania (first half of the I 7th century) exorbitant
prices were paid for tr.rlip bulbs in Holland. A mole or less
similar development took place at the beginning of the 18th
centuly in the Ottoman Empire: tulips were highly plized
collector''s items. Such was the impoltance of the tulip during
thosc ycars in Ottoman Turkish history that latcr historians
have named the period the 'Tulip Era' ('Lâle Devli').
Whereas, generally speaking, one can think of valious
cultural achievements which symbolize different aspects of
both nations, the title of this book The Tulip: a Synùol of
Two Natiorts clearly explesses what the exhibition intends to
illustrate: the shaled cultulal and artistic enthusiasm fol the
tr"rlip in both Turkey and the Netherlands fi'om the l6th
centul'y up to the pl'esent day. The focus of this book is on
the l6th, lTth and 18th centulies, because at that time the
role of the tulip in the decorative arts of both cultures was
paramount. In choosing the subjects of the articles in this
book we have tried to maintain a balance. We wished to deal
with both Tulkish and Dutch culture equally, while botany
and alt histoly, it was thought, should complement one
another. The lelatively short period of time available to both
authors and editors made this a difficult task. Moreover',
there are almost no detailed scholarly publications on the
lole of the tulip in the Dutch decorative arts. Hopefully this
publication will stimulate scholars in both countries to do
fulther lesealch into this fascinating subject.
The editors wish to thank the museums in both the
Netherlands and Turkey for their cooperation, and the
authors of the articles for theil assistance in finding
illustrations for the book. And we wish to expl'ess oul'
special thanks to John O'Kane (Amsteldam) and Merâl
Gülnihar (Utrecht) for theil help in translating and revising
the texts in English.
Michiel Roding / Hans Theunissen
Tile panel with tulips
I 6th centuÌy

Topkapr Palace Museum

Tulips portrayed. The tulip
trade in Holland in the lTth
century
Sam Segal (Amsterdam)

Introduction
Wherever one sees tulips one thinks of Holland. And it is
true that since the end of the I 6th century this country in
particular has cultivated and exported them to the rest of the
world. Much has been written about the cultivation of tulips
in Holland. In particular the 'windhandel', the unbridled
speculation in tulip bulbs in the 17th century which resulted
in thousands of guilders being paid for a single bulb, has
attracted the attention ofboth scholars and.journalists.r In
this introductory article some aspects of the subject will be
discussed that have up to now hardly been studied at all.
What follows is the result of a combined botanical and art
historical study of the tulips in Dutch paintings and drawings
in the 17th and 18th century. Particular attention has been
paid to the 'tulip books'. These were albums of water-
colours of tulips put together by one or more artists and
commissioned by a bulb merchant. They served as a sales
catalogue for tulip bulbs, which a me¡chant could use to
show prospective customers what kind of flower they could
expect to see next spring.

"l{* .¡-'¿

2 Wood Tulip, from Gesner's collection of drawings

Universitätsbibliothek, Erlangen

The early history of the cultivated tulip

The actual origins of the history of the cultivated tulip in
Holland can be traced back to Persia and Turkey. In Persia
l'r .. . -.
the tulip was already known in the l2th century; it was, for
,.,,.-a-, ,,. r .

:-\
"\..).:\;--
1 I
instance, mentioned by the poet Omar Khayyam in one of
his quatrains. In Edward Fitzgerald's famous translation2 it
ê',t' t"t '"
-'
t, . ta' 'v

reads:

As then the Tulip for her morning sup

Of Heavenly Vintage from the soil looks up,
Do you devoutly do the like, till Heav'n
To Earth invert you - Iike an empty Cup.

,:rù.,.

3 Kurdistanic tulip from Gesner,

1 Conrad Gesner (?), Koerdistanic Tulip, grown in Augsburg 1557 woodcut in: Valerius Cordus
Universitätsbibliothek, Erlangen 1561

9
 The mystic poet Celaleddin Rurnî sung the praises of the
tulip in the l3th century. Sultan Mehn.red II, known as the
Conqueror' ( 145 I - 148 1), aftel conqnering Constantinople
( 1453), devoted considerable attention to the building of the
city and the laying out of gardens. Pleasure gardens with
ornamental plants and flowers did not yet exist in Europe; all
that could be found thele wel'e helb gardens and orchat'ds.
Under Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent ( 1520- 1566) the
Ottoman Empire reached its apex; it stretched fi'om the
Crimea to Egypt and coveled lalge parts of the BaÌkans.
From the l6th century onwards the tulip increasingly gained
popularity in the Ottoman Empire leaching a peak duling the
leign of Sultan Ahmed lIl (1703-1730), which period in
Turkish histoly is known as the 'Tulip Era'. During these
centlu'ies the tulip was also used as a decorative motif on
tiles and pottely.l
Until lecently it was thought that Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq
(Augelius Gislenius Busbequius), who was Flemish in
oligin and the ambassadol in Constantinople of the
Habsburg Enrperol Ferdinand I, was lesponsible for having
intloduced the tulip into Eulope. In a lettel dated 1555 he
wrote that he had seen gardens with tulips, but the lettel'was
more a piece of litelary leminiscence than contemporary
documentation having been wlitten long after the event, i.e.
some time after 1562.4 This may mean that he saw the tulips
only at a later date.s In any case he could not have seen tulips
blooming in December (1554) as he wlites. Busbecq sent
seeds and bulbs to Vienna but it is not known whether he did
this before the beginning of the I 570s. In 1 559 the humanisr
and scholal'Gesner saw a tulip in the garden ofJohannes
Heinrich Herwart in Augsburg of which he had previously
leceived a dlawing. Gesnel had ah'eady been engaged for
solne time in publishing books about animals that were
generously illustrated with woodcuts, and hc had bccn
working simultaneously on a book about plants. Gesnel''s
book on plants was only published in 17'7 1,200 yeals after'
his death in an abridged folm without his own illustlations.
These illustrations consisted of, water'-colours that wele
made by him ol'his assistants, and which were accompanied
by glosses. A sumptuous facsimile edition of this source
material has lecently appeared; in it we can see two watel'-
colouls which are the earliest dlawings of tulips that we so
far know of (1).6 The first plinted woodcut is based on one
of these two dlawings: the red tulip flom the garden in
Augsburg can be seen in a treatise by Gesner dating fì'om
1561 (3). It was a tulip originating in 'Byzantium',
presumably Constantinople.T The second tulip in Gesner's
collection of water-colouls, a yellow one (2) flom Italy, is by
¿ìnother hand, maybe the German Kentmann, who lived in
Italy from 1549 to I 55 L In any case Kentmann gave Gesner'
a dlawing of a yellow flowel that looked like a lily and
which had three leaves, and the descliption of this drawing
tallies with the yellow tulip.
Some of the tulips from Turkey allived in Central and
Western Europe via Vienna. Tulips wet'e also sent to the
North via Venice and the botanical gardens in ltaly. The
tulip later passed fi'om Flanders to Holland. There the soil
was ready to receive them in more than one sense. Tlade in
tulips soon developed, for the time being mainly with France
and England, and latel with Germany. It is a paradoxical fact
that in the l Sth century Sultan Ahmed III inipolted tulips
l0
frorn Holland. But his love for tulips also caused more
selious problems. A revolt against his legirne (1730) folced
him to abdicate. Amongst the charges brought against him,
was the accusation that he had spent too much money on the
tladitional annual tulip festivals.
The most popular tulips in Turkey at that time had red
flowers with small almond-shaped petals ending in a long
point. But these did not appeal to the taste ofEuropeans. At
least we larely come across the 'Needle tulip' in Western
paintings or drawings. They wele later given the scientific
name of Tulipa acmninata (4). At present varieties of this
kind are once again being sold. We can see from books
about herbs and flowels, and from thousands ofpaintings
and drawings, that in Western Eulope the preference was for
diflerent shapes and especially lor flowels with more than
one colour.
The first depictions of tulips in the Netherlands were two
woodcuts in a book by the lenowned doctol and herbalist
Rembert Dodoens (Dodonaeus) of Mechelen in 1566.8 How
vast their variety was, however', can first be seen in a helbal
of 1581 by Mathias de I'Obel (Lobelius), who worked in
Rijssel (Lille). He described and numbered 4l difTerent
valieties. Eighteen of these ale illustlated; thele are
descriptions of six othel softs accompanying other'
woodcuts.e Sorne of these 24 woodcuts were later used in
treatises by Charles de I'Escluse (Clusius), who devoted
much attention to tulips in a helbal of I 601 ; this text is
genelally regarded as the first scientific tl'eatise on tulips.r0
Clusius (1526-1609) was also a lenowned scholar. He came
lrom the folmer Southern Netherlands town of Atrecht (now
Arras in Northeln France). He was in the service of the coult
at Vienna as head of the hnperial Gardens; and in this
capacity he cultivated the plant materials from
Constantinoplc that Busbecq had given him. When Clusius
was olfered a post at the University of Leiden and was given
the opportunity of laying out a botanical garden, he brought
his tulip bulbs with him. He glew them in his own galden
and demanded substantial prices from potential buyels. He
did not make much profit fi'om them because the bulbs wer.e
stolen. They must have gone on to become palt of the
original stock in the Dutch tulip trade and cultivation.
In Clusius' pr"rblications it is often uncleal which descliption
of tulips peltained to which illustrations. The Antwerp
publishel Plantijn had used many woodblocks for the
woodcuts that had previously been used for work by
Dodonaeus and Lobelius that belonged to other types. It is
not possible to ascertain the coloul pattel'n from the
woodcuts; the illustrations in the herbals were rarely
coloured in, and if they were it was celtainly not done by the
authors. Nol is it clear how much of a hand Clusius had in
the choice of illustl'ations.
The wold 'tulip' is generally explained as being the result of
a misundelstanding. The Turkish word is lâle. Apparently
Busbecq was told that the tulip looked like a turban, the
Dutch word fol which, 'tulband', is effectively the same as
the Turkish wold 'dülbend'; this is thought to have been the
oligin of the narne 'tulip'. Accolding to Clusius' earliest
treatises on tulips, dating from 1576, two solts oftulips were
sold in Constantinople: the eally flowering Kaffa Tulip
(fi'om Kaffa in the Climea) and the later floweling Cavalla
Tulip (from Cavalla in Greece).
Of palticular importance is the publicati on, De Bloem-lnf
and the Latin edition Hortus Florirlus by Crispyn de Passe
the Younger in 16 14. This is a 'florilegium' , an anthology or
collection of coppelplate engravings of common garden
plants, that could be used as display material for the sale of
flowel bulbs, tubels and lootstocks. A Flench and English
edition soon appeared. Over the next few years a supplement
of another twelve pages containing twenty tulips were added
to the original edition in which seventeen tulips wele
illustrated on seven pages (5). The names ofthe growers
were mentioned and thele were two short texts describing
the care and cultivation of tulips and the equiprnent that was
needed. Illustrations in many publications both in the
Netherlands and abroad wel'e taken from this 'flolilegium'
till well into the 18th century.
ln 1629 the Englishman John Palkinson leported 40 1 France, but this is unlikely for a numbet'ofreasons, fot'
varieties of tulip in 30 illnstrations contained in four
engravings; in the lists that were published, and in the
accounts of auctions and Dutch tulip books of rhe I 630s and
early 1640s, one cornes across at least 650 varieties. A list of
the tnlips that were cultivated in l7 40 in the gardens of the
Malgrave of Baden-Durlach in Karlsruhe contains about
2400 names.rr At the present time there are about 5000
recognized cultivars.
The filst study ihat was entirely devoted to tulips was
Chesnée Monstereul's Le Floriste François,1654. The
author begins his book with a eulogy to the tulip which he
reckons as being the highest of all flowers, like human
beings among the animals, the sun among the stars and the
diamond among precious stones. Particular attention is paid
hele to the care and cultivation of tulips. In 1678, also in
France, a little book about tulips appeared anonymously. In
1700 a heatise was published by Van Oosten; in 1754 and
1760 there were treatises by D'Ardène; also in 1760 there
was one by Van Kampen. They give us an idea of how tastes
had changed.
Botanical tulip
Flom the descriptions by Clusius and De Passe's
illustlations we can conclude that at the beginning of the
lTth cenlury tulips were sometimes cultivated species and
that the majority were hybrids of the following botanical
varieties:12
Wood tulip T ttl i P a Ð, lv e s t ri s Linné
(= T. Ð'lvestris L. ssp. s]'/uasa'ls)
May tulip T u I i pcr ct u st ra Ii s Link
(= T. sj.lvestris L. ssp. uustralis (Link) Pamp.)
Slender tulip T u I i pct l'ttutti li s Herbert
Cretan tulip T ul i¡tct sctxcrt i li s Sieber
Striped tulip Tulipct bifloraPallas
Persian tulip Tulipct c lusiana Ventenat
(= T. clusittttct De Candolle ssp. clusirutcr)
Yellow tulip TLtl i pa chrysantha hort.
(=7. clusiana DC. var. chrysantlut (,A.D. Hall)
Sealy
Star tulip Tul i pa ste I krtct Hooker
(= T. clusiana DC. var. stellatu (Hooker') Regel)
Needle tulip Tul i pa ac tuni rtcrta Y ahl
Tapered tulip Tulipa schrenkii Regel
l1
Kurdistanic tulip Tulípa stapfii Turra
Red tulip Tuli¡tcL agenert.sis De Candolle
Firetulip Tuli¡tcr prurecotTenore
Green tulip Tulipa vìridiflora Bailey
For convenience the wold 'species' has been nat'rowly
defined, that is a number of them will simply be legarded as
a variety or subspecies; botanists are not always in
agreement about this. Most of these botanical species
oliginated in a region stletching from Western Asia to
Southern Russia, and some of them came froln South-West
Eulope. TLtlipa Ð,lvestrls and the related subspeciesTuli¡tcr
ausîrolís have also reverted to a wild folm in Southet'n,
Westel'n and Central Europe. According to some authors,
they were originally indigenous to Italy, Poltugal and even
instance that they would certainly have been obselved by
herbalists before the midclle of the lTth century. Dodonaeus
wrote in 1568 that tulips were not indigenous to Italy and the
Nethellands,rl and in view of the fact that he was in contact
with the scholal's of his time, one can assume that he knew
the tulips that wele legistered came fi'om elsewhere. Tulips
were said to have been painted befole then by Leonaldo da
Vinci, Domenico Ghillandaio and Gian Pietro Ricci
(Giampetrino), but the identifications at'e incorrect.ra In the
case of a numbel of other species, moreover, it is unceltain
whether their oliginal area of distlibution reached as fat' as
Europe. Tulipa saxatilis is known in Rhodes and Crete.
Tulipa viridífloris is not a ploper species; it presumably
'appeared' under cultivation round about I 630 as a
'monstrosity', a deviation with partially or entilely green
flowers. This deviation also occurs in the so-called pallot
tulips.
The tulips tlìat were cultivated duling the Golden Age were
rarely 'botanical' tulips, i.e. varieties that also occul in a
wild form. It is almost always cultivated products or
'cultivars' that we ale dealing with; sometimes they are
forms of a botanical species with a deglee of deviation, but
usually they are spontaneous hyblids that wel'e produced
during the process of cultivation; frequently they are the
product of lepeated cultivation of more than two sorts ovel'
successive generations. Hybrids like this do not come about
so easily in a natural state because the species do not
nolmally grow together, and even if they did, they would
quickly be driven out by othel sorts that were better suited to
local conditions. Growels, on the other hand, ale in a
position to provide artificially the optimr"rm conditions for'
every plant. It is not easy for a botanist to determine the
species oftulips that can be seen in old drawings or'
paintings. The distinguishing features are very often not
rendered. Fol instance, Gesner's yellow tulip does not show
the typical contracted flowel base, but it can hardly be
anything other than a Tulipa sylvestris that has been
irnperfectly lendered by the artist. The uncoloured woodcut
by Dodonaeus dating from I 568 offers a clearer picture of
the shape ofthis species, so that it can be identified without
the aid of colour. This species also occurs in Lobelius and
Clusius. Moreover, in the case of Clusius the same
illustration is also linked up with another (sub)species,
Tulipa australis.ts
Despite these difficulties during the first decades of their'
cultivation in Westem Europe tulips are easier to trace back
to their origins than is the case later on; they are clearly still
close to their origins. It is, however, rarely possible to
identify them with any certainty; at most one can offer an
approximation of what their original stock was. This is
because we are not dealing with the typical features of the
original plants; deviations also occur. The most important of
these are a product of diseases. New hybrids are often more
susceptible to insect plagues,or viruses than botanical
species that have succeeded in adapting themselves over the
course of the centuries. Virus diseases, especially the one
that caused the 'breaking' oftulips in the 17th century, led to
4 Needle Tulip from a Turkish tulip book, ca. 1730
private coll.
12
a large number ofvariegated tulips. 'Breaking'refers to a
type of tulip which has undergone a genetic alteration of its
colour scheme, which is in contrast to the original one
coloured types, the parent tulips or breeders. As a result of
continual cuitivation colour combinations occur with flames,
stripes or marks. The variegated types were the most popular,
they were known as 'fine' tulips. Moreover it was only in the
last century that it was discovered that a virus was involved.
Clusius had already observed that 'broken' tulips were often
weaker. It goes without saying that present-day growers a¡e
keen to eliminate viruses and avoid tulips which do not resist
infection.
'J',liy,l","L; Bo-,, l,f"; Colo,i,
.i,ln"-f,..,; l;yf .r o",,ro
5 Tulips from a supplement to the Ë1o rtus F loridus by Crispyn de Passe the
Younger, ca. l6l7
6 Pieter Holsteyn the Younger, 'Semper Augustus' ---)
private coll.
 II
I t

!, ¡

,li a

I
fr
I

I
't
I
!
I

S r*orro.ísí,lîíß
I tJJ
 Tulips produce hybrids easily. But not all species ale the
same in this respect. Of the list above, the first five species
are less inclined to produce hybrids than the other ones.
Hybrids withTulipa clusiana and related tulips, Z. schrenkii
and T. praecox, are the most common. In the case of L
stapfii,the'Kuldistanic tulip', that has a star-shaped mark
on the base contrasting with a light colour, quasi-botanical
forms occur at an eal'ly stage. It is probably Gesner's red
tulip and it is certainly the same as the tulips depicted by
Lobelius and latel on by Clusius.r6 Tuliltct clusianctwas
depicted by Lobelius,rT and it appeals latel on in Clusius
(161 1) as Tulípa Persica. It also appears in the florilegium
of Piere Vallet from Paris in 1608 - Vallet's illustration is
then used by De Bry (1611) and we find it again in Sweert
(1612) and De Passe (1614).r8 Here it is a case ofa species
with a red flower and a white border that bears some
resemblance to our' 'Christmas tulip'. On the same sheet in
De Passe the Tulipa saxatilis of Crete is depicted.
In this survey the most common sort has been left out, the
Tulipa gesnerana.This tulip, described by Linnaeus and
named after Gesner', is an indistinct hyblid of various
botanical species, an average result oftulips cultivated
accolding to the taste of his age. It is not a botanical variety,
even though it is the one that is most frequently mentioned in
the literature on cultivated tulips. The name conceals a
silence as well as an ignorance about the botanical
background of the flower.
Cultivars
Countless cultivars have been identified. Products that are
not produced flom seed but by vegetal (asexual)
reploduction, for instance by cutting rootstocks in pieces or
by making cuttings, are more consistent in their'
characteristics than products that are grown fi'om seed.
Vegetal reproduction occurs in the case of tulips through the
outgrowth of side-bulbs, a process that can be induced
manually by making an incision in the underside of the bulb.
In the case ofthe abundance ofvarieties in the lTth century
it is very doubtful whether we are dealing with reasonably
consistent types; we have already seen that virus infection
influenced the development of new varieties. It is a question
hele of what one's point of view is; a certain variation of the
typical features nust always be allowed for. It may even be a
question ofpropaganda. In fact there was no scientific basis
for identifying cultivars, either through carefully described
features and research into what constituted the limits of a
variety, or through genetic research, which plays an
important part at the p¡esent day. Few, if any, of the
thousands of modern cultivars can be traced back to
botanical stock; they can, however, be accurately identified.
Consistency is partially preserved by the development of
cultivated forms that are sterile, that is, ones that ploduce no
seed or only seed that is infertile. This means that cultival's
are often specialities of one orjust a few growers who own
the palent tulips that ale capable ofproducing viable seed.
Many names of growers are known to us flom the tulip lists
in publications and reports of auctions, and fiom notes in
tulip books. De Passe gives a list of names of 'fanciers'
according to city; it contains both professional growers as
well as garden fanciers. We find on this list the names of
14
such prominent men as the engraver and publisher Johannes
de Bry in Frankfurt, and the painter and draftsman Jacques
de Gheyn in The Hague, who also drew and painted flowers.
The cultivated varieties of the I 7th century were often
named aftel their grower, for instance, Tulipcr lttcobi Bommii
lulei coloris coccittes flamntis divisa et ornata (in De Passe,
5), Merveille Van Qaeckel, Admirael PoÍtebacker, etc. Jacob
Bom and Jan Quaeckel were growers in Haarlem, Hendrick
Pottebacker was a resident of Gouda. But there were also
names such as Schoone Helena, Bnryd van Enchtrysen,
Lcryrr,tck, Non Pareille or Geel en Root van Leyden.
To cultivate a garden one had to be wealthy. Exotic garden
plants were very expensive. An ornamental garden was in
fact a 'collection' ofprecious objects, and the bulbs were
planted at a good distance from each other in flowerbeds, as
one can see fi'om innumelable prints. Sometimes a single
tulip will adorn a whole bed. Tulips were among the most
sought after, costly and prestigious collector's objects. Not
all tulips were equally expensive. It was clearly a matter of
fashion. Although this was not the only deciding factor',
fashions were to a great extent determined by a flower'
possessing what were legarded as ideal chal'acteristics, in
pal'ticulal'certain colour combinations. The length and
strength of the stalk and the size and shape of the flower,
even the coloul of the stamens, played a part. And of course
it was impoltant whether the variety was consideled rare or
not.
The pensionary of Amsterdam, Dr. Adliaen Pauw, grew
nothing on his estate in Heemstede except a small number of
tulips of the Semper Augusras valiety (6), the only known
examples of this tulip. Nicolaes à Wassenaer wrote in 1623:
'Among the many Precious examples of these Flowels ...
one that for its Beauty is named Sentper Augttst¿¿s is the
foremost of this Year;the colour is white; \tittr Carmine on a
blue base, and with an unbroken flame right to the top, never
did a Florist see one more beautiful than this...' The plice
was f 1,000 for a single bulb. The Sentper Augusras stayed at
the top for a long tirne. 7n 1624 it was pliced at f 1 ,200, in
1625 it was marked up at f 3,000 but remained unsold, in
1633 its price was f 5,500 and in 163'7 f 30,000 was offered
for three bulbs.re What is more, one should take into account
that the value of the guilder was vely high at the time; we are
talking about fortunes here. The average annual income was
around f 1 50. A filst class house in a Dutch city cost around
f 5,000; the most expensive houses on the central canals of
Amsterdam, including garden and coach house, were about f
10,000. The tulips, therefore, had value as an investment,
and in the 1630s this led to the tulip 'windhandel', tlading
'close to the wind' or ín blanco; the episode has gone down
in history as the tulip mania. The phenomenon of the tulip
books is closely related to this development.
To diffelentiate between tulips there are various possible
criteria. One of the for€most distinguishing featules :is the
floweling season, a feature that one cannot make use of,
however, when using works of art to identify a species.
Clusius' division into early and late flowering tulips was
accepted up until the l8th centul'y. The variation in timespan
is some two months; the earliest tulips normally flower in
the second half of March, while the latest have normally
reached theil prirne befole the end of May. The following
varieties belong in chronological order to the early species:
T u I i p cr s c h r e nk i i, T. b ifl o r a, T. p ra e c ox and T. a g e n e ns i, fhe
latter flowering up until the beginning of May. Then flom
the end of April there ale: T. sylt,es[ri", T. clusiana, T.
stel lato, T. chr¡,5¡¡¡1¡þ¡¡ and T. srtxatolís respectively, while
T. ctLtsÍralis only begins to flower in May. The classification
that was mainly used in the lTth century, whether or not in
combination with the time of flowering, was determined by
basic coloul and colour combinations. Speaking broadly the
following groLlps wel'e dilfèrentiated as follows:20 À

Co u I e tu'en'. single-colonred. Usually palent tulips.

Gheboorcletr. single-coloured with a yellow or lightel border'.
Luckett'. pnrple (ol pink-purple) with a broad white border; early (9
and 12). For instance Lock vutt Rijrt, Luck t,an Quaeckel;various
exarrples in Sweelt (1612) and De Passe (1614).
Ducken: red with a yellow border; short, small flowels, early (8-12).
For instance Duck Conrcl; examples in Lobelius, Clusius, Sweelt
and De Passe; after IJ22 Duck vatt Tol.
Brutsons'. red with a wide yellow border. For instance Vroege
I
Bransott ttut Kaer.
Agcttlten: bi-coloured, short; usually short Ro¡¿1. For instance,
AgrraÍ Fetùs Du Costct. But multicoloured varieties also occur.
Rozen: red or pink on a whìte ground. The Iargest group includes
Setnper Augustus (6 and ll), Sonterscltoott and viltually all the
Atlmiraels and most of the Generaels.
Violenen: purple or lilac on a white glound. Fol insta¡ce, Viceroy
(10), Bru¡,n Purper, Otto tle Matt, Generael van der Eyck and
Adtn irae I vcut Enc kltuys en.
BogL{ettert'. red or purple in sharp contrast with a white background,
r-\
lalge and rounded with rounded petals, and in some cases with a
tlrick stalk more than 80 cms long (7); particnlarly con.ìn.ìon
dur'ìng tl.re late I 7th, and the l8th centuly (also known as
'Flemish' tulips).
Bizartlett: red, pulple ol brown on a yelÌow gronnd. Sometimes
known as 'Fantasquen'. The species includes Roo¡ en Geel wut
Le|tlen, Root ett Geel von Catoll'n, Atlmirael Pottebacker and
fuIenteille wut Qtneckel.
Marrluetrirten'. at least four colours; late flowering tulips. For
instance, Ceclonulli. Populal in Flanders in the early lTth century,
very fashionable in France in the I Sth century.
)
Paragorten: colour changes lesnlting frorn 'bleaking' , generally
regalded as an ìmprovement. For instance, Pcnagon Da CosÍcr,
7 Vincent Laurensz van der Vinne, 'Baquette'
Parugott Líefl<erts. private coll.
Porkiettuþten'. huge tulips with distinctly fiilled or incised flamed
petals, usually partially green. As eally as 1 630 there is a pai nting Only the tulip books give one some idea of what the
of a green tulip,2l a type which became fashionable after about hundleds of cultivals looked like that are mentioned during
l 660. the period of the tulip nania and the immediate years that
followed. that is the 1630s and I 640s. We observe that thele
Double or full tulips are mentioned in Besler as early as is sometimes a consiclerable amount of variation allowed
l 6 l 3; they only became fashionable, however, duling the within the types with the result that thele is also a distinct
last quartel of the 17th century. For tulips with a colour overlapping between diffelent types. One must agree with
pattern different terms were used: spotted, for instance for Walthern ( 174 I ) that charlatanism olten played a role.22 In
Ihe Jaspis tulips, jagged, striped, flanied (marking from the order to provide some idea ofthe abundance of varieties, it
border going through to the centre; the finely flamed types seems useful to plovide a diagrarn showing the shapes of the
were later called Paltocly tulips), feathered (short slanting flower and the petals, the colour schemes and other
stripes along the bordels), marbled and sometimes winged, distinguishing featnLes.23
burnt, bruised and shledded. To a certain extent it is possible to follow the fashions by
In popularity the Admiraels wel'e just ahead of the GenertLels consulting the tleatises that were wlitten about tulips over
as frequent winners olcompetitions. The Adnùraels the coul'se of the years; they often list the chalactelistics of
stlictly speaking had a regular red pattern on a white the ideal tulip. But paintings and dlawings al'e an even more
background. leliable soulce, because the literature lepeats itself and tends

15
 to ramble. One can roughly date lTth-century paintings on
the basis of types of tulips and locations. For instance there
was a clear difference between the tulips in flower pieces
from the South and North Netherlands, especially in the first
half of the I 7th century.
Tulips with a sharply outlined drawing and with pointed tops
or tops that curled outwards were later replaced by larger
and rounder flowers with more colours and with a subtle
transition between colours. Ideal tulips, accolding to Oosting
(1700), have the following features: 'The finest calyxes are
those that have petals that are rounded at the top, and these
should not be curled; when they are open they shouid be
straight and round.' '... as for the flames, these must start
low, beginning at the base of the Flower and climbing right
up the Petal, and ending in the form of a sheli at the edge of
the flower.' 'As legards the base, it must be of the finest Sky
Blue, and the stamens should seem to be Black, although
they are really of a very dark Blue, these are the most
handsome features of the constant beauty of Tulips. As for
the form, the Stalk must be tall and straight, and the flower
of a regular size...'. Oosting regarded the single-coloured
tulips as being the least valuable but points out, as Clusius
had done a century earlier, that they were the strongest - and
consequently the best tulips to be used for experiments.
Plesent-day growers who want to include 'old tulips' in their
selection will undoubtedly be able to derive benefit from this
approach. There is also an increasing demand for old
cultivars, for instance, of roses. The so-called old cultivars in
the trade are mostly forms that derive from more modern
plants that at best only ostensibly match the genuine o1d
cultivars. A subculture has come into being that one can in
fact feel some sympathy for. The modern species are
relatively strong and fÌower for a long period; their
behaviour is predictable and one knows how to combat
sicknesses and pests. What is mol'e, it is a time-consuming
business to cultivate plants from seeds. An approach that
would be of some scientific interest would be to tl'y gl'owing
the 17th-century tulips (and roses) all over again from the
botanical species. It would be an additional asset that
botanical species, genelally speaking, surpass cultivars in
beauty and delicacy, at least in my opinion. As far as I am
concerned, one might even try to 'improve' the botanical
species as such. In the modern literature on the subject the
Duc tulips, both the old and new ones, are fairly frequently I!,ríni

10 Pieter Holsteyn the Younger, 'Viceroi

private colÌ.

identified as Duc vanTol.This tulip was first grown by Dr.

Martinus van Tol and first appears in a list of 1'722. An early
illustration can be found in Trew.2a The first illustration of a
Duc is that of Lobelius in 1576.25 The Ducs were relatively
cheap during the period of the tulip mania; a bulb cost f 2 I 0
in 1637.
The Somerschoon appears in a number of tulip books. The
water-colours give us some idea of how variable they can be:
¡"c.- ir
it has an egg-shaped flower with egg-shaped petals that may
8 Pieter Holsteyn the Younger 9 Pieter Holsteyn the Younger be either rounded or pointed. The top is either concave or
'Duck' 'Lack van Rijn' spreading, with red feathering on a white ground and with
private coll. private coll. points, marks or stripes along the central vein, and with

I6
yellow l'ound the base. The red colour in the water-coloul's
varies from vermillion to pulple-red, often with pink. There
is a plonounced ovellapping with many other 'Rozen'. In the
period of the tulip mania a bulb of the Somersclrcon vntety
fetched f 1,010.
TheViceroy fetched f4,600 in an auction in 1637, a price
that was only surpassed by lhe Semper Augustus and the
Ccrtolijn van Enchr,rysen at f 5,400.26 The Vicerq, was a
'Violette', a species with pulple malkings on white (10). The
number of its types is comparatively small; most of them
were expensive. These highly sought-after tulips are hardly
ever absent from any tulip book during the period of the tulip
mania. The dlawings, however, suggest that the notion of
what we may be permitted to call a Víceroy appears to have
been fairly flexible. The name 'Viseroy' is visible under a
tulip on the gable of an inn in a painting by Jan Breughel the
Younger which is a satire on the speculation in tulips. In it
monkeys perform all the rituals of the bulb traders, including
the blow-out after a deal. The painting is in the Frans
Halsmuseum in Haarlem (13).
The so-called 'Rembrandt tulips' are not tulips from the time
of Rembrandt; they ale cultivated products that came on the
market at the end of the l 9th centuly.
11'FloraesGecks-kap',engravingbyCornelisDanckertsafterapaintingbyPieterNolpe
1-l
The tulip mania
The absurd prices that wele paid fol a single tulip bulb, the
speculation that accompanied it and the social consequences:
pool people who became rich in a sholt time and who then
usually became poor again, and lich people who gambled
away their wealth - all this is something that has appealed to
people's imagination ovel the centuries. The tulip mania is
one of the most popular themes in Dutch histoly. Much has
been written on the subject and there are many legends about
it.In 1942 Krelage wlote a book that is still wolth reading in
which he goes through the histolical facts systematically.
Since then a great deal of new infolmation has been added to
his study and that ofhis predecessors, and it is to be
expected that new research into the documentary sources
and the archives will shed even mol'e light on the events. In
its broad lines the essence of this history is well known.
From the beginning of the first imports of exotic tulips the
bulbs became a favorite luxury item amongst the aristocracy.
For a single tulip bulb of a specific cultivated valiety or what
was thought to be one, hundleds of guilders were paid, and
in the 1620s this surn could lise to f 3,000. The bulbs wele
usually sold in installments during the period between the
ll
12 Pieter van Kouwenhoom, four tulips:
'Duck', 'Lack' and 'Tulipa australis', ca. 1630
. Lindley Library, Inndon

18
time when they were extracted in June and their planting in
October. It was not possible to tell from looking at a bulb
what sofi of flower it would produce: that was the reason for
drawings and tulip books. Moreover it was a question of
trust. Because certain tulips were rare and the demand was
great, prices could soar. Sales took place by contract, and
gradually more and more middlemen came between the
original owner or grower and the eventual buyer; this meant
that the price rose still higher. More and more adventurers
became involved in the trade. In the end people would buy
an object on credit which they did not actually obtain, which
they did not have the money to pay for, and which they
proceeded to sell to someone else, who did not have the
money either, and who in turn had no intention of keeping
the product. And all these transactions took place whether or
not there were any contracts or certificates of authenticity
from an expeft grower. Of course the situation was wide
open to all manner of complications. 'Colleges' were set up
composed of traders who were more or less knowledgeable
on the subject and who did not want expensive deeds of
notaries or contracts to stand in their way; they instituted
new rules concerning the procedures for buying and selling -
rules that were fairly complicated. Rituals prevailed such as
the obligatory drinking spree and dinners, after a transaction
had been sealed. These rituals were in part an old custom;
the celebration banquet had already existed in the 16th
century. It was a confirmation of an agreement in which the
buyer, seller and witnesses got drunk at the expense of the
client.2l
13 Jan Brueghel the Younger, Parody ofthe tulip mania
Frans Halsmuseum, Haa¡lem
t9
In the Autumn and Winter of 1636 to 1637 the prices rose to
staggering heights; this led to a catastrophe in February. The
prices suddenly began to plunge. The local authorities and
the growers attempted to keep the situation somewhat under
control: for instance, they recommended that only
transactions that had taken place before November 1636 or
another date were to be declared bona fide. All levels of the
population were involved in the trade: the weavers, for
instance, who occupied a low place on the social ladder. One
of the victims of the trade in tulip bulbs was the famous
landscape painter Jan van Goyen. He had stored bulbs worth
f 60 each and had to watch their value decline to a few
guilders. It took him years to pay offhis debts.
The event was commented on in lampoons and pamphlets.
Among the most famous were Adriaen Roman's three
'Samen-spraecken' (dialogues) between the two weavers
Waermondt and Gaergoedt, who discussed the rise and fall
of the Goddess Flora. They were published in 1637 and were
apparently a great success . In 1643 they were reprinted with
additions, and in 1734 aimost a hundred years later, a second
reprint was produced at a time when the trade in hyacinths
threatened to provoke a similar fever of speculation. This
third dialogue gives lists with prices. Not all the bulbs were
expensive; one could also buy per pound for prices ranging
from f 12 for White and Reds to f 5.700 for Audenaerde.
Flora's rise and fall was an allegory that was frequently used
in imagery and in writing. The prints of Floraes Gecks-kap -
Flora's fool's cap - (11) and Floraas Malle-wagen - Flora's
chariot of fools - (14) are well known. The first of them
 shows a tavern in the form of an oversized fool's cap under
which all the tulip lanciers can be seen. The name of the
tavern, written on a flag, \s In de sofie bollen - which means
roughly translated 'at the sign of the fools' bulbs'. Flola is
seated on a donkey, proverbially known for its stupidity.
The full title is Floroes Gecks-kap of AJbeelclinge van 't
wonderlijcke lcter von 1637 doen d'eene Geck d'ander
uytbroede, de Lu¡, Rijck sonder goeÍ, en Wijs sonder versÍant
t'vaeren.28 (Floraes Fool's cap or a Picture of the wonderful
year 763'7 when one Fool hatched another, the Idle Rich lost
their wealth and the Wise lost their senses). In De
Mallewaagen alias het vctlete der Bloemisten (The fools
chariot or the decline of the florists) we see numerous
allegorical figures such as 'Vergaer al' (Hoald it all), 'Ydel
hope' (Vain hope) and 'Leckbaerd' (Wetbeald) who is in his
cups. There are numerous amusing details, such as the bird
that is called 'Vain hope has flown the coop', and the
citizens 'We want a ride too' and the cart with a sail that is
shipwlecked. The tulips in the hands of Flola, who is
depicted with a generous low neckline, also have names
such as Senper Augustus and on the ground there are the
tulips that are pelishing together with their names. In the
/2¡ .{,tll.' *,¡,t.,n
E- Å¡ n&* .1.,
l'Lolr,{
i -6**nh
'1
14 'Floraes Malle-waagen', engraving by Crispyn de Passe the Younger after â painting by Henclrik pot
four corners of the print we see scenes depicting the
transactions of the tradels.2e Both of these engravings are
accompanied by a lengthy commentary.
In order to appreciate the relation between the tulip trade and
the goddess Flora we should take a look at how she was
described in the anonymous tract, the Heydensclte Afgoden,
ol Heathen ldol, of 1 646.30 Flora is the Goddess of the trees,
plants and flowers; she is malried toZephyr,the South-West
wind. She deceives him with Hercules. A rich rnan falls in
love with her and leaves hel his capital in his will, so that she
becomes vely rich. Prostitutes offer sacrifices to hel in the
temple. According to Cicero lewd plays were perfolmed in
honour of Flola. 'Today people call the Flower fanciers
Flolists aftel FLORA, although the crazed Merchants of
Tulips in the Year 1637 , make use of the Name
undeselvedly, since they are no Florists who love flowers,
but only profits and feasting; These Knaves were so mad in
their trade that they f'olgot their Shop and all decent
Housekeeping, and built a thousand Castles in the Air'', as
A. Roman in his 'Waelmondt and Gaergoedt' amusingly
writes. She is depicted as a young, and lascivious woman
with flowels on her head and between her breasts, with her
*'*r.]1.".
ùaSa,aí &. tb'øûr
'.r
ß/.,¡*i*'s
;:ttt l.y c./¡a
1*l ltq"
.---:-þ- -:"'"a'n!.!
20
sleeves rolled up and wearing light and thin clothes.
Many were the authors who had lidiculed the 'tulip rage'
starting at a much earlier date. Roeme¡ Visscher wrote a text
in 1 590 that was published in 1614 in his emblem book,
Sinnepoppen. Above the illustration of tulips there was a
caption: 'A fool and his money are soon parted.' Hondius in
his Mor.fe-schans in 162l refers to the tulip on the one hand
as being 'Exalted above all flowers' and on the other hand
talks about 'Fools who make gardens for one flower alone
and no other...';he continues in lhyme: 'Al1 these fools want
is tulip bulbs / Heads and Hearts have but one wish / Let's
tly and eat them; it will make us laugh / To taste how bitter
is that dish.'3r Anyone who has eaten tulip bulbs during the
Second Wolld War will confirm that even when one is
hungly they ale unpalatable. What is more, tulip bulbs did
not suddenly become cheaper. One can get a fairly good
picture from numerous accounts and inventolies of the
course the prices followed. The annual lists of stock and
purchases of the Malgrave of Baden-Durlach in Kallsruhe,
who annually ordered thousands of tuiip bulbs fi'om
Holland, show that in 1612 he bought I 163 bulbs for f I 166,
that is an average of a guilder per bulb. But some of them
cost f 1 0 each and a few of therr as much as f 40. The annual
income of a nulse ol a washerwoman'at the time was f 20.
The Margrave's inventory of 1636 records 4796 species of
tulip many of which were represented by a single bulb, but
in the case of some by mole than 80,000.32 A catalogue of
James Maddock in Walswolth dating from 1742 reports 665
species of tulip with prices varying from f 0,30 to f 75 per
bulb. Real change only came at the end ofthe 19th century
when many old species were got dd of. By then species
could be improved in a more scientific fashion and the
economy began to concentrate on seliing in bulk.
Nonetheless, to this day it remains a challenge for growers to
produce new cultivars.
In some cases we know that the water-coloul's were
commissioned by a bulb dealer. A dealer could use the
drawings as a catalogue: one could show potential buyers of
bulbs how they would look when they were in bloorn, a
period that ralely lasted more than a few weeks. We do not
always know who the artists were and in many cases a tulip
book consists of drawings by more than one artist. The
lenowned 'Tulip book of Judith Leyster', for instance, in the
Frans Halsmuseum in Haarlem in fact contains only two
drawings by this artist; the rest are the work of two other'
artists.33 Moreover the stalk and the leaves are by no means
always done by the same artist as the flowers. What was
important was the depiction of the flower and this had to be
done with cale. The leaves and the stalk were often left to
other, generally less skilled, assistants; this secondary work
was usually added latel and the leaves do not always match
the flowel they accompany. Some drawings have been
preselved at an uncompleted stage of their production: with
the dlawing of the flowe¡ in black chalk or just with the
flowel without the stalk and leaves.
The term 'aquarel', watel'-colour, should not necessarily be
taken literally; sometimes the painting is done with gouache
and often with a mixed technique. The flowers or plants are
frequently outlined with thin lines of black chalk, or
sometimes with black lead (pencil) or silver point. Usually
these lines were lemoved later on, but traces of them can
often still be seen. Drawing lines of this sort can be
important for identifying an artist. Sometimes the outlines or'
hatching lines are done with a pen and ink. In a number of
cases an extra gloss was given to the flowet' ol to parts of it
by applying gum arabic or egg white to the drawing.
The drawing of the tulip might be accompanied with notes: a
signalLrre or thc nlollo[¡r'¿rnl of the'ailist. a sclics nunrbct'. the

Tulip books, tulip series and water-colours of

tulips
At the beginning of this article a definition of the 'tulip
book' is given. At this point it seems appropriate to offer a
more detailed description of its contents. A tulip book is a
series of drawings of tulips, usually done in water-coloul's,
which are compiled in one album. The drawings may be
inserted loose between the empty pages or they may be bound.
Many such albums of drawings of flowers, plants or animals
were in the course of time bloken up and the sheets were
then sold separately. In a number of cases we do not know
for ce¡tain if an album was oliginally a genuine tulip book
and sometimes that would seem to be unlikely. It frequently
happened that a considelable number of tulips were included
in an album ofdivelse flowers and plants, and one can guess
that these were latel'sold separately. One such example is a
large series of drawings by an artist in the collection of the
Custodia Foundation in Paris, in which there are 46 sheets
with tulips, along with a large number of drawings of shells.
The pages are numbered, so that we know that the complete
series consisted of at least 483 water-colours. The drawings
are stamped with the monogram BA; Laurens Bol attributed
them to Bartholomeus Assteyn. Many other sheets of this l5 l'ietcr \\ itl)oo:. ¡ tulip. l()¡j-ì
series are known, mostly of plants or' flowers. privatc coll.

2t
 /'
I
)¡

--4"it:)

16 Anthony Claesz, 'Titlepage' of a tulip book

private coll.

22
name of the tulip, the weight of the bulb and its price. The
weight was stated in 'aces', a hundred aces was the equivalent
of about 4,8 grams. The artist signed the drawing himself but
the explanatory text was not necessarily done by him; it
might, for instance, be added by the tulip grower. Sometimes
the notes can be found on the back of the drawing. In
determining the date and deciding who the artist was, the
kind of paper used as well as the watermark and the size of
the paper are relevant (assuming that the sheet has not been
mutilated).
In 1942 Krelage knew of 17 tulip books, of which he himself
owned nine.3a Only two artists' names could at that time be
determined with any certainty, Jacob Manell (17) and Judith
Leyster. Recent research has revealed not only more tulip
books but also more artists' names.35 We now know of
drawings by Anthony Claesz (16) and Pieter Holsteyn the
Younger (6, 8-9 and 1.0), for instance. Of Pieter Withoos'
tulip books all that survives are a few loose drawings (15).
ì,-
'l'o.ttlJ
17 Jacob Manell, various tulips, ca. 1640
Rijksprentenkabinet Amsterdam
23
His work seems to have been inspired by that of Holsteyn. I
have been able to study most of the tulip books that will be
mentioned below and I have photo and slide materials of
many of them; this has been an essential precondition for my
research.
Research into the tulip books has shown that artists often
copied their own work as well as the work of other artists.
Therefore one may well come across identical sheets in
different albums and copies by others especially of tulips
that were rare or expensive. These were articles of
merchandise. One can assume that a tulip book with copies
like this was used to give buyers a more complete picture of
the bulbs that were on sale, and perhaps to purchase bulbs on
commission from others. The Viceroy, for instance, that was
marked up at f 4,600 1n 1637 , appears in most of the Dutch
tulip books, the Semper Augustus in many. It is also the case
that in a number of tulip books many tulips are depicted that
are related in shape or pattern, and were presumably grown
ò' ì. . -.t..¡;i. ^., -,i¡, l;
from a limited nurnber of types or pal'ent tulips - one can . },
.--
tf )'..., 1.,',,'1t r'l
assume, thelefore, that cel'tain growers wele specialized or 4ú
,";l !t...{
,
$ li:"i,,
limited in their assoltment. Tulip books wele not only made
in Holland. There wele also French and German tulip books, . ;.jjlt t,,t,,. r!¡ u .,y r,
although these are comparatively fewer', and generally of a i/ 3,,,,.,,,' / n,, u',.,
',i'
latel date; moreovel'they were not tl'ade catalogues but ' l,)ii "¡,ii
surveys of tulips from a specific garden. It is striking that .N
many Dutch names continued to be used in Germany much '.

longer than in Holland. Up till now there ale 45 'genuine'

l
tulip books that we know of, some of them only indirectly -
from the literature on the subject and fi'om archives.
Tulip dlawings by a fairly lalge number of artists of the l Tth
and l8th century ale known to us, though usually the amount
of work of each artist is small. There are sometimes
unexpected names such as Ferdinand Bol; a sheet by him is
mentioned in the lamous inventory of Valerius Röver of
Delft in 1730, that originally belonged to the equally famous
Agnes Block who glew flowel's in her countly house in
Nieuwersluis and who commissioned artists to paint flowers:
tulipa cedo nLtlli van Ferdinand Bol.36 In the same inventory
seven sheets with tulips by Herman Saftleven ale mentioned,
dating from 1661 .37 Among the most handsome water-
colours of tulips is the work of Herman Henstenburgh and
the wo¡k of various members of the Van de Vinne lamily of
Haarlem in the l Sth centuly. Ten sheets with tulips from a
series of 53 drawings in the British Museum in London ale
traditionally ascribed to Jan van Huysum; in fact they are by
his younger blother Jacob van Huysum.38
In oul age we no longer regald the tulips as a precious
object; instead tulips ale just one of those delightful things
that enhance our lives. Indeed, now it is the tulip drawings
and mlip books that have become precious. They are works
ofalt and as such give us the oppoltunity to take a delight in
tulips that no longel exist.

.---,f-hfr* ---..\*_ '-lÊ/ --./-L.

.' --

l8 Tulip book Tot lofder eedele tul¡rt, 1636

'Spits van Spranger' or 'Bruin Anvers'
private coll.

24
Turkish tulips and delft Flowerpots with spouts
Because of external similalities, delft-wal'e was often
flowerpots wlongly referred to as porcelain. This is apparent, fol'
example, from a notarial act dl'awn up on the l st of
Ronald Brouwer (Delft) November 1684. lt seems that a 'big flowelpot \¡iith spouts'
found broken in a chest was part of a shiprnent of 'polcelain'
to the merchant Niclaes du Chemain from Rotterdarn. The
Introduction flowerpot was manufacturedby De Grieksclte A, one of the
Between I 680 and 1 720, vases with spout-shaped openings best-known delft-wale manufacturers.2
wele made in the Dutch city of Delft. These vases" occupy a This, however', is not the earliest mention of such vases, for
special place in the history ofEulopean ceramics. Since the even years before a similal descripiion was given in an
end of the last century, it has been widely assumed that these inventory of Amalia van Solms (1602-1675), the spouse of
vases were made especially fol tulips; hence the name 'tulip the Dutch Stadhouder Prince Flederik Hendrik (1584-1641).
vases'. Only in the last three decades have people begun to Between the years 1654 and 1668, she had an inventoly
question whether this leally was the purpose of these vases. macle of the goods that wele present in several of her houses.
Were tulip bulbs actually placed in the spout-shaped Amalia's great collection of 'polcelain' included dozens of
openings of the vases to spl'out, or did people prefer cut 'flowelpots', with or without lids, in various forms and
tulips or even other flowers? (25-26) sizes, and what is mole important, it included 'four'
flowerpots with spouts, and stars on the necks'.3
It is plausible that the description of 'flowerpots witl.r spouts'
Chinese porcelain and delft pottery l'efers to the striking vases with cylindrical spor"rts that make
Already by the end of the 17th century pottery from Delft the alrangement of flowers easiet' and support the flower
(delfrware) was a household word. The expansion of this stems. Sometimes these spouts al'e cornbined with linle
industry was due to the demand for Chinese porcelain. Many
Europeans were desirous ofthis fragile but elegant product. adt<b--:\*æ.
"b;æl
The position of coarsel pottery was threatened when thd
newly founded British East India Company (1600) and the
N e de rl ands e V e r e e ni gtl e O o s t indis c he C o ntp a g nie
(VOC)( 1602) started to ship lalge quantities of porcelain to
Europe. In the 17th centul'y Eut'opean arts and crafts were
strongly influenced by the Chinese way of decorating
porcelain and lacquer-wale. Chinoiselie was the imaginative
imitation of decorative motifs and ohjer d'orÍ,r from Chinese
culture, adapting these somewhat to European taste (19).
Since the beginning of trade relations, the Chinese took into
account the specific wishes of their European tl'ading
pal'tners. What is notable in this respect, is the made-to-order
Chinese porcelain (Chíne de commande) based on the
European model.1
Because of the civil war between the Ming-dynasty and the
Qing-dynasty, the expolt of porcelain came to a halt between
ca.1647 and 1683, while the huge dernand from Europe
lemained. As the manufacturet's from Delft were able to
imitate Chinese polcelain successfully since about 1625,
they wele able to meet the demand for such a ploduct.
People were not awal'e of the composition of porcelain clay,
and of the baking process. After baking ( I 200- 1 300 degrees t
å
centiglade), porcelain is waterproof even without glaze. Yet,
the Chinese applied the glaze first to heighten the lustre of
the porcelain and the cobalt blue decoration. The delft
pottery, known as delfrware, was pol'ous even after baking
(ca. 900 degrees centigrade), and had to be glazed to make
it waterproof and usable. Aftel this pt'ocedure (ca. 1000
degrees centiglade), delft-ware acquiled the look of
porcelain because of the blue decoration against the white
backglound of tin glaze under a transparent lead glaze.

19 Flowervase, a chinese lady caffying a horn ofplenty I

Marked: PAK
Museum Sypesteyr, Loosdrecht.

25
 holes in tlìe vase body and/or in the lid. Other types only
have such openings, by which the valiation in the
arrangement and the quantity of the flowe|s is rest|icted.
This type of vase was also known as the 'tulip vase'. In 17th-
century inventories the term 'tulip vase'does not appear.
The term 'tulip vase' was r.ìot used until ca. 1900. In his book
CatologLte tles Fai'ences de Delft (1877 ), the exiled French
art critic Henry Havard described two such flowel holdels as
'portebouquets, avec huite tubes poul jacinthes'. Havard's
HisÍoire tle la Fai'ence de Delft, published in 1878, mentioDs
a 'bouquetier en folme cl'alc de triomphe', two pyramidal
flowel holders as 'bouquetiers àjacinthes' and a fan-shaped
exarnple as 'poltebouquet avec tubes pourjacinthes'.
Havard may have assumed that the hyacinth bulbs were
placed in the spouts to make them flower', as was done in a
glass in his time. He rnay also have had in mind the
speculation in hyacinth bulbs which took place around
1730.1
Fol Havard's conternporaries it was only a small step from
hyacinth bulbs to tulip bulbs. A hundred yeals belore the
hyacinthomania, in the period of 1636 and 1637 tulipornania
had been unleashed. As a lesult, the tulip would lemain
perrnanently associated with lTth-century Dutch cultn|e.
The relation between extlernely expensive tulip bulbs and
precious delft-wale vases seemed to be obvious. So, fi'om
the end of the l9th century onwarcls flower holdel's were
seen as special vases for tulips.5
However, the tuliponiania can no longel plovide us with the
answer to the question of the pulpose of these vases, as was
thought to be the case in I 900. Havard, the foundel of the
histolical study of delft-ware, ascribed objects with the
n'ìonogram AK to Aelbrecht Cornelisz Keyzer, who was
employed in De Grieksclte,4 until 1667 . On the authority of
Havard, these vases were dated to the middle of the 17th
century, sholtly aftel the tulipomania.6 However, more
lecent scholarly opinion attributes objects with the
monogl'am AK to Adriaen Kocks, who was the ownel of the
De Grieksche A between 1686 and l70l . On the basis of the
latest l'esearch, it is now accepted that most of these vases
wele manufactured between 1680 and 1720. Thus, it was a
good filty years after the tulipomania that the flowel holders
became popular'. The lelation between these two phenomena
is no longel self-evident.
Medici.e Thel'e is also a striking t'esemblance between
celtain delft vases and those produced by Antonio
Guidobono ( 1605- 1685) from Savona. Due to the problems
ofdating such objects, it is difficult to tlace the origins of
this concept. Yet, it is possible that the concept was
developed simr.rltaneously.r0 Three late l Tth century English
flowel holdels ale derived fi'orn treacle-pots, but on the
shouldels they have three spouts instead ol one. The
cartouches on the belly of two examples bear resemblance to
the drawings on treacle-pots and dispensing-bottÌes. It is
difficult to determine the origin of this motif, since it is
found in Germany, England and the Netherlands.rr It is not
known io what extent English ceramics have influenced the
Dutch ceramics ol vice velsa. It is also not known whether
these English vases were used flor'flowels.
The use of cut flowers
Not much is known about the use of cut flowels in the 17th
century. It is possible that bouquets were composed of
flowers originating from botanical collections in gardens, or
specially cultivated flowers. Trontpe-l' oeil paintings on the
ceiling ofthe country house ofthe Dutch stadhouder, Het
Loo, show garlands and straw baskets with flowers.l2 Were
flowels placed in such baskets, or in bowls or glass vases in
the l'ooms of the country house? In any case, we know that
fi'eshly cut flowers were delivered weekly to the country
house Honselaersdijk.rs An indication of the type of ffowers
used may be found inLhe Hortus Regius Honslcrerclicensis
(ca. 1688). In the approximately one hundred gouaches of

Typological predecessors
It is clear that the delft flowel holders are the lesult of a
gradual developn-rent. The eally mention of 'flowelpots with
spouts' in the inventory of Amalia van Solms does point to
this fact. The idea of arranging bouquets in spolrts or
exhibiting a single flower, plobably originated in the Middle
East. Moreover, ceramics frorn the Middle East have greatly
influenced Eulopean pottery thl'ough trade and the crusades.T
20a Heart-shaped tlower vase u,ith eight spouts
An engraving fi'om the Flora ouero Cultura di Fiori (Rome, (tìont side)
1638) by P. Giovanni Battista Felrali sl.rows a classical vase Haags Gemeentemuseum, Den Haag
with tulips, narcissi, hyacinths, anemones and carnations
protruding from the holes of a removable lid.8 Did the
pottely makers in Delft adopt this concept fiom Italy? Delft
vases with three sponts rnay have been inspired by eally
Italian examples, such as a little vase shaped like a grotesque
masque (ca. 1580) from the factory ofFlancesco I de

26
plants in Honselaelsdijk, one can see tulips, hyacinths,
nalcissi, anemones, auricula, carnations and t'oses; ten plates
even show bouquets of two or three tulips, ancl four plates
show tulips in a mixed bouquet.ra
It is known that well-to-do people rnade it a custom to
decorate the fireplace with bouquets of flowels during the
summer months.rs Sometimes people rnacle use olscreens
decorated with flowels. Such screens pt'evented draughts,
and beautified the sombre hearth. The inventory ol't Huys
in 't Noorteynde (1632) mentions four scleens, including 'a
flowerpot with two half flowelpots painted [...] on panels fbr
the fireplace [...]'.r6 A late lTth-century panel, ot'iginally
owned by Stadhouder'-King William III, shows a paintecl
fireplace with an orange tlee in a blue polcelain pot.l7
It is obvious that in the l Tth century flowels were used
fol decorative purposes on special occasions. Several
illustrations attest to the use of strèwn flowel's as table
decolation, a custom which probably originated in l6th-
centul'y Italy. Some pleserved Dutch floweled tablecloths
still remind us of natulal llowers strewn on tl-re banquet
table. In the Nethellands, table cloths like these were only
used on special occasions. Such table cloths make use of the
naturalistic style in the l'epl'esentation of flowers, which
resulted from the art ofpainting and botany in the lTth
century. Twenty diffel'ent flowers, inclucling tulips, roses,
irises, narcissi, aquilegias and lilies, can be identified on one
such tablecloth.r8
Many examples of table decorations with flowels at'e known
lrom outside the Netherlands. Mixed bouquets of flowers set
between sugal figr"u'es wel'e on hand at the banquet for
,lfr, i;A
Ai
,,i'-ñ-s11
r:Jå*¡#.*
-: -- "- ._- "-
20b Heartshaped flower vase with eight spouts
(back side)
Haags Gemeeltemuseum, Den Haag
2l
Queen Christina of Sweden given by Pope Clemens IX in
I 677.re Both leal ancl artificial f lowers (rrade of sugar') wele
displayed in clishes in Germany in 1650; they wele desclibecl
as the 'most pleasant and beautilul things in this wolld'.20 In
1680, a Flench wedding banqr.ret was embellished with
nineteen baskets with anemones, hyacinths, jasnines ancl
orange-blossoms.2r The Ft'ench also used altifìcial flowers
made of silk. In the Netherlands, 'fìfty bouquets of flowels',
'twenty-three bouquets', and 'fifty bâskets with flowels' a|e
nentioned in the inventory of Amalia van Solnis ( 1654-
1668). These were plobably all altificial flowers.22
One can only specr"rlate about the use of delft flower' holders
in combination with flowers. Pelhaps filled flowet'holclels
were displayecl an-ridst the abundant clockely, the dishes,
and the gold, silvel and sugal olnarnents. In palticular',
exarnples of srnall vases ill the forln of bowls, triurnphal
alches ancl 'Tulkish heads' were sLritable fol'table
decolation. Lalger pyramiclal flowel holdels may have been
placed on tables against the wall, but they would also have
been suitable fol tables at large banquets.2s On the other
hancl, srraller fan-shaped l1owel holdel's were plobably
placed on consoles against the wall, on bt'ackets, ot'on the
rnantelpiece (20a-b). Because olthe llat backs, and
plotlLrding spolrts of the fan-shaped vases, the bouqLlets were
not clamped. The leflections in the lashionable rnil'r'ols of
the day most certainly enhancecl the effect of the coloulful
bouquet.za
Unfbltunately, lTth-centuly flower still lifes do I.tot contriu
flowel holdels. Painted still lifes often show mixed bouquets
with flowels of diffèrent seasons, and they suggest a
prefelence fol celtain types of flowels and arrangenents.
The absence of paintings showing 'tulip' holders has been
explained by the unrealistic con-rposition ernployed in llower'
still lifes. Possibly, the exclusivettess of'tltesc tulip lrolclels is
also an explanation. Stlangely enough, decorations of some
flower holders also show rr-rixed bouquets, inclucling the
highly estecnred flnrrred tulips.
An englaving by P. Serwouter fi'om 1626 shows an intelior',
and in the backglound is a cupboard on top of which at'e two
vases with mixed bouquets. Depictions of inteliors in which
bouquets play a n-role prominent l'ole al'e rale. Usually, a
more allegolical lole is assigned to flowels. Sucli is the case
of a spring bouquet on an engraving by Wenceslaus Hollar'
( I 64 1 ). In this allegoly of 'Spring' (the englaving is palt of a
selies ofthe foul seasons) a lady fills a vase with a valiety of
flowels, and in her lelt hand she holds several tulips.
Anothel example is an interiol'with a family pot'tt'ait by
Emanuel de Witte fi'om 1673. In ihe folegloul.td one cau see
a mixecl bouquet of flowels in a glass vase. Does the bouquet
syn'rbolize 'vanitas'?25 A vanitas picture by Jacques de
Gheyn de Jonge ( 1603) shows a niche within which is a skull
flanked by two urns. A plurne ol smoke rises fi'om one Llrlt,
and the othelurn contains a rose and a stl'iped tulip. These
flowels may symbolize the transitory natnre of wealth.26 A
similal meaning can be attributecl to the still life of Dilck van
Deelen fiom 1631 .If consists of a flarned tulip in a Chinese
vase set in a niche along with a lew shells; a beautifirl
combination of populal palaphernalia fron the tuliponrania
eLa.27
Despite the absence of sulviving flowel holdels, in the alt of
painting a few depictions ale available to us. In Douai an
 identical pair of polychrome delft vases with lids are kept.
These ale decorated with a chinoiserie décor showing
figures on a terrace. In the floreground, among othel objects,
there is an empty flower holder; in this case a bowl. It is not
cleal whether thele is a baluster'-shaped vase in this bowl, or
whether the bowl itself has a lid with spouts. The backglound
is also interesting. On sepalate socles two pyramidal flower
holders, which are actually being used to hold something,
are shown. Stlangely enough, these flower holders do not
contain flowers, but twigs and green leaves. Is this pelhaps a
buxus referring to the gal'den shrubs trimn-red in the shape of
a pylarnid? Actually, the effect is rathel pool when compaled
with the detailed depiction of other' flowers in vases found
on this late 1 7th-century pair of delft flower holders.28
A second exarrple offlowers in delft vases is preserved by
the embroidely on chairs in Croft Castle and Doddington
Hall in England. The embroideled covering of thése chairs
shows mixed bouquets of flowers in vases with spouts. Only
one embroidery shows us a tulip among the many diffelent
cut flowers. These chairs are dated to about I 7 I 5, thus after
the peak of interest in this type ol flower holder. The
inspiration fol the design on the fabric may come flom the
actual use of delft flower holdels: lilled with an abundance
of flowers.29
2l Flower vase, in shape a cornbiniìl¡on ol a pyranlid tnd three fìn-sltaped
vases
Museun Willet-Holthuysen, Amsterdan
28
As is clear by now, there is no historical evidence to
substantiate the persistent claim that the spouts of vases were
used to contain tulip bulbs. Tulip bulbs would have had to be
extremely small to fit in the narrow spouts. Moleover, even
had it been possible to place the bulb in the spout, the
growing flower would soon have upset the balance of the
vase. The sprouting of flower bulbs, especially hyacinths, in
a water filled glass only became populal by 1750; but this
was seldom the case with tulips.3o
This alleged use of the flowel holders has led to some
strange experiments and to another misconception. Duling
the memorial exhibition ' 1650- 1 950: De Stadhouder-Koning
en Z¡n Tijd' in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam a pyramidal
flower holdel was filled with relatively sholt-stemmed
tulips.3r It had been assumed that the water basin of the
pyramid was meant to contain hyacinth or tulip bulbs, and
that these bulbs would flower through the spout. The
oliginal Persian vases were thought to have inspired the delft
pottel'y makel's.32 Some of the spouts of this flower holder
wele blocked by tin glaze. This resulted in the conclusion
that the delft vases wele only used for decolative purposes.
Their function, however, should not be questioned because
of a few manufacturing defects. The defects were probably
accepted because of the dilficulty of manufacturing the
pottery, and because of its preciousness. It is unlikely that
pottery makers would have introduced spouts and holes if
the lattel had no pulpose.33
Manufacture
To deny the functionality of delft flower holders would be to
underestimate the pottery makeÍs sense of practicality. Their
craftsmanship and their knowledge of materials allowed them
to manufacture the particulally complex flower holders.3a
Large items were composed of separate palts: it was
technically not feasible to make a high pyramid all in one
piece, since the possibility of the object collapsing duling
the manufacturing plocess was too gleat. One can see that
the walls ofthe lalge socles often show signs olcollapsing.
Cylindrical pipes were applied to the watel basins of the
pylamids, and a stick was inserted to add stability to the end
product. Much care was needed to make the separate pieces
fit together, as the baking and the drying process could cause
deviations (31). To make the stacking easier, some pyramids
wele plovided with numbels on the separate parts.35 Even
the small fan- shaped vases wel'e difficult to make because
of the closed vase body and the spouts. It is almost certain
that moulds were used. Sepalate parts were assembled with a
thin gleasy clay. Fol mole complex parts, one had to use
moulds consisting of more than one piece. Fol example, all
known 'Turtish heads' are almost identical; only the posirion
ofthe head and the finishing are diffelent (30).36 Thus
differences between one item and another wele introduced
during the assembly. In a certain sense one could speak of
mass production; the small differences in size are due to
shrinkage during the drying process.
Because present dating techniques have a large margin of
euor, the technical development of the manufacturing
pl'ocess cannot be traced. It seems that many types of flower
holdels wele developed simultaneously for diverse
pulposes. The technical knowledge gained in manufactuling
other fol'ms of pottery made the production of these labour
intensive vases possible. Their extravagant forms make them
r"rnique in the history of pottery.
Ascriptions
Almost all flower holdels produced between ca. 1680 and
1720 can be ascribed to a few dellt pottery makers on the
basis of monoglams used by the manufacturers. The most
important wolkshop was D¿ Grieksclte A owned by Samuel
van Eenhoorn (SVE, 1678-1685). After his death in 1685,
De Grieksche A was sold to his blother-in-law Adliaen
Kocks (AK, 1686-1701).37 His son Pietel Adriaensz. Kocks
(PAK, 1701-1722) acqtiredDe Grieksclte A in 1701 after
the death of his father.38 Two yeals later Pietel died, after
which his widow Johanna van det'Heul ran the company
tntil l'722. Lambertus, Samuel van Eenhoorn's brother, had
been the owner of De MetalerLPo¡ since 1691.3e Ascliptions
fo De Metalen Pol of Lambeltus van Eenhoorn (VE or LVE,
1691-l'721) ot' De Dobbelde Schenckan of Louwijs
Victoorsz. (LF, 1688-1713) are often postulated, because
their tlademalks are identical. It is not known how rnuch of
this categoly ofpottery has been lost. Thelefole, it is not
possible to estimate the volume of the production. But, it is
pelhaps leasonable to assume that only a few manufacturet's
ploduced fl ower holdels.ao
22 'Flower Brick'
Malked: IVD or LVD
Stedelijk Museum l-let Prinsenhof, Delfi
29
William and Mary
Maly Stuart II (1662-1695) is consideled to have been the
most passionate collectol of celamics in her tirne. However,
this image of her is more or less distorted. Ever since the
I 5th century, porcelain objects were displayed in art
galleries as precious rarities. The prestige of owning a few
celamic objects decreased because of the lalge quantities of
ceramics imported by Dutch and English trading companies.
This is the leason why displaying large quantities of
porcelain became mole popular in the 17th century; the more
abundant the display, the more prestige a collectot'would
enjoy. An irnportant factor in this craze fol collecting was
that delft-ware, often with decorations inspired by Chinese
pottery, was considered to be as valuable as the Chinese
oliginals. Delft and Chinese porcelain cornplemented one
another beautifully when displayecl togethel in special
settings, designed accolding to the reigning taste for
chinoiselie. An eally example of this type of display is the
Cabinet de Porcelaine ( 1 663) in Oranienbulg near Bellin
built lol the collection ofLouise Henriette (1627-1661),the
daughter of Amalia van Solms and the spouse of the elector
of Brandenburg.ar Perhaps the polcelain cabinets of her
husband's glandmother', Amalia, whose 'flowelpots' have
aheady been discussed, served as a source of inspilation for'
Mary. Another example is the famous Trianon cle Porcelaine
 (1610/l l-168'7 ) of Lor.ris XIV; f'or which rnaterial was
oldeled frorr Delft.a2 Thus Maly did not set a tlend, but only
stirrulated the already existing fashion. However', she did
fbcus attention on delfÌ flowel holders.
A second name that should be mentioned in connection with
flowel holclers is Daniel Marot ( 1661?- 1752). After rhe
lepeal of the Edict of Nantes, the Huguenot Marot fled flon.r
Flance to the Nethellands in 1685. This intelior decorator
was errrployed by Stadhouder William III ( 1650- 1702) and
his spouse Mary Stualt II in 1686. He set about tlansposing
the French court style to the coul't of his new employels in a
unique way. Relying on Marot's skill in co-ordinating
alchitectule, interiol decorating and galden design, the
staclhouder hoped lile at his coult would compale lavourably
with cultulal life in Flance. Due to the tense political
situation between William III and Louis XIV, the cultivation
of the royal household was an irupoltant matter of prestige.
Ma|ot created splendid intelio|s fol Mary's irnplessive
celamics collections. Undertaking this comrnission led to his
style inflr"rencing the decoration and design of flower'
holders. In particular, the products of De Grieksclrc A
incorporale many deco|ative elements taken from Marot:
shells, pealls, gallands, garden vases, diamond patterns and
blushes. There are no indications that Malot l-rimself rnade
designs fol De Grieksclte A.a3 The flowel holders al'e absent
in the engravings of Marot and even in his interior designs.
But it is possible that such designs have been lost.
râ¡,1 ¡1{ì¡ù ô'|;ftiì
\ ã-.1.
- :5:- "
23 Globe-shaped flowcr?ot, centrâl part of a largervase
(cf. ill. 33 on p. 39)
FIaags Gemeentemuseum, Den Haag
30
Het Loo
A hunting lodge was built in the latest lashion fol William
and Maly in 1685/6: Het Loo near Apeldoorn. Marot played
an leading role in the lodge's construction and decoration,
and the laying-out ofthe garden.aa The hunting lodge was
expanded considerably once the political influence of
William and Maly had incleased, after they were crowned in
England.
During the lestolation of Het Loo (1917-1984) fragments of
delft pottery and Chinese porcelain were found in many
places including in the so-called 'plinsesse or
koninginnetuin' located south of the'koninginnegrot'. Flom
these fragrnents at least four incomplete flower holdels have
been reassembled. An oval flowel plate and a fan-shaped
flower holder both carry the monoglam SVE of Samuel van
Eenhoorn. The third piece is a sphere-shaped flower holder
on a socle. Identical fragments were found on the fi'ont of
Het Loo. This makes it plobable that another example may
have been employed in the decoration. The foulth find is a
flower holdel consisting of loose spheres. An additional
middle spout was fonnd suggesting the presence of a second
example. Although the thild and fourth finds bole no
rÌronograms, they are attributed lo De Grieksch¿ A in the
time of Sarnuel van Eenhoorn due to similarities in style and
technique which they share with the filst and second finds.
The fact that these finds are dated to alound 1 680 makes
thern the earliest in the Nether'lands. The pieces marked with
SVE point to contacts wtth De Grieksche A even before
Mary's departure to England in 1689, but most of the objects
in Maly's collection were supplied by Adliaen Kocks.as
Based on the sites ofthese dillerent finds, it is possible to
detelmine the oliginal location of the pieces. In the northeast
cornel of the eastel'n wing Maly had three looms fiom which
a stailcase led to her official quarters on the filst floor. An
inventory froni l 7 l 3 desclibes these private l'ooms as 'cellar
of hel majesty, kitchen cellar and the playhouse of her
majesty'. The kitchen cellar was also called 'candied fruit
cellar', and the playhouse also the 'grotto' or the 'tea-room'.
In the cellar there were '[...] a delft porcelain bowl, two
delflt-ware pylamids, two delft-wale flat flowel bottles, [...]
and five delft-wale small flower pylamids'. In the kitchen
cellar thele wele besides other delfts '[...] two pylamids,
thirteen flowelpots varying in type and size, [...] and two
fruit baskets [...]'. The inventory does not mention any
flower holders in the other rooms. Only among 'the
porcelain that is under the guidance of the castellan from
England' is there 'a blue and white little dog to put flowers
in'.46 Perhaps this collection was meant for the polcelain
cabinet that was made in 1692 duling the expansion ofHet
Loo. A stucco ceiling with milrors designed by Marot points
to the plans fol such a cabinet in the loom that was converted
into a Iibraly in 1695.47
Honselaersdijk
In Mary's other mansion, Honselaersdijk, flower holders
were also pl'esent. The constluction was started in 1620 by
order ofFredelik Hendlik. However, since it took such a
long tirne to complete, William III and Mary also had an
influence on the construction. Since their man'iage in 1671,
 Ig
nl¿prâllou'ua3u[rnoã tru,\-suuru,{o8 urnêsnlN
)v :peì.rBIN
stnods uoâUq qIA pêpr^oJd prJ êrlt 'âsu^ JâaoU pâduqs-l^\ofl ?Z
4¡ç=-:>
t '. 1Þ
{
ä
ï
t I
1ó:r ç +qì
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.. I 1
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.tr:1J,
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tg I
& 3. \ ¡d'
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 they regularly spent the sumlner months thele. Accolding to
an inventory lrom I 694- I 702, the household furnishings
included 'in the northeast gallery [...] two large delft
polcelain pyramids to put flowers in and four small, seven
large delft porcelain flowerpots and foul small, as well as
female figures with baskets on their heads and a small basket
[...]'. On the large gallery thele were 'foul delft porcelain
flowerpots', while 'in the painting room by the gallery [...1
two delft polcelain pyramids' and 'three delftware
flowerpots [...]' wele plesent. In 'the bedroom adjacent to
the bath' there wele '[...] a dellt porcelain flowerpot [...]' and
'two delft-wale pyramids'. Finally, the inventory mentions
'two flower pyramids of the same porcelain' in 'the bath'.48
In his account of travelling thlough the Netherlands the
Swedish architect Nicodemus Tessin (1654-1728) describes
his visit to Honselaersdijk. He does not mention the flower
pyramids. He does, however, mention the 'Indian cabinet' in
Honselaelsdijk and notices that this room harbours plecious
Chinese objects and paintings, and has mirors on the
ceiling.ae In the same period Tessin visited a pottely maker
in Delft and observed the manufactule of 'die gröste
Blumentopffe', by which he may mean flowel holdels. If
that is the case, then he should have noticed the exolbitant
pieces in Honselaersdijk.so If these flowel holdels were not
there at that time, then perhaps they were bought between
I 687 and 1694. They may have been ordered shortly before
Mary's departure to England in 1689, or they may have been
transferred from one of Mary's other houses.
It is not odd that Tessin uses the word 'flowerpot' in his
travelogue. According to other inventories this term was
always used for pottery or porcelain objects. Perhaps he is
leferring to what we would call a flower vase. In the past the
te¡m 'vase' was only used for lalge garden ornaments made
of marblc or lcad. Likcwisc, thc 17th-ccntury English word
'flowerpot' is used both fol a large urn with handles and for
a vase (cl. 32).5r Possibly the urn-shaped earthenware
flowerpots filled with plants wele also used for cut flowers.
The decoration on a lid vase in Douai depicts alongside a
balustlade, a large Chinese cup vase, flowerpots and a broad
basin with handles, all filled with bouquets.s2
Hampton Court
In 1689, aftel the 'Glorious Revolution', William and Mary
were crowned king and queen of England, Ireland and
Scotland; thus, succeeding Mary's father James Stuart II.
Shortly aftel this date the demolition and rebuilding of the
old Tudor lesidence Hampton Court outside London was
begun. Because ofMary's death in 1695, the project
stagnated. But the fenovation of the Tudor wing, better
known as the Water Gallery because it overlooks the
Thames (designed by Christopher Wren, 1632-l'723), was
completed in 1689. The 'daily' was also completed by that
time. Daniel Defoe (1663-1731) wlites: 'the Queen had also
a Dairy, with all its conveniences, in which hel Majesty took
great delight.' This 'dairy' was decorated mainly with
Chinese porcelain, delft earthenwale and tiles. In hel dialy
in 1695, Celia Fiennes desc¡ibed what the Water Gallery
looked like. It was decorated with Chinese porcelain and
with portlaits of court ladies painted by Godfi'ey Kneller
(1646-1723). Behind the balcony facing the Thames, there
32
were sevelal small looms and one large loom. In the four'
corners, there were four smaller cabinets, one with Japanese
lacquer panels and one with min'ors. On the other two
cabinets, mirrors and calvings were combined as decolation.
The rooms were described as the 'Looking Glass Closet', the
'Bathing Closet', the 'Marble Closet' and the 'DelflrWare
Closet'. The Chinese polcelain and the delft earthenware
stood on consoles, with displays on the mantelpiece setting
the tone. Unfortunately, the Water Gallery was destloyed in
1700. Some tiles, urns, vases and flower holders ofthe
Water Gallery are preserved; they are presently housed in
Hampton Court and other museums. After the completion of
Hampton Court, a part of Maly's collection was located
there. However, most of the pieces were transfen'ed to
Kensington House.53
The current collection of Hampton Court includes three
pairs of large flower holders. This category of pottely is
distinguished from what was produced earlier in the
Netherlands by its extravagant form and decorations.
Because of the presence of the royal coat of arms and the
double monogram of William and Mary (WMRR,
Wilhelmus Maria Rex Regina) on two pairs of flower
holders, one may conclude that they must have been
manufactured between the time of Mary's coronation in
1689, and her death on 7 January 1695.s4 All six examples
ale marked AK which stands for D¿ Grieksclte A of the time
of Adriaen Kocks. Financial docnments attest that Mary and
Adriaen Kocks had contact. On 30 July 1695, Anne van
Goltstein, the treasul'er of Mary's private wealth (wardlobe
accounts) wrote: 'I do hereby certify that there is due unto
Adrianus Koex of Delft for Dutch China or wal'e sent to hel'
late Majesty the sume of thirteen hundred & fifty gildels 3
styvels of English money f. 1221i l4s 09d' .ss
Thc fact that Hampton Court prcscntly harbouls thc most
impressive flower holdels should not make us conclude that
the peak of Mary's passion fol polcelain was during her'
'English' period. In any case, her early death prohibited her'
return to the Netherlands, and any fufther Dutch additions to
her collection.s6
Dyrham Park
The English court was receptive to Mary's passion for'
porcelain and earthenware because they had been buying
these since 1675. By the end ofthe lTth century, the
construction and renovation of mansions and country
houses, as well as the interior decoration and the laying-out
of gardens was in the hands of a relatively small gloup of
architects, designers and artisans. Probably the (Chinese)
porcelain and (delft) earthenware was bought from the same
group of suppliers. Although the interest for ceramics cannot
be asclibed solely to Mary, she certainly encouraged this
interest.sT Flower holders were bought in large numbers; for
instance for Chatsworth (between 1689 and 1694),by
William Cavendish (1641-170'7), the foulth Earl and the filst
Duke of Devonshile.5s
Dutch influence is most cleally visible in the interiol of
Dyrham Pa¡k. William Blathwayt (1649?-171'7), the owner
of Dyrham Park belonged to the court, and was familial with
Mary's collections. His own porcelain and earthenware
collections ale described in inventories of I 703 and 1 7 I 0.
 +: .., €
":* ,

I -4,,
'. ;'¡!.zL
Ìâi.--¿-i.;;, ""=. ,¿

25 Borvl-shaped lìorvcr vasc u,ith holes in the rim and six spot¡ts
Marked LVE or LF
Museurn Boyrrrns-van Bcurringel, Rotterdan

.i:,,.

26 Borvl-shaped flou,er vase with holes in the rim ancl six spouls
N4arked: LVE or LF
Museuur Boytnatrs-r,an Beuuingetr, Rotterdanl
33
 The more than folty delft pieces still present in Dyrharn Park
almost all date back to the late lTth and early 18th century.
About half ale marked AK, or can, with a reasonable degree
of certainty, be asclibed to De Grieksclte A.In 1703,therc
wele nine 'flowerpots', four 'Queen flowerpots', thlee 'blue
pots' and eleven other examples present on top of a door or
over a fileplace. The origin ofthe term 'Queen flowerpots'
is unknown. It is tempting to speculate that these foul pots
were originally part of Mary's collections, or were even
given to Blathwayt by Maly. It is also possible that the term
was used for a special kind of pot. The term is not mentioned
in the inventory of 17 10, whereas the inventory does
mention fifteen flowerpots, nine delfts to put on top of a
door, two to put under the table and two 'large pyramid delft
flowel pots'. These large pyramids stood in 'ye chimney' of
the 'Vestible' and the 'Best bed Chamber above Stairs'.
These have in fact su¡vived. Two other preserved flower
holders rnay be identical with the mentioned 'flowelpots',
on the other hand this term may have been used to designate
the urns with open tops that are still present in Dyrham Palk.
If each of these two flower holders was part of a set of two,
then together they may have been the four' 'Queen
flowerpots'mentioned in the inventory of 1703.In any case,
the list of the housekeepel Sarah Saunders (November l 7 I 0)
shows that fifteen delft 'flowerpots' including the pyramids
wele placed in the fireplace. The fact that objects beautified
the fileplace during summer months does not rnean that they
were made for this purpose. Since Blathwayt did not yet live
in the house, the earthenware could still have been in the
fireplace in November.5e

Obelisks, pyramids and pagodas

Of thc many shapes flowel holdels could have, the
pylamidal is the most lemarkable. Delft pyramidal flower'
hoidels have a base in the fblm of a hexagon ol square, and
rest on a socle and are built up of separate interlocked water
basins with spouts. The number of separate pieces vaties
greatly. In 17th-century inventofies they are always called
'pyramids' but presenrday literatule refers to them as
obelisks (27,29).
Knowledge of the architecture and decorative arts of ancient
Rome was obtained in Noltheln Europe by travel, but even
more so by the publication of the De Archítectura (25 B.C.)
of Vitruvius, which was translated into Italian by the
architect Sebastiano Serlio (1475-1554). One may observe
the growing influence of Vitruvius' book in late l6th and
early lTth-century al'chitecture. Pieter Coecke van Aelst
(1502-1553) published a Dutch translation ofSerlio's work
between 1542 and 1 553. An illustrated edition about
perspective and ornamentation, in which Vitruvius' ideas
were propagated, was published by Hans Vredeman de Vries
(1527-1604) in 1563. Since 1575 obelisks were regularly
used fol decorative pul'poses in the Netherlands, as can be
seen on the gables of the city hall of Leiden. Du|ing the 1 7th
centul'y obelisks, as eye-catchers, were populal motifs in
gardens. Obelisks were often used by Daniel Malot in his
designs. The delft-ware obelisks often had shell motifs on
Ç
the sides of their base (possibly Marot's influence).60
27 Flower pyranid witll twenty spouts
Cornparable decolative ceramic obelisks were often Marked: LVE or LF
manufactured in the l Tth centul'y, not only in the Museurn Boymans-van Beuningen, Rotteldam

34
Netherlands, but also in Faenza (Italy). Other small obelisks
are also called pylamids in inventories. In 't Huys in 't
Noorteynde the¡e were 'two firedogs with copper pyramids'
in the room 'whele madame the princess liked to stay'. By
1632, other such 'filedogs' are recorded, all of which were
described as pylamids.6l
According to an inventory of 1'737 of the Nienoord Manor
near Leek, there were at least foul' 'porcelain pyramids in the
cupboald', and 'three blue delft pyramids in the largest
cabinet'. This manor was owned by the nobleman Georg
Wilhelm van In- en Kniphuizen of Groningen. Georg was a
member of William III's coult. The mention of 'the
cupboald' suggests that these were smaller objects. Were
they pyramidal flowel holders or small obelisks bought in
imitation of the coult?62
Arranging objects fol display in the form of a pylamid or an
obelisk was fashionable in the 17th century. In Eulope, it
was comllìon practice to arrange artefacts, f|uit, flowers,
and plants this way at banquets. At the coronation banquet
( 1672) of Charles XI of Sweden a giant obelisk made out of
tankalds and burning candles was taken around. In a banquet
in Rome (1688) given by Cardinal Chigi, an obelisk made
out of plates towered above the table. For this custom there
were also special objects available. An inventory of
Oranienstein (1695) mentions objects of thin metal ('Blech')
such as '3 dressilpyramyden zu confituren'. Accol'ding to an
inventory of a house on the Vijverberg (in The Hague) made
28 Pairof florver holders in the shape of city gates
Pieter Hoogendijk, Baan
35
in 1712, there wele 'five plates to make pyrarnids' in the
attic ofthe house.63
Obelisks were also used as decoration for mourning
processions and burial ceremonies ofnoblemen in the l6th
and lTth centuries.6a However, they wele also a popular
motif fol mole festive occasions such as iriumphal parades.
Obelisks were incolpolated into the triumphal at'ches on the
occasion of William III's entry to 's-Gt'avenhage in 1691.
Possibly, there may be some connection with another
stliking folm of flowel holder: the town-gate or the
triumphal arch (28).65
The Italian Cesare Ripa (ca. 1560-before 1625) viewed the
obelisk as the symbol of the gloly of the king. He describes
the 'Glolia di Principi', the 'honour ofdivinity ofthe plinces
[...]' as 'a beautiful woman [...]'. 'In her left hand she holds a
pyramid, which symbolizes the high and befitting honour of
a prince, a pyramid which he has ordered to be built at high
cost and beauty in ordel to leceive honour [...]'.6ó This
symbolic explanation of the pylamid appears to strengthen
the link between flower holders and the coult. The delft
'pyramids' undoubtedly selved as a part ofthe royal
representation at the cout't of William III and Mary. The
presence of allegorical decorations on some of the flower'
holders supports this supposition.
Anothel possible origin of the shape of these flower holders
is the Eastern pagodas. Thele are clear resemblances
between the pyramidal flower holders and the famous
29 Pairof flowcrpyrâmids
Marked: AK
Photo Christie's. Amsterdânl

36
30 Pair of flower vases, busts of sultans
Ma¡ked: LVE or LF
Hooykaas Fine Arts, Den Haag

3'7
 Chinese polcelain towers, such as those of the Paolinxi and
the pagoda of the temple of Lin-Ki-Sseu at Tcheng-Ting-
Fou. Illustrations in travelogues may have served as sources
of inspiration. The most important source of information
about China in the 1 8th century was the richly illustrated
travelogue Het gezantschap Der Neêrlanchsche Oost-
Indische Compagnie aan den grooten Tartarischen Cham,
Den tegenrvoordígen Keiryr van China, elc. (Amsterdam
1665) by Joan Nieuhof. Nieuhof described in some detail the
pagoda of Paolinxi in Nanking.6T The fact that pagodas were
drawn on wall tiles in the second half of the 17th centur-y
illustrates that this motif was quite popular.6s A second
source of general information about China was the
travelogue of the Jesuit Athanasius Kirchner. Kirchner had
never been to China, but he based his work on descriptions
and documents of other missionaries. His China
Mr.¡ntntentis f.../ (Amsteldam, 1667), a work on the fauna,
flola, language and religion of China, was quite famous at
that time. It is significant that Kilchnel notes similarities in
form between the pagodas of Nanking and Egyptian
obelisks. Thus, a pyramidal flower holder could be a variant
of the Chinese pagoda, as well as a variant of the antique
obelisk. The European tradition of variations on obelisk
shapes has existed longel than the influence fi'om China, but
the influence of the pagoda may have given an impulse to
this development.6e
The water basins, with their spouts, may in some cases have
been imitations of the loofs of pagodas. However, the
division into separate levels has mofe to do with the
necessity to divide the watel'. Moreover, as mentioned
eallier, it was technically impossible to manufacture such
large ptoducts in one piece. The division ofthe basins was in
the first place a functional aspect, and perhaps in the second
place a referencc to thc Eastcrn pagodas. Only two colossal
delft flowe¡ holders have a stliking similality with the
pagodas in all aspects: one flower holder in the Howard
Castle collection and one in the Palace Museum Het Loo.
There was also a strange interaction on another level: some
Chinese porcelain flower holders at'e imitations of European
models. The socles of these flower holders ale decol.ated
with Western motifs. Since comparable delft examples wer.e
ascribed to Adriaen Kocks (1686-1701), it is possible that
these imitations (with an identical AK mark) were produced
in the same period. However, this 'model' may still have
been copied aftel 1700.70 The relation between the pagoda
and the obelisk is most obvious duling the peak of the
fashion for China, and is best illustrated in the porcelain
cabinets ofthe late 17th century. Extlavagant anangements
of Chinese porcelain and their delft imitations form
pyramidal brackets often combined with chinoiserie wall
coverings reaching up to the cornices. Marot designed small
pyramidal brackets for William and Mary which became
mot'e and more popular in the l8th centuly.Tr
Besides the amalgation of the European and Chinese shapes
in chinoiserie, the influence and fi'ee t¡anslation of the
oriental elements should not be overlooked. The court life
of Eastern countries was associated with love of extr.eme
ostentation and luxuly. The so-called 'turquerie' was part of
this type of exoticism. The intloduction of bulbor.rs plants
such as the tulip and fritillaries, along with Tur.kish carpets,
which were status symbols in the Dutch interior (as table
38
cloths), was a result of tlade contacts. The depiction of Tur-ks
on delft tiles is chalacteristic ofthe enthusiasm for.oriental
décol'as are the above mentioned flowe¡ holders shaped like
the head of a Turkish sultan.i2
Small busts of turban-wealing figules were placed on the
socles of many pyrarnids. These are often described as
Turks. The poor design of these items can, however, make
exact identification difficult (27).Herc also, one can see the
influence of Marot. He contlibuted to the turquerie in the
Netherlands by using Turkish figures as decorative
elements; these were applied, fol example, to a mirror
designed by him. Amongst the decorations by his hand on
the staircase in Het Loo, six figures appeal dlessed in an
unmistakably Turkish manner.73
Blossom and after-blossom
In 1709, the German alchemist J. F. Böttcher (1682-1'l19)
succeeded in discovering the much sought after sect.et of
ploducing hard porcelain. The emerging European porcelain
industry in Meissen, Sèvres and Limoges gladually crowded
out the more blittle delfrware. Weespel porcelain, which
like Meissen polcelain had a good reputation, helped push
out of the market the much softer dellt potter.y. The
diminished production of the large flower holders, in
contrast to the smaller pieces, must have been caused by the
disappearance of the specific fashion that had been initiated
by the court of William and Mary. Interest dropped off
gladually, and the large pyramidal flower holders became
cu¡iosities that no longel suited the frail rococo interiors.Ta
Although pyramids were no longel produced after 1720, fan
and bowl-shaped pottery was produced spor.adically in
Europe even up till the l9th century. Now and then, such
sniall flowel holdels were alsu protluced in Delft. 18th-
century Frisian earthenware from Makkum and Bolsward is
even more typical.T5 After the l Tth century small porcelain
flower holders were still ploduced in Ansbach, Strassbur.g,
Samadet and Moustiers. The 18th-century Chinese porcelain
imitations referred to above should also be mentioned in this
context. These vases were no longer exclusive; by now they
wel'e on display in the residences of well-to-do citizens.
Unique are the flowel holders ploduced fi'om the design of
William Burges for the smoking loom of Cardiff Castle in
187 4.76
{F
ry
t
r g b
*
3l The interior of a water container, showing the veÍical stabilisator
 polcelain objects, and exotic and expressive forrns. They
may also be consideled as a manifestaiion of William and
Mary's royal desire to promote their own self-
representation. In particular the monumental pyramids are,
both in their form and their decoration, the curious by-
product of the late-humanistic idealization of kingship and
the fashion for chinoiserie at the royal coul'ts of Northern
+rår- Europe.78

32 Urn-shaped floweryot with ten spouts (the lid missirtg)

Marked: De Pauw GK
private coll

In the 20th century, the flower holders have again become

popular. Besides those inspired by lTth-centuly examples,
there ale now freeÍ intelpretations of the old theme of the
'tulip vase'.rr

Synopsis and conclusion

Delft flowe¡ holde¡s have only been called tulip or hyacinth
vases since around 1900. The ploduction ofthese vases is
not directly related to either the tulipomania or the
hyacinthomania. Because of their presumably gradual
development, it is not easy to determine who deveioped the
idea of simplifying the anangement of flowers by means of
spouts on the vase, or by means of little holes on the vase
body. Nor is it known who started the production of these
vases. The basic idea may have been developed in the
Middle East, Italy or in the Netherlands.
Delft flowe¡ holders were most certainly used for cut tulips
duling spring. Flower bulbs were never placed in spouts or
basins, because the design does not allow for this. Moreover,
33 GÌobe-shaped flowervase on a base
it is inconceivable that these precious products wel'e not Stedelijk Museum Het Prinsenhof, Delft
used to display extraordinary flower bouquets from the
galden during the rest ofthe year. The descriptions found in
inventories unambiguously indicate that they were so used.
Despite their occasional minor defects, these vases were not 34 Quatrefoil, decorated with grapes, tulips and pomegranates
only decorative items, but also mastel'ly crafted utensils.
-l
ca.1600
Flower holders were the result ofthe 17th-century love of Museum Het Princessehof, Leeuwarden

39
 (

{;

lt

1. L,/ t
I

jõ
Tulips, Turks and tiles
Johan ten Broeke (Rijswijk)
Introduction
Not only the tulip but the inhabitants of the Ottoman En.rpire
as well have selved as a soul'ce of inspiration fbr Dutch
celamic tiles. It is striking how Tulkish celamics and
depictions ofTurks contributed to enliching the valiety of
decorations found on appalently authentic Dutch tiles. Even
without realizing it, Dutch tile rnanr"rf,acturels acloptecì
techniques that wele developed by Ottornan tile
manufacturels in the second half of the l 5th century in iznik.
These tecl-rniques fo¡-rnd theil way into the Southeln and later'
the Northeln Netherlands via countlies sucl-r as Spain and
Italy. The iznik technique involved coveling the depiction
on the tile with a layer of cleal transparent glaze. Not only
the Iznik technique, but also the stock in-ragery of Ottoman
craftsmen inf-luenced the Dutch tile in its natr¡r'alistic
depiction of flowels and plants, ancl later the n'rore stylized
tulips ancl carnations.I
It is common for both Turkish and Dr.rtch tiles to depict one
quarter ol a motif on a single tile, and thus for.u' adjacent tiles
form a complete motif.2 The foul tiles are identical, and new
patterns can be formed by a|r'anging the tiles in a different
order'; this principle is called a 'quatre-fbil'. The
intelrelationship between the tiles depends on the motif on
the corner of the tile which rnay vary in size. Since in Tulkey
tiles wele used on lalge surfaces, a stliking optical effect
was sought after'. In the Netherlancls tiles were mainly used
in the intelior of houses, and a single patteln folmed by four'
tiles u¡as considered to be too large. Therefore, the Dutch
plelellecl orre motif pertile.
Although people ale particularly familial with delft tiles,
Delfi was only one of many northern Dutch cities whele
tiles wel'e manufactuled. For instance impoltant tile
mannfacturels wele also established in Middelburg,
Rottel'dam, Gouda, Hooln, Arnsteldarn, U¡'echt, Makkurn
and Hallingen. Since the kincl of illustrations on the tiles, as
well as theil colouling, was sr:bject to national tlends,
similal tiles wele manufactuled in mole than one city.
Consequently, the origin of the tiles manufactured in the
l 6th and l Tth centuries cannot be detelmined. The most
common tiles ale apploximately thilteen square centimetres
in size. In the Netherlands tiles were lalely made to order,
but were deliveled flom stock by tile makers, and tile
traders. They had to estimate the demand fol tiles and the
taste of theil customel's. It is thought that around five
hundled million tiles were produced in the Netherlands,
rnany of which wele expolted especially to northern
Gerrnany.
Prints often selved as examples f'or figurative decorations.
To transpose a design onto a tile pelf'orated transfel paper'
was used. This paper, in Dutch called the 'spons', was laid
on top of the baked tile and patted with a sack filled with
chalcoal powder'(35). In this way a pattern of dots of
charcoal powder was formed on the tile. These dots were
connected with a paintblush dipped in pign.rent consisting of
rnetal-oxides. Ful'ther touches were then aclded to cornplete
41
the design, fbl example by putting in shading. Thele is a
great variety in the imagery used: on the one l-rancl, thele ale
realistic depictions of people, animals and ships, and on the
other hand, fàntasy rrotifìs of sea monstels and the legendaly
unicorn. Depictions of people include noblemen, alistoclats,
altisans, traders ancl beggals, that is they include all the
social classes depicted in engravings in I7th-centuly
costurre books. The lelation with the alt of painting is clear'
in landscapes, still lifes and rnulti-figuled sLrbjects, such as
pastoral and biblical scenes. Flowels, and tulips in
particular, ale depicted on tiles in many valiations: as
glowing out of a clump of ealth, splouting flom a flower
bulb, as a cut flowel in a vase, etc. It should be noted that not
all flowels can be identified; fantasy and leality go hand in
hand. One tile off'els space enough to depict one flower'. This
is not the case with bouqlrets of flowels; though they occur,
they are usually roughly drawn. Bouqnets of flowers appear
to full aclvantage when the design extends over more than
one tile. The production of such tile panels, consisting of
eight tiles ol'rìore, was in palt intended fol export. They turn
up in such diverse places as the Nymphenburg Palace near'
Munich ancl the Rambouillet Castle neal Palis.
In the Nethellands the tiles were not used so n-ruch in palaces
ol castles, but in houses in the city, and in falmhouses cluring
the l8th century. The use oltiles had a utilitalian chalacter'.
In the cities they were applied in kitchens, cellars, in halls on
the glound flool ancl inside fileplaces, that is they were not
used to cover the walls in the living-r'ooln as was the case in
larmhouses. The populality of tiles in the Northern
Netl-rellands was to a large extent determined by econonic
factors. The Nethellands in the lTth centr.rry was prosperous,
and lalge segments of the population, inch.rding artisans,
enjoyed a higher living standard than befbre. A plactical
leason fbl using tiles \^/¿ìs to collntel'act the effect of
hurridity that resulted from the geoglaphical location.
Hurrridity caused detelioration of the lime that was used to
coat walls. Coveling walls with tiles, which were durable
and easy to clean, was prelerled to plastering walls.
-\
35 Pricked transfer paper, 'spons' (cl. ill. 40)
 Í Ë,.
ii
:ì
t..",
tt',
eþ
Tilips on tiles .t
,'j
At the beginning of the 16th century, Italian tile makers in ir

Antwerp introduced floor tiles with flower and leaf motifs.

Italian influence is noticeable in the décor and the
,1
composition of the tiles. Square tiles were framed by four
il
oblong hexagonal tiles. Together these five tiles formed an
octagon. The square tile in the centre might depict a portrait, I
an animal figure, or a rosette in a circle. The oblong tiles
,l
form a frame of flowers and pomegranates. This type floor
tile was not often employed, since it was prone to wear out.
:,
During the 16th century more tiles with stylized floral motifs 'i'
were available, but now as wall tiles instead of floor tiles.
lr .,,*1 '
Around 1580 pomegranates, marigolds and oak leaves became il \J11
fashionable, not only for the decoration of multicoloured
tiles, but also for the decoration of pottery. On tiles the design :l
ìl
W r&
ffi
was divided over four adjacent tiles, the quatre-foil. Around
1610 the motif depicted on the quatre-foil was scaled down 't. J t,\
so that it would fit on one tile. And now the combination of
I
ãr={ i
I
q) ¡.

pomegranates with grapes and tulips also became popular.

This shows that within a short time after its introduction, the
l
ì

I
q" lì
Vî- f
I
I

tulip was widely used as a decorative element.3 This type of ì

tile was also produced in the form ofa quatre-foil with an

i

eighrpointed star in the centre. The complete pattern eme¡ges

when four quatre-foils (sixteen tiles in all) are arranged
together. The centre of the designs is now no longer formed
by an eight-pointed star, but by tulip motifs that are applied
to the corner of each quatre-foil. These tulips are often
painted in the same orange colour as the pomegranates.
Ten years later, around 1625, orange coloured pomegranates
and blue bunches of grapes appear in a diagonal position on
some tiles. The harmony of the wall is preserved when the ì,

tiles are placed alternately. It is not known why the

i&
combination of one flowcr with two fruits occurs on a tilc.
It may well have been a matter of tradition, or perhaps a
symbolic meaning lay behind the motif. ln the 1óth and 17th
IrÆr
centuries the pomegranate was seen as a symbol of unity.

¿#
Thus the motif, could cary a reference to the revolt of the
seven provinces under the leadership of the 'prinsen van
Oranje' ('princes ofOrange') against Spain (1568-1648)
(34). The tulip, however, prompted ethical considerations
ffia
,,.f,Eg I
ì

ì
concerning its role as a luxury item and object of financial I
speculation. Calvinistic preachers saw the tulip as one of the
worldly vanities that would undermine the godliness of the
young Dutch Republic. This vision is also expressed in a
still life by Jacques de Gheyn II (1565.1620). The still life
depicts a skull in a niche; on both sides of the skull stands a
vase with a tulip. The combination of a skull and flowers in
I
still lifes always points to transito¡iness. The emphasis here
lies more on the vanity of human desire and the quest for
.l
prosperity: everything shall pass away.a
An engraving from Houwelyck, amoralizing book written
by Jacob Cats, links up with this theme. In this engraving the
tulip is more a symbol of virtue than one of sin. A widow
qõ
appears in the engraving. In her hand she holds a spindle
which is an attribute of he¡ female industriousness and
honour. At her feet lies a dog, the symbol of fidelity. The
hand of a skeleton on the left in the engraving threatens to
,fu Q#r
3ó Three tiles with a central tulip motif, part of a panel of I 6 tiles
snap the stem of a tulip, which signals the widow's
(cf. rll. 42 on p. 46 )
approaching end.5 But to return to ceramic tiles, it may be ca.1625-1650
noted that around 1620 the tulip emerged as an independent Museum Het Princessehof, Leeuwarden

42
 3aru several plants, oliginally found in Turkey, such as the
,-ü;5! fritillary, the iris, and the carnation. So a customer could
decorate his wall with flowers according to his own taste

ff'*j
/', I
(36). On some flower tiles an insect or a snail sits on top of
the flower', and occasionally such a cl'eatul'e replaces the
flower. Sometimes these flower tiles were combined with
tiles depicting associated motifs such as birds and insects.
1
'¡q,Í
..f.; .r'-ì ¿ * Combinations of flowers fi'om different seasons as seen on
c.,T, l¡\ --. f paintings of flower pieces also occut'.

{Þ jP 4 b-':f, \ Around 1620 a change in taste took place. Besides the

ì multicolouled tile, the monochrome blue tile became
:
Ã. ¡_-
(, it
popular'. This is explained by the fact that people had
):9'þ-' g become familiar with blue Chinese polcelain that was found
,i
)
on captured Poltuguese ships. Somewhat later the Verenigde
! Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) impolted Chinese
\, { merchandise. Outside the Nethellands the Dutch imitation of
¡j
the blue porcelain was considet'ed 'chinoiserie'. Despite the
/
,,, \}.a I
I

37 Polychrome tile with a tulip, ca. 1610-1630 I

Museum Het Princessehof. Leeuwarden
.. il
motif. For instance, in 1614 fhe HorÍus Floridus of Crispijn
de Passe II saw the light of publication. This work shows
several faithfully reploduced depictions of multicoloured
tulips.6 The first phase of tulipomania seems to have arrived.
Tiles with tulips, whose bulbs seem to be placed in a heart-
shaped vase, are beautifully drawn and coloured. This
apparent heart-shaped vase is in reality a stylized leaf motif,
originally used to decolate the corner of a tile (37).7 It is odd
that on this type of tile two unidentifiable flowers splout out
of the stem. These fantasy flowers are later leplaced by
tulips and thus a remarkabie new variety of imaginative
tulips cmcrgcs, thc so-callcd 'triple tulip'. The fact that these
tiles were available in a great l'ange of frames and colner n
motits, attests to their popularity. The 'triple tulip' remained
in production until the l9th century. However, at a latel' date
the design is coarser, and the meandel'corner motif that
originates in Chinese pottery is hardly recognizable.
The 'natural' tulip as a single flower appeal's in various
frames, such as medallions, ovals, diamond-shapes, etc. 1
The corner motif is formed by French lilies, oxheads ot' the
Chinese meanders.s These flowers are often so
naturalistically painted, that one has the impression the
painters consulted the so-called 'florilegia' for a model. /ç
Amusing variants are the tiles that display a c¡oss-section of
the calyx of the tulip so that one can see the stamen and the
pistil (39a-b). In general, the colou|s do not col'l'espond with
reality since the tile paintels did not have as many colours at t
their disposal as the painters of oil paintings and water'-
colours. With legard to the green leaves of the plants, the
painters were less careful. Often the depiction is schematic,
or even inconect from a botanical point ofview. However,
the tiles which depict life-sized tulips by using two tiles on
top of each other are of extlaoldinary quality (38). This type
+ h
of tile is only found in the city of Hoorn and was probably 1

made to order.e The tulip book of Anthony Claesz and Judith I

Leyster, presently in the Frans Halsmuseum in Haarlern, È..
may have been used as a model. 38 Tulip painted on two tiles
Besides multicoloured tiles with tulips, other'flower Hoorn, ca. 1630-1640
decorations became fashionable by 1 630. These include Museum Boymans-van Beuningen, Rotterdam

43
 pl'eflerence for blue in other folms of decolations, flowers,
birds, and insects were often depicted in colour until 1670.
During the second half of the 1 8th centur.y, after having been
out of production fol a long time, tiles with flower.s once
again appeared on the local market in the Netherlands. These
blue ol manganese tiles, lacking a corner motif, wer.e often
used in small Frisian towns and in farmhouses. Typical tulip
tiles wele not included in this category ofproduction. The
incleased prosperity of the farmers also expr-essed itself in a
taste for tile panels, often consisting of thr.ee times four tiles
ol'mol'e, depicting vases with assorted flowel.s flanked by
birds. The tLrlip and the calnation are almost never-absent
lrom these bouquets.
In the second half of the I 8th century the old idea of the
quatre-foil was introduced again. In this form of the quatr.e-
foil decorative tiles occur'; tulips and cal'nations spl.out out of
a stylized leaf, and their stems closs. This type tulip motif
called 'Anjelielveren' was included in the catalogue ofthe
tile manufactulel Van Hulst ol Harlingen until the end of the
f#
t_ i.
iþ-
1-. '
I
\ tulip to a woman (40). This depiction should not make us
x
:
.i,ì "{*.',-d
/]{b+
åä Æw
'& &
TK
39a-b Two polycltrone tiles wiÌha cross-section ofa tuìip, ca. 1630-1640
Museunl Het Princessehof. Leeuwarden
44
I 9th centr"u'y.r0 These tiles, sometimes known as
'Kievitseielen' ('Plover''s eggs'), were also manufactured in
Utlecht and Makkum (41). It seems strange to name a flower
tile alter a bild's eggs. This is due to the fact that the tulips
depicted on the tiles are of the speckled variety that bear.
some lesemblance to the plover's eggs. Both the 'tr.iple
tulip' and the carnation remained popular; more than one tile
manufacturer had on offer' 'Hoekanjelielen', a quatre-foil
consisting of nine calnations surrounding a star.
Apart fi'om selving as the centl'al decoration, the tulip and
the carnation wele also used as corner motifs.ll By contrast,
in the I 8th centul'y, the carnation was often used as a corner
motif in tiles depicting landscapes ol biblical scenes. The
tulip was also a part of the fi'arne of the actual depiction.
Several blue tiles fì'om the collection of the Boymans-van
Beuningen Museum in Rotterdam may be cited as examples.
These tiles depict, for example, a running hale or a sitting
dog set in a medallion of tulips and ears of col'n. Amusing
tiles such as these ale very rare.l2
In conclusion, a few tiles depicting tulips in combination
with hurnan figures rnay be mentioned. The depiction of two
smartly dressed gentlemen with raised swolds confi'onting
each othel is probably symbolic. The cause of the
confi'ontation is possibly the tulip that is depicted between
the two gentlemen. The reference to tulipornania is
plausible. Since ancient times flowels have been seen as
messengers of love, and not so much as originato|s of
conflict. The fact that the tulip can leplace the rose in this
function is clear lrom a tile which depicts a n-ran offer.ing a
forget that cultivated cut flowers were beyond the means of
oldinary people. Only kings and noblemen could afford
these (exotic) flowels and plants. Ordinary people did
participa{.e in the speculative tlatling of flower.bulbs, but this
had mole to do with possible profit than with delight in the
flower itself. Depictions of flowers on tiles were cheaper,
and much more dulable than real flowels. In the lTth
century, people went to painters and tile manufactur.ers to
procure flowers.
w
40 '&
BIue on rvhite tilc decorated u,ith a declaration of love. ca. 1660- I 670
private coll.
 0

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4l Panel of six tiles with floral decoration, ca. 1725-1115. 42 Panel of sixteen polychrome tiles decorated with tulips -J
Museum Het Princessehof, Leeuwarden ca. 1630-1640 (detail)
45 Museum Het Princessehof, Leeuwarden
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Ttrrks on Dutch tiles
Although some attention has been given to the depiction of
human figures on tiles in technical litelature, very little is
written about the specific group of tiles depicting (costume-)
figures with regard to the Ottoman Empire. Although the
Netherlands as a seafaring nation came into contact with
many peoples, and many charts and maps were deco¡ated
with depictions of ethnic groups from remote areas of the
world such as Africa and America, the Ottomans received
special attention. It is true that the Chinese at'e often depicted
on tiles, and thele are a few tiles depicting South Amelican
hunters, yet the Turks are depicted in a variety of lorms.l3
Besides the group known as the 'Sat'acens', tiles with porn'ait
heads, dignitaries, costume-figures, and many Ottoman
holsemen occur. It is possible that the political and religious
contloversies between Chlistian Eulope and the Ottoman
Empire have influenced the iconography of the Dutch tile.
Portrait tiles depicting 17th-century rulers at'e relatively rale,
yet can be found produced according to diflerent designs.ra
The quality of the depictions is not high. The tile maker was
obliged to work quickly and thus did not have time to make a
detailed portrait. One such tile of small format (9,5 x 9,5 cm.)
is the portrait head of a Turkish sultan with mustache, that
probably depicts Sultan Süleyman the Magnificenl (1520-
1 566¡.
ts The crooked nose and the absence of a beald is
tiles is odd as Roman soldiers are also depicted on them.
These figures were inspired by engravings ol a series of
Roman heroes by the well-known engraver Hendrik Goltzius
(1558- 1616). The soldiers ale depicted in mannet'ist poses
and are painted fluently. The dlawings of the wan'iors at'e
painted in dark biue, and are partially coloured in with
orange-brown. The men are dressed in flowing sashes which
makes the tiles very lively. Apart fi'om the turbans, the Turks
are recognizable by the weaponry they carry; a bow and an
an'ow, and sometimes a club. It is possible that they symbolize
barbaric opponents of the Romans such as the Scythians. This
type of tile was not used to decorate walls, but as skitting. The
tiles were ploduced in Rotteldam fi'om ca. 1600 to 1625 (43).
Blue tiles depicting soldiels exercising or fighting did serve
as wall decoration fi'om 1620 to 1640. Tiles with Dutch
musketeers and lancers in imitation of works by Jacques de
Gheyn II (1565-1629) belong to this lattel categoly. Turkish
r' L {
-l

notable.
A tile depicting a sultan on horseback is in the collection of
Museum Het Princessehof in Leeuwarden. The iconography !
'l
of this motif originates fi'om a series of woodcuts by Jan
Swart of Groningen (ca. 1495- I 555) depicting Süleyman
leading his troops on campaign. Since, in the Netherlands,
no consideration was given to the Islamic injunction against
pictorial representation of the Plophet Mohammed, a tile {,
exists bearing his poltrait. The tile painter used as his model
one of the seventeen copper englavings from the book
Hisrorische Beschryvinglte ende Aþeeldinghe der
Voornaentste Hooft Ketteren published by Christoffel van
Sichem (1546-1624) in 1608 in Amsterdam. The tile is palt
43 Polychrometile witha'Saracene', 1590-1625
of a series of persons whose ideas were conceived to be Museum Het Princessehof, Leeuwarden
inimical to Christian teaching. For lack of a better alternative
Van Sichem used a portrait of an Ottoman sultan as a source
of inspilation. These unique tiles were manufactured in
small quantities in 1610.r6
The origin of the bhre tiles made in the I 7th and l Sth t;¡

centuries depicting Turkish costume-figut'es is not known

with celtainty. The tiles appear to be inspired by woodcuts
that adorned the Dutch translation of the Frenchman Nicolas
de Nicolay's (1517-1583) well-known travelogue. From this
selies, tiles ofthe following figures have been recovered: an
'Aga', the commander in chief of the fealed Janissaries
(Yeniçeri aþasr), a'Boluch Bassi', a captain of the same
troops (bölük ba¡r), and two wrestlers (pehlivan) (44). The -{
difference in versions points to the fact that various set'ies
were made based on De Nicolay's book.lT
Depictions ofTurkish wan'iols also occuL on the above
mentioned 'Saracen tiles'. The word 'Saracen' stems from
the middle ages when it was used as a term to designate
Arabs, but it was later employed to refer to all Moslems. In
the Netherlands the word 'Sat'acen' is still associated with
fierceness and danger. The term 'Saracen' used for these
44 BIue on white tile with two wrestlers after De Nicolay, ca. 1620-1640
Museun Het Princessehof, Leeuwarden

47
 9{t

'&'! -+ '¡,

- ¿,.;;'b
.ì'(:
t

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t

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45 Panelwith88Dutchtilesdepictingistanbul,after:GeorgedelaChapelle,RearciltleclítersporÍroits...(1648),ca. l7l0
Palacio d'Ega, Portugal (Photo W. Joliet, Königswinter)

archers al'e depicted less often. Blue holsemen l'epresenting

Turkish and Western cavahy stem from a later period: 1670-
1700. A combat between two holsemen is formed by placing
two tiles opposite each other.
In the filst half of the I 8th century manganese coloured tiles
became popular. These purple colouled tiles depicting Vr'est
European horsemen and cavaliers wearing turbans occupy a
special place in the development ofceramic tiles. In contrast
to the somewhat older blue tiles in which men and horses
occupy only a small pol'tion of the sulface, the image on the
purple tiles fills the whole surface. Also stliking is the
liveliness expressed by the beautifully painted tails of the
holses. It is plausible that this group was produced in
response to events related to the siege ofVienna in 1683,
and subsequent Turkish wars in the Balkans. Parallels can be
seen in paintings and engravings by Jan van Huchtenburg
(164',7 -17 44).18
The lalgest collection of Dutch tiles depicting Turkish wals
is to be found in the Casa de Paço de Figueira da Foz in
Portugal.re Besides 3812 blue tiles depicting landscapes and
693 tiles depicting biblical scenes, 1925 manganese-
coloured tiles with horsemen are found in the collection.
46 Tile with a Turkish costume-figure after De Nicolay
About a quarter of the horsemen wear turbans that seem to ca.1880-1900
be characteristic of the 'Turk'. These tiles were allegedly Museum Het Princessehof, Leeuwarden

48
 ww

Ir)
ð\/'l J

6ü3"
tiç
>rlv ^
p-.þt)
(Jj>z{<
U\l ål\.
"rc'
a Þ

ô\
^l.Ç
l+.<1!
(/Ì")
found on board a ship that was shipwrecked in the bay of
Figuela between 1705 and 1715. The export ofDutch tiles to
Poltugal in the 1700s was not uncommon.
Thus far topoglaphy has not been discussed. One unusual
tableau, also located in a Portuguese palace, must be
mentioned. The tableau is one of the eight panoramas of
European harbour cities present in the Palacio d'Ega in
Lisbon. This palace was the seat of a harbour master around
1700. He commissioned the manufacturer to produce
tableaux depicting the harbours of Amsterdarn, Antwerp,
Hamburg, Cologne, London, Rotterdam, Venice and
#
47 Four tiles with maganese decoration olTurkish u'arriors
Untcht, ca. 1900
Museum Het Princessehof, Leeuwarden
imitation of Dutch pilasters, Dutch tiles with costume-
figures inspired by the illustrations in De Nicolay's
tlavelogue were used on English mantelpieces (46). One
such skilfully painted tile resembles an emit'. This tile clearly
demontrates that De Nicolay's figures served as models for
al'tists up to the l9th century. These expolt tiles wet'e made
in different sizes (15,2 x 15,2 cm.) to fit the standard folmat
ofthe English cast-ilon fireplaces. Alound 1900, a tile Ò

istanbul. Unfortunately, in the past, while the tableau ofthe factory in Utrecht manufactured tiles with Turkish hot'semen
last named hal'bour was being relocated, one side of the that bear resemblance to the manganese horsemen tiles of
painting was lost.2o (45) alound 1700 (47).2t Apparently, a fashion for olientalisrn
The last word about Turkish costume-figures on tiles has not had made such tiles popular once again.
been said. It is surprising that during the late 19th and the
early 20th century both Turkish dignitaries and 'Sat'acen'
horsemen come back in fashion for decorative put'poses. In

49
48 The istanbul Tulip called ibrahim Bey Ali (ibrahim Bey's scarler) from a Turkish tulip book
ca. 1725

50
The tutip in istanbul during
the Ottoman period
Turhan Baytop (istanbul)
Introduction
Asia Minor, the home of ancient deities, is also the home of
many bulbous plants. The Hittites, who lived in this region
about 2000 8.C., used to gl'ow bulbous plants like onions,
garlic, leeks and saffron. They celebrated the anival of
spring, when the snow melted away on the plateaux of
Anatolia and the flowers began to appear, by holding spring
festivals. M.S. Al gives us the following information on the
names of the spring festivals of the Hittites: 'We know for a
certainty that the names of the festivals are Puruliyas and
An.tah.çum-sar. We have no idea what the former means,
but it is certain that the meaning of the lattel is bulb. This
word was originally Sumerian, and the suffix 'sar' is
sufficient evidence to show that it signifies a certain plant.'
çum-sar and sum.qikil-sar, observes H. Eltem, are the names
the Hittites gave to garlic and onions, respectively. The
above information enables us to connect An.tah.qum-sar
with a bulbous plant which blooms in spring. We believe
that this plant, whose flowers ornament the Anatolian
plateaux in the early spring, is the crocus, for to this day
people in Anatolia welcome the blooming of the crocus on
the plateaux because it heralds the end of winter. It is
reasonable to assume that the name of one of the spring
festivals of the Hittites was 'the Crocus Festival'.1
The coming of spring is still celebrated in Turkey on 6 May
under the name 'Hrdrellez' and on this day people go on
picnics. In some regions (Adana, Diyarbakrr', Gaziantep,
Refahiye, etc.) a special pilafcalled 'çi[dem pilavr' (clocus
pilaf) prepared with bulgur (cracked wheat) and çiþdem
(crocus) bulbs is eaten at Htdrellez.2
The home of the tulip is said to be Central Asia, but about
twenty types of wild tulip also occur in Anatolia. In addition
to these it is certain that a number of tulip bulbs were
brought from Central Asia to Persia, Anatolia and even to
Europe by the Turks during the Turkish migrations.3
Tulip designs which are found on tiles excavated from the
Alaeddin Hill and on the ceiling ornaments of the Alaeddin
Palace (in Konya) point to the fact that this flower design
was iniroduced by the Anatolian Seljuks in the twelfth
century and has been used ever since. The fact that no tulip
design is found on the buildings, coins and works of art of
the Byzantines proves that the tulip was not highly valued
before the Turkish invasion. It was obviously the Ottomans
who brought the tulip to istanbul since tulip designs are
found on some of the buildings and fountains which were
constructed soon after the conquest (in 1453).4
Floriculture reached its height during the rule of the
Ottomans. In the Surname of Murad III (ca. 1582), which
describes the 52-day long circumcision feasts of Prince
Mehmed, the son of Murad III, the miniatures in the chapters
on florists are of great significance in that they indicate the
level which floriculture in istanbul had reached by the end of
the 16th century.s
51
lk-f
ì
ï :
a\
i
\ ,;
¡ \,
t',
t
\r
T
49 Kefe Lâlesi (Tulípa schrenkíi; photo: T. Baytop)
It is clear that in istanbul, during the Ottoman period,
bulbous plants were held in the highest esteem. Leaving
aside roses and carnations, one may note that for a number
of centuries the various forms of tulips, hyacinths, jonquils,
ranunculus, anemones and irises were the chief ornamental
flowels of the orchards and gardens of istanbul. There is
clear evidence also that wild flower bulbs were brought from
various regions of the Ottoman Empire to the palace galdens
of istanbul. There is an order by Sultan Murad III ( 1574-
1 595), issued in 1 593 to the governol general of Marag, in
which the sultan instructs the governor to collect from the
mountains of his district 50.000 bulbs of white hyacinths (aft
sümbül) and 50.000 of the blue form (gök síiml:z/) for urgent
dispatch to istanbul.6
According to a folk legend, mentioned by the famous
traveller Evliya Çelebi, the tulip is made of the blood of
Ferhad. The story of Ferhad and Qirin is set in Amasya. In
order to marry $irin, Ferhad first had to complete the task of
bringing water from the other side of the mountain (Elma
Da!) to the town - by tunneling through the mountain!
When he was on the point of achieving this difficult feat, he
learned the news of $irin's death. Shocked by what he heard,
he swung his axe and inflicted a fatal wound on his own
body. From his blood tulips sprang up. Today there is a
channel called 'Ferhad arasr' in the surroundings ofAmasya
which some people still believe was made by Felhad.i
The same Evliya Çelebi also relates that in the 1630s there
were about 80 flower shops and 300 florists in istanbul,
which was also rich in vineyards and orchards. The gardens
of the villas and waterside residences on the Bosphorus were
decorated with tulips and hyacinths. He remarts 'Lâlezar
(tulip garden) excursion spot: The various kinds of tulip,
 generally known as the 'Kalrthane Tulip', are found here.
One is intoxicated at the sight of this spot in the tulip
The genus Talipa in Ttrrkey
season.'8
The histoly ofthe European garden tulip appalently begins In the genus Tulipa two main subdivisions are recognized,
in the middle of the 16th century. Until recently it was the Eriostemones and the Leiostemones,In order to facilitate
thought that the Flemish diplomat Augerius (Gislenius) identification, we have arranged the eighteen Turkish
Busbequius, who was sent by Ferdinand I of Austria to species under these two subdivisions.rr
istanbul as ambassador to Süleyman the Magnificent ( 1520- Subdivision l: Eriosremones Boiss. Lowest leaf long, more
1 566), had played a crucial role in the introduction of the or less parallel-sided. Young flower or bud infundibular or
tulip in Eulope. This assumption was based on the mention more or less globose above the nallow, constlicted base.
ofthe tulip in Busbequius' four 'Turkish Letters' (Legarionis Perianth segments with hairy claws, the outer narrower
Turcicoe epistolae quator). In one ofhis lette¡s he relates and/or shorter'. Filaments unequal, the inner ones longer, all
that in the galdens of Edirne he saw an unknown flower, swollen at base. Ovary bears a small, narrow stigma.
with gorgeous colours, which the Turks called 'tulipan'.r
Busbequius' observations are as follow: 'We stayed one day Name: Region:
in Adrianople and then set out on the last stage of our l) T. biflora Pallas Eastem Anatolia (Van: Çuh pass)
joulney to Constantinople, which was now close at hand. As 2)7. humilisHerbert Easæm Anatolia (Van: Çuh pass)
we passed through this district we everywhere came across 3)7. orphanideaBoiss. Western Anâtolia (widespread)
quantities of flowers - narcissi, hyacinths, and tulipans, as ex Heldr.
the Tulks call them. We were surprised to find them 4) T. pulchellaFenzl Southern Anatolia (mainly Cilician
flowering in mid-winter, scarcely a favourable season. There Taurus)
is an abundance of nalcissi and hyacinths in Greece, and 5)7. sylvestrisL- Mainly in Western Anatolia
they possess so wonderful a scent that a large quantity of 6) T. saxatilis Sleber Western Anatolia lMuf la. Marmaris.
them causes a headache in those who are unaccustomed to ex Sprengel Sö[üt and Taqhca)
such an odour. The tulip has little ol no scent, but it is 7) T. thracica Davidov Thrace (Edime, istanbul and Tekirda!)
admired for its beauty and the variety ofits colours. The
Turks are vely fond of flowels, and, though they are Subdivision lI. Leiostemones Boiss. (Sect. Tulipa). Lowest
otherwise anything but extravagant, they do not hesitate to leaf lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, not parallel-sided.
pay several aspres for a fine blossom. These flowers, Young flowers campanulate to globular or stellate, rounded
although they were gifts, cost me a good deal; for I had at base. Outer perianth segments longer and wider than inner
always to pay several aspres in return for them.'r0 ones. Filaments without swollen, hairy base. Stigma
Originally, scholars thought Busbequius had written his generally wider.
letters during or shortly after his stay in the Ottoman Empile
(1555-1562). Recent lesearch, however, has revealed that Name: Regionr
they were most likely written (and published) between 1581 8) T. agenensis DC. Mainly in Southem Anâtolia
and 1589. By this time tulips were already known in Europe. 9) T. aleppensis Boiss. Southern and Eastem Anatolia
Busbequius can therefore not be considered the first ex Regel
European to write about tulips. Neithel did he introduce the l0\ T. armenaBoiss. North-eastern Anatolia
tulip to Europe.rr l1) T. clusiana DC. Western Anatolia (rare)
In May 1673 the Frenchman Antoine Galland tlavelled by 12) T. foliosa Stapf Mainly in Southern Anatolia
the same route as Busbequius from istanbul to Edirne and 13) T. julia C. Koch Eastem Anatolia
also recorded that he came across fields ofcultivated tulips; 14) T. mucroncua Fomin Eastern Anatolia (Erzurum: Oltu)
these are no longer in existence.l2 15) T. praecoxTen Northern and Westem Anatolia (rare)
16) T. sintenisii Baker Mainly in Eastern Anatolia
17) T. sprengeri Baker Nothem Anatolia (Amasya?)
The Istanbul Tulip
18) T. undulatifol¿a Boiss. Western Anatolia { izmir: Çe¡me¡
In istanbul, raising tulip cultiva¡s from wild forms began in
the time of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent (1520-1566). Most of the wild Turkish species are showy and worthy of a
They were then given a common name: 'Lâle-i Rumî' place in gardens, but they are not always easy to grow
(Ottoman Tulip). As all were obtained and grown in outside in cool climates since the bulbs require a warm dry
istanbul, we prefel to call them collectively the 'istanbul period in summer. In cool arcas they are best grown in a bulb
Tulip'. They had in common a characteristic shape, very fiame or alpine house.
different from the Eulopean tulip of today: almond-shaped, The epithets turcarum and, turcica have been used several
perianth segments with a long, slender and pointed tip. They times by botanists for Turkish tulips, understandably causing
have been described in detail and illustrated in a number of some confusion. These names can be interpreted as follows:
Ottoman manuscripts. la T. turcarum Gesner is a synonym of T. armena Boiss.
Today the istanbul Tulip, of which thele were about 1.500 T. turcica Griseb. is a synonym of Z. orphanidea Boiss. ex Held¡.
forms, has completely disappeared. We can only see it in Kunth is a synonym
T. turcica of T. acuminata Vahl ex Heldr.
pictures or read about it in manuscripts of the period. The T. turcicaRofh is a synonym of T. sylvestrisL.
reason why it ceased to be cultivated was the fact that ìt was
grown by only a few tulip enthusiasts.

52
 they could not have been exported in such large quantities.23
The characteristics of the Istanbul Tulip
Unfoltunately we do not know by which methods or from
Çeyh Mehmed Lãlezaû, the well-known chief of the sultan's which wild species the istanbul Tulip, distinguished by its
florists (szr ¡llkûfeci) during the leign of Sultan Ahmed III almond-shaped flower with dagger-shaped segments, was
(1703-1130) gives us the following descliption of the obtained. It seems likely that the Eastern Tulip, which was
istanbul Tulip, which was obtained as a result of selection introduced into Europe between 1550 and 1560, was a wild
ovel a period of many centuries: The flowers are almond- species from Anatolia which was sold in the flowel markets
shaped, the tepals are dagger-shaped and the tips are pointed. of istanbul. There is little similarity between the Eastern
In the Ottoman period, the only tulips that were considered Tulip, which flowered in 1559 at Augsburg and which was
of high value were those with the above featules.rs namedTulipa tLtrcarLrm by C. Gesner in 1560, and the
The book of Çeyh Mehmed Lâlezarî titled Mizanü 'l-Ezhar istanbul Tulip. The pictule of the latter given by Gesnel in
(The Manual of Flowers) is composed in three parts. In the his De Hortis Gernaníae supports this belief. Fulthermore,
first part, the author cites the twenty chief leatures which there is sound infolmation indicating that the istanbul Tulip
make a cultival most valuable. Part two discusses tulip was of Cappadocian oligin.2a
cultivation and in particular the quality of soil required. Part
three deals with the genus narcissus (zerrin) and describes
seventeen characteristics ofits varieties.l6 The book was
translated into German in I 8 15 by H. F. von Dietz with the
title Wage der Blmnen.t1 W. S. Murray made a summaly irr
English of the German translation which he published under
the name Tlre Habit of Flowers.t8
Mehmed b. Ahmed Ubeydî, who wrote biographies of 17th
and 18th-century florists, and Tabib (physician) Mehmed
Aqkî both refer to Çeyhülislam Ebusuûd Efendi ( I 490- I 574)
as the earliest florist who raised tulips. He possessed a
particular variety called 'Nur-r Adn' ('The Light of
Paradise').re
As was recordedinthe Defter-i Liilezar-t ibrahim (The Book
of ibrahint s Tulip Garden), the only folm of tulip known in
istanbul befole the second Ottoman conquest of Baghdad (in
1638), was the saltraî líìle (the wild tulip). The histolian
Hoca Hasan Efendi, who accompanied the army of Sultan
Murad IV (1623-1640) on the easteln expedition, blought
l¡ack seven kinds of tulips fronl Pelsia and culLivated then iu
istanbul. Schmidt von Schwarzenhorn, the Aush'ian
ambassador', also brought ten kinds of tulips in 165 I . At
about the same time, tulip bulbs were brought fi'om Clete
and they became widely known as Cretan tulips.20
The origin ofthe old cultivars that are referred to as the
istanbul Tulip has not been estabÌished with certainty. Nor'
do we know exactly what stlains of tulip they wele obtained
50 An I 8th,-century miniaturc of a group of experts inspccting cultivars
fi'om. M. H. Hoog colnpares their acurninate tepals to those
of the Tulipa scltrenkii and argues strongly in favour of their
having originated from this species of tulip, which is native
The council of expert-florists and the chief-
to the steppe legions of the Crimea (49).21
florist of the sultan
Alter 1730 the forms oi the istanbul Tulip gladually
disappeared. Similar in flower shape - and still extant today During the lTth and 18th centuries, when the interest in
- is a single species of Tuli¡ta with long acuminate tepal tips, raising tulips (lâle) and nalcissi (zerrin) was at its peak, it
the Tu I ipa ac umínaÍ a.22 was the task of the chief-florist to control the activities in
The European botanist Clusius (1526-1609) mentioned two this prospering area. One such chief-florist whom we know
species of tulip that wele imported to Europe from the east about was Abdullah Efendi. He was appointed in the fìrst
and lecolded information about their place of origin. One of halfofthe 17th century by Sultan ibrahim (l 640-1648), as
them is the Kaffa Tulip which flowers early, and the other we ale infolmed by the book of Mehmed b. Ahmed Ubeydî,
one is the late flowering Cavalla Tulip. Because we do not which contains bioglaphies of flower glowers up to the
find the above names in the contemporary manuscripts beginning ofthe lSth century.25 Next, during the reign of
which mention the folms of the istanbul Tulip. we are Sultan Mehmed IV ( I 648- 1687), a council of expert-florists
inclined to believe that they were wild species of tulip. It is (encämen-i díiniç-i çükíìfe) was set up.26 This council, under
recorded that the bulbs of these tulips were sent to Europe in the presidency of the sultan's chief-florist (ser ç[ikíifeci),
sacks that were full to the brim, and were eaten by ignorant judged the new cultivars and assigned them their official
people who mistook them lor onions. But the genuine names.27 Only if a cultivar was perfect and faultless, did it
istanbul Tulips at that peliod wel'e so lare and expensive that receive such an official name. The new name, the

53
 characteristics ofthe new cultivar, and the grower's name Ottornan-
were then registered in the catalogue of the council (50). Turkish name Turkish English
The names given to various tulip cultivars grown in Ìstanbul Al Krrlangrç Al Krrlangrç Scallet Swallow
were mostly Arabic or Persian (ol mixed A¡abic and Al Mücellâ Al Mücellâ Bright Scarlet
Persian) such as 'Nize-i Rummânî', 'Mir'at', 'Revnak- Altrn Sarrsl Altln Sansr Golden Yellow
bahE', 'Zevk-bahq', 'Srn-r Gülzar', but there were also some Behcet-i Çemen Çayrrrn Güzelligi Meadow Beauty
Turkish names such as 'Altrn Sansr', 'Bryrkh', 'Büyük A1', Berk-i Ra'na Güzel Yaprak Beautiful Leaf
'Cüce Moru', 'Ìbrahim Bey Ah' and 'Nar Çiçegi'. The Bryrklr Bryrklr Moustached
majority of these names reflected the graceful appearance or Büyük Al Büyük Al Big Scarlet
a distinctive feature of the flowers. Only a few tulips bore a Cam-r Gül-rcnk Gül Renkli Bardak Rose-coloured Glass
person's name. A list of the most renowned Ottoman tulip Cam-r Hurqid Hurçid'in Kadehi Hurqid's Glass
names, followed by their modern Turkish and English Cam-l Simim Gümüq Kadeh Silver Glass
equivalents, is given below:28 Cam¡ Zerrin Altrn Kadeh Golden Glass
Cevher-i Hayat Hayat Cevheri Essence of Life
Cüce Moru Cüce Moru Dwad's Purple
DüÍ-i Yekta Eqsiz inci Matchless Pearl
Ferah-efza Ferahhk Arttu'an Increaser of Joy
Ferah-engiz Sevinç Getiren Bringer of Joy
Feyz-i Seher Sabahrn Bollulu Prosperity of Dawn
Gül-i Qebab Gençlik Gülü Rose of Youth
Gtil-ruhsar Gül Yanaklr Rose-cheeked
HàIet-eîz.a Keyif Arttrran Increaser of Pleasure
iblahim Bey Ah ibrahim Bey Ah ibrahim Bey's
Scarlet
iqve-baz Nazlr Delicate Coquette
Kerem-i Bari Tann'nrn Lütfu Kindness of God
Klzrl Ktztl Scarlet
Kumaq-r Aqk Agk Kumaqr Tissue of Love
Lem'a-rFeyz Bolluk Prnltrsr Glitter of Prosperity
Leylâkî Leylâk Renkli Lilac-coloured
Mahbub Sevgili Beloved
Menba-r Hayat Hayatrn Kaynaél Source of Life
Mir'at Ayna Mirror
Muatiar Güzel Kokulu Fragrant
Nahl-i Erguvan Erguvan Çiçe!i Judas-tree Flower
Nar Çiçeli Nar Çiçeli Pomegranate Flower
Naz-dar Cilveli Flirtatious
Necm-i ikbal ikbal Yrldrzr Star ofFelicity
Nihal-i Gülgen Gül Bahçesinin Fidanr Slim One of the Rose
Garden
Nize-i Rummânî Nar Mrzralr Pomegranate Lance
Nur-r Adn Cennet Nuru Light of Paradise
Nur-r Behcet Güzellik Nuru Beauty's Light
Nur-l Cenan Gönül Nuru Light of Heart
Nur-l Saadet Saadet Nuru Light of Happiness
Nur-r Sefid Beyaz Nur White Light
Peyker-i Çiralan Qenlik Çehresi Face of Illumination
Peyker-i Elmas Elmas Çehresi Diamond Face
Peyker'-i Yakut Yakut Çehresi Ruby Face
Peymane-i Gülgûn Gül Renkli Kadeh Rose-coloured Glass
Reqk-i Elmas Elmas Krskandrran Diamond's Envy
Revnak-bahq Parlakhk Yayan Disperser of
Brightness
Ruy-r Mahbub Sevgilinin Yüzü Beloved's Face
Sahib-krran Sahipkrran Lucky
Saye-i Elmas Elmas Gölgesi Diamond's Shade
Saye-i Htima Saadet Gölgesi Happiness'Shade
Srrr-r Gülzar Gül Bahçesinin Srmr Secret of the Rose
Garden
51 The istanbul Tulip called Cüce Moru (Dwarf's Purple) fiom a Turtish
rulip book Sim-endam Gümüg Boylu Silver Glace
ca.1725 Subh-r Bahar Bahar Sabahr Spring Morning

54
gevk-bahq Istek Veren Instiller of Passion
Çua-r Yakut Yakut hrÉl Ruby Light
Çu'le-i Çemen Çayrr Alevi Meadow Flame
Vahid-i Gülzar Gül Bahçesinin Bir Unique One of the
Tanesi Rose Garden
Zerd'¡z Srrmalr Blocade
Zevk-bahq Zevk Veren Delightful
Zi-qan Çanlt Glorious ti !/

4â:. I
Illustrated manuscripts
Manuscripts have been preserved which give detailed -ti ..- t"
information about tulip cultivars, theil names, characteristics 'f ::Fl
and their growers.2e But those with illustrations are
relatively few, and then they often only contain a small
number of illustrations.30 The most important illustrated
manuscript with regard to the istanbul Tulip is an album
which plesumably dates from 1725.3t The original copy has
no title and the artist is not known.32 It contains coloured
figures of49 cultivars, each qualified by their special name
(50,51,52). The original is housed in a private collection in
Belgium but a facsimile of this precious album is presently
in the press in Ankara.33
53 Two çükufedans (vases for flowers)

Fixed market prices

Tulips were highly esteemed in istanbul during the filst
decades of the 1 8th century. The plices of bulbs leached
theil peak during those years. This peliod has been called the
'Tulip Era' ('Lâle Devri') by historians such as Ahmed
Cevdet Paqa and Ahmet Refik. They recorded that a single
bulb of the much sought aftel cultivar'1Ì4a hbub (Beloved)
could fetch 500-1000 Ottoman gold coins. In order to
prevent such inflationary increases the state officially fixed
prices by issuing price-lists. A surviving list, dated 1726,
gives the fixed prices of 239 cultivars. Another such list,
dated 1727, mentions 306 cultivals and the plices lixed for

52 The istanbul Tulip, Nize-i Rummânî (Pomegranate Lance) in a lâledan

ca. 1125 54 Three lâledans

55
each of them.34 The cultival Nlz,e-i Rummiinî (Pomegranate
Lance) appeals on both lists as the most expensive one (5).
A single bulb was valued at 50 piasters (7.5 Ottoman gold
coins).3s

Tirlip vases
Two kinds of vases were used by the Ottomans to display
tulips or other flowers: the lâledan (tulip vase) and the
Síikûfedan (flower vase). The lâledans ofcolouled glass
were made to hold a single tulip. They were about 20 cm
high, with a long, slendel neck and a globulal or dept'essed-
globular (like a clocus bulb) base (54,55). A figule ofthis
type of vase appears in an old album produced ca. l'725
which is known today as the 'Lâle Albümü' ('The Tulip
Album') (52).36 Vases fol only one tulip are actually very
rare. Representative specimens are on view in the Museum . |..: .,. ..
of Ethnography in Ankara. The Sükûfedans made of glass
were egg-shaped and had an enlarged mouth (53). They held
several flowers at a time and were not only used for tulips.
Surviving examples are not rare today. Many may be seen in
museums and private collections. Although the 1.500
varieties oftulip they displayed during the 17th and l8th
centuries ale all extinct today, these special vases (lâledan
and Eükûfedan) have foltunately survived and ale conserved
with great care in numerous museums and private
collections.3T

55 French engraving showing a sultan (Ahmed III?) and a plate wirh seven
lâledans s,ith tulips
(fronr M. G. Choiseul-Goufïer,Voul'uge pitÍoresc¡ue tle lu Grèce...ll,
plate 98, Paris 1822)

56
Tutips in Ottoman Turkish
culture and art
Y tldtz D emiriz (is tanbul)
Introduction
Early sources do not provide us with much detailed
information about the interest the Turks had in flowers and
in gardens in the pre-Ottoman period. It is only after the
establishment of the Ottoman Empire that we find more
substantial refercnces to this interest in the wlitings and
visual representations ol the time.
Although it is known that flowers wele grown in Turkish
gardens from much earlier times, the first tulip motifs in
Turkish arts only appear in the 1 6th century. There is no
conclusive evidence that earlier decorative forms such as the
fleur-de-lys, palmettes, etc., which some scholat's have
considered to be tulips, are in fact leally tulips. In other cases
the dating may be wrong. Indeed, it was not until the l6th
century that some degree of naturalism emelged in Ottoman
Turkish an. In this new style flowers were the dominant
motifs. This may be due to the fact that in Islamic art
figurative decoration was to some extent shunned. Generally
speaking, religion did not actuaily forbid the human figure in
art, but because worship of images was forbidden, figurative
decoration was not tolel'ated in religious books or on
religious premisses. By contrast, floral decoration was very
much employed in every kind of arts and clafts.
Why were flowers so important for the Ottoman Turks?
Perhaps one answer is to be found in a little story which
appears in several oltl rrraluscripts otl flowe¡s. While Qeyli
Necmeddin Hasan Efendi of the Sümbüliye dervish order
was preaching a sermon, someone passed him a note, asking
whether it could be said with certainty that any particular
person presently alive would go to heaven. At the end ofhis
sermon, the Sheikh asked whether there was a gardener in
the congregation. A man stood up. The Sheikh then said,
'This man will go to Heaven.' According to one of the
hadiths, the oral tladitions of the Prophet Mohammed,
people will do in the after life, what they have enjoyed doing
in this life. Because flowers are deemed to belong to
Heaven, the gardener would go to Heaven in order to be able
to cary on his work. Like many other flowers, the tulip also
had a symbolic meaning. Because it is written with the same
Arabic letters as appear in the name 'Allah', it was generally
taken to be a symbol for God.r Others held it to be the
symbol for modesty befole the Almighty, because when the
tulip is in full bloom it usually bows its head.
The tulip was seldom depicted by itself; more often it
appeared in the setting of a garden in spring. Scenes like this
may also be taken as an image of 'the Garden of Eden'. The
favourite flowers of the Ottoman gardens have their parallels
in art. For the Ottoman gardener only a few particular
species of flowers possessed a high value. The tulip, together
with the rose, the hyacinth, the narcissus and the carnation
were the only flowers which were considered important.
Other species were considered to be wild llowers.
Accordingly they ale not noted in most sources. In some
57
instances the violet, the cyclamen and the calendula are
mentioned. The same plefet'ence can be seen in Ottoman
Tulkish art. The four classical flowers of Ottoman art are the
same flowers which the gardenet'preferled. In art as in the
garden, other flowers were secondary. We can also observe
this parallelism in the folms of tulips used as decorative
motifs in different periods. The folm ofthe tulip in art
changes according to the gal'dener's taste in tulips. As time
passes, the egg-shaped tulip is leplaced by the longer,
pointed one. The longer the blossom the more highly prized
it was throughout the lSth century.
The tulip design, as it appears on various objects and is
ernployed in various techniques, has a part near the stem that
looks like sepals, which do not actually exist in nature. This
is undoubtedly the basal blotch. The Ottoman al'tist depicted
objects not as they look, but as they are. He stylized the tulip
in such a way that the basal blotch, which is actually located
inside the calyx, is visible to the viewer.
The natulalistic tlend in Ottoman art established itself in the
second halfofthe 16th centuly. This was the period when
the Ottoman Ernpire reached the zenith of its military and
political power. Moleover, this was the time of its greatest
artistic and architectural achievements. It was the era of
Sultan Süleyman the Magnificient ( I 520- 1566) - known as
the Law-Giver (Kanunî) in Tulkey - and his architect Sinan.
Great artist craftsmen like the miniaturist Osman, the
calliglapher Ahmed Karahisarî and the illuminator Kara
Memi, who at the same time was the director (nakkaqbaqr) of
the imperial studios (naÀta çhane) in istanbul, flourished in
that brilliant day and age. The year I 550 was a turning point
which saw the beginning ol a new tt'end in Ottoman art, and
certain new techniques, such as the underglaze technique
and the beautiful red colour of the tiles. The tulips of this
period conform to thc tastc and artistic standards of the 1 6th
century. They are short and rather round, very similar to the
egg-shaped tulips still popular today in European countt'ies.
As I see it, this new tlend in Ottoman decorative al't came
about at this time as a result of Kara Memi's individuality as
an artist.
It may be noted that the iTth centuly did not contribute
anything new to the representation of flowers, but the
number ofspecies depicted is gleater. However, the 18th
century was an important stage of development fol flower
illustrations. The so-called 'Tulip Era' ('Lâle Devli')
corresponds to the period of 'Tulipomania' in the
Netherlands. Both professionals and amateurs grew tulips.
The rich bought the different species of bulbs and had them
registered under theil own names. Amateurs of every social
class were involved. Fishermen, barbers, shoemakers,
porters, calligraphers, the minister offinance, the
Sheikhulislam (next in rank to the grand vizier and
responsible fol all matters connected with leligion), the son
of Sultan ibrahim, some women, pashas, virtually evel'yone
including the sultan were enthusiastic admirers of flowers.
The Ottomans prefelred their tulips to be in the garden rather
than confined in pots or vases. Books on gardening tell us
that only blossoms that were rather delicate and not likely to
survive long, wele picked and put in vases. Bulbs and plants
were sold, but cut flowers were not.
Sultan Ahmed III ( 1703- 1730) and his grand vizier
Nevgehirti (Damat) ibrahim Paqa were very fond of flowers,
 especially the tulip. The tulip and the hyacinth, which had
travelled from Turkey to Europe in the 16th century, were
Manuscripts and their decoration
now re-imported f¡om Holland to their native country. The The texts as a source on the tutip
price of tulip bulbs was officially fixed to avoid prices In many respects old manuscripts are our most important
rocketing. The number of florist shops was limited. Famous source for the tulip. These texts help us understand the place
gardeners were appointed by the palace to maintain the flowers in general, and the tulip in particular, held in daily
quality of the flowers and to name the new species. During life. They also give information about the cultivation of
the reign of Ahmed III, $eyh Mehmed Lâlezafi, and later tulips, their various names, as well as the cultivators and the
during the reign of Selim III (1789-1809), Mehmed Açkî possessors of tulip bulbs. Most of these sources list names of
Efendi and Ubeydî Efendi wrote books on the subject.2 tulips, but do not provide illustrations. Only very few
The first appearance of famous tulips is known through contain pictures of the flowers they list and describe.
poems which give the date by means of the letters in the last Such was the importance of the tulip to the Ottoman Turks
verse (chronogram).izzet Ali Paqa wrote many verses ofthis that they established criteria by which the beauty of the
kind. Nedim, one of the most famous poets of the period, blossoms and the health of the plant could be judged. Çeyh
also includes such dates in some of his poetry. For instance Mehmed Lãlezatî inhis Mizønü 'l-Ezhar wrilten during the
he has written a poem in which a famous tulip called 'Nize-i reign of Sultan Ahmed III (1703-l'730) specifies rwenry such
Rummânî' is memorialized. Howeve¡, it is interesting that criteria. Mehmed Aqkî, writing in 1801, gives twelve.3
Nedim never refers to his beloved as a tulip, though he often
compares his loved one to a rose.
It is in the 18th century that we find some of the most
beautiful tulip illustrations, such as those painted by Ali
Üsküdarî and Abdullah Buharî. In their art signs of Western
influence appean, or what it is fashionable nowadays to call
Westernisation.
In the 19th century, flower motifs are even more affected by
Western taste. Different styles seem to have reached the
empire at the same time, and therefore become mingled in a
strange new style. The rococo style grew in strength and
with this trend the tulip, though never entirely forgotten, lost
its popularity and ceded its pre-eminence to the rose.
The tulip is depicted in different types of compositions in
Ottoman arts and crafts. The principal patterns can be
categorized in the following manner:
1 The tulip in the Calden of Eden. In this categury the lrain
motif is the fruit tree in blossom. Underneath the tree are
depicted different flowers that bloom in spring, such as
the rose, carnation, iris, hyacinth and of course the tulip.
Even though they are rather stylized, they appear in their
natural position in the garden.
2 Near a vase filled with different flowers. The vase is often
shown in an oval medallion. The tulip is preferably
represented as growing in a garden, while other flowers
are more often depicted in pots or vases. Occasionally
tulips also appear in a vase. Often a plate is placed
underneath the vase.
3 The mixed bouquet. In earlier compositions the flowers
nearly always appear in a vase. The type of vase differs
according to the style of the decoration. This type of
composition is often found repeated on tiles as a series of
bouquets. A typical composition ofthe 18th cenrury is the
'flowers in a niche'. After the 18th century, bouquets
bound with a ribbon are also in vogue.
4 The single tulip in a vase (often slender-necked). This is
typical ofthe 18th century.
5 Composite motif in decoration, especially on textiles and
tiles:
a The tulip set in another motif like the leaf or the
palmette.
b The tulip fil1ed with other motifs.
56 Tulip miniature from a redecorated manuscript
6 Together with traditional abstract motifs as endless I 8th century

surface decoration or in borders. Anhegger Collection, istanbul

58
Hele ale some of the clìaracteristics of the pelfect tulip: we can distinguish the tulip (F.lr). The miniatut'e depicting
The six petals should be long and equal in length. The outer gardenels carrying a small-scale gat'den serves as a document
and inner segments should close neatly, and neither the showing how flowers were an'anged in gardens. In still
filarnents nor the basal blotch should be visible. The pollen another miniatule ol the sarne manuscript. a ptocession
should not soil the flower. The stem should be long and crllying r giant irnage of a rulip is depicted lF.200r').s
strong. The leaves should be long, but they should not be so The appearance of a typical garden is pt'eserved in many
long that they hide the blossom. The blossom should stay miniatules depicting palace gardens. The same theme is also
erect and not bow its head. The coloul should be pure and found as a folm ofbook decolation. On the lacquered
clear. In the variegated forms, the glound colour should be binding of a book of the 1550s (Topkapr Palace Library EH.
of a pu|e white. Bulbs should be neithel' too large, not' too 285 I ) we see how a garden of the period looked. It is
srr.rall. Petals should not be jagged. Flowels should not be probably the work of Kara Memi, the director of the imperial
double. So an Ottoman cultivatol might just as well thlow studios. Here the tulips are t'ather short and lounded. They
away a perroquet tulip. differ significantly from the ideal tulips ol the 1 8th centuly.
The books on tulips, and on flowers in genelal, give the ln the rniniatules dated 1539 of the Be¡,np-, Menazil-i Sefer-i
names of the cultivated tulip and its descliption. Names were
only given to flowers which conformed to the norrr.rs set by
the above mentioned criteria. The flowels wet'e olten named
after the blossom, particularly its colour', though sometimes
the name lefelred to thei| cultivatol'or owner. Some names
are lather lomantic. But the flowels are never namecl alter a
lamous pel'son ol'someone to whom they were cledicated.
Some old manuscripts describe in detail the methods of
cr"rltivation. They give rnuch inf'ormation about l-tow to
conserve bulbs, and how and where to plant them. But they
nevel tell us about the methods of cultivation. It seems that
new tulips wele sirr.rply fbund by accident. The wold
'occurred' frequently appears in connection with a new
cultivar'.

The illustrations as a source on the tulip

Diffelent categolies of sout'ces help us understand the
importance of flowers in Ottoman social life. Some, Iike
miniatules, ale indirect soulces. Celtainly by the middle of
the l6th ccntury wc find in miniaturcs that histot'ical cvcnts,
towns and buildings, plants and galdens, and natut'e
generally ale depicted in a rathel natulalistic ot'r'ealistic
manner. Miniatures leveal to us the way tulips wele planted
in galdens, ol l-row they were alranged in vases.
In a miniatule of the Hantse-i Atoî, dated 1121 , in fhe
Walters Alt Gallery in Baltimore (W. 666), Ataî is depicted
as presenting his work to his master. The vase with flowers
in a niche in the backglound shows how vases were placed
in rooms and thus indicates the leal life basis of a
composition which appears in numerous wolks of alt. A
miniatule depicting Sultan Murad III ( 1574- 1595) in his
libraly, from the Binney Collection, dated 1582, and a
miniature in an album in the Topkapr Palace Library (H.
2148,F.11v) provide illustrations of how flowers rvet'e
actually an'anged in looms. Vases wet'e placed in different
positions alound ol on a low table, each vase bearing one or
mole flowels. Such miniatures also provide examples of the
thin-necked líiletkm, the tulip vase. In a miniatule in the
Divant Selinú ofthe 1520s, tulips appear in different kinds
of containels, there are even single tulips contained in large
bowls (istanbul University Libraly F. 1330 F.28r').a
From different soul'ces we know that thele was a guild of
florists and gardeners. In Mulad III's famous Surnante or
Book of Festirrities dated ca. 1582 (Topkapr Palace Library
H. 1344) diffelent guilds are depicted duling a pt'ocession 57 Tulip by Ali Üsküclarî
before the sultan. Flowel'cultivatol's take part in the daled 1728
procession with their flowels. Among the flowers displayed istanbull Universìty Library (T. 5650 F,7ó r)

59
 Irakeyn of Matrakçr Nasuh (istanbul Univelsity Library T.
5964), which depict places the Ottoman army passed
through on campaign, thele are representations of flowers
such as tulips and carnations, as well as valious trees. In
these miniatures, not only can we recognize which plants ale
depicted, but it is clear that the palticular' flola of the legion
has been included. Accordingly in Baghdad we see palms,
whereas on mountains cedat's and pine trees appear. The
tulip is shown growing in the wild near Konya, but as a
cultivated flower in Seyitgazi near Eskiqehir in the garden of
the convent.6 It is well-known that the tulip is native to
Anatolia. In the above mentioned miniature it is shown in its
natural surLoundings. But what is of importance to a
historian is not where it grew wild, but where, when and by
whom it was cultivated as a garden flower, and then was
intloduced to the whole world.
58 Tulip miniature by Abdullah Buharî
I 8th century
Topkapr Palace Library, istanbul (H. 2155, F.40 r)
60
Flower miniatures
Many of the most beautiful depictions of flowers ale found
in manusclipts. Some are of purely decolative chalacter and
make up part of the more ol' less abstract illuminations
referled to above. Anothel category floral depiction is more
naturalistic but its purpose is still primarily to decorate the
book. These kinds of flowel designs ale especially found in
prayer-books and anthologies of poetry. In such cases the
flowers have no particular connection with the texts. Flower
miniatures were sometimes added to manuscripts at a latel.
date. Fol instance the flagment of a very old Koran in the
Anheggel Collection (istanbul) contains a tulip miniatule
which can be dated to the lSth centuly (56).
The most important example of this category is a book of
poetly decorated by Ali Üsküdarî, the famous illuminator
and flower painter of the 18th century. Although Ottoman
artists seldomly signed theil works, most of Üsküdar'î's are
dated and bear his signature. In the above mentioned book
dated 1'728, alongside a wonderful tulip (57), nearly all the
species of flowers known in Turkish art ale depicted. These
pictul'es are among the most natulalistic flower miniatures or
portraits of the Tulip Era.
During the sarne period Abdullah Buharî, anothel eminent
miniaturist, painted flowers. One of his wolks is a signed
tulip (Topkapr Palace Libraly H. 2155). The length of the
blossom is exaggelated, owing to the taste of the per.iod, and
its twisted point appears to be a product of the artist's
fantasy. However, among tulips which ale still cultivated
one finds certain cultivars with similar twisted points, which
proves that the artist was, in fact, an accurate obselver of
nature (58,59).7
Flower decoration was generally very common during the
Otturrrarr pelit-rd. In any horne it would be common to find a
notebook whose cover was decorated with a flolal bouquet.
59 Tulip with twisted petals (april l99l)
Such notebooks with decorated covers wel'e mass produced
for populal use. This technique of wolkmanship was known
as Edirnekíirî, a popular rococo style in fashion flom the end
of the l8th to the 19th century. The style is vely similar to
the decolation on European peasant furnitule of the peliod.
In some cases the book would be used by the ownel to copy
out poetry. The pages too are decolated with flowels in the
same Edit'nekârî style. The flowels are not mentioned in the
poems. A rather well-known exarnple is the Sükûfencune \n
theMillet Liblary in istanbul (No. 1307). Anothet' less well-
known example in a plivate collection in istanbul iRasih
Nuli ileli Collection) may also be cited (60).
60 Mixed bouquet from a çlikufenarre
late I sth century
Millet Library, istanbuì (Ms. I 307, F. I 7 Ð
Still anothel categoly of flower painting is the illustrated
flower-book, a genle known asfhe çükûfenarr¿. These books
have two aspects of intelest to historians. Their descliptive
texts al'e inlportant as sources of information about flowers,
and they include some rather simplified flower designs
which a|e meant to l'epresent certain cultivars. Among these
designs there ale some water'-colours of tulips. We know ol
tlre existence of different copies of the çükíifenanrc ploduced
by Ali Çelebi in 1667168, all of which only survive in later
copies. In all these copies there al'e watel'-colout's of flowet's
with explanatory texts on the facing page. The designs, as
61
well as the text, are copied fron-r the same oliginal by altists
or amateurs of various deglees of skill, which lesults in quite
similar designs, but different standalds of quality in the
handling (Topkapr Palace Liblary Arda. 30; Nut'uosmaniye
Liblaly 40'76,4077 and 4078).8
As fal as I an aware, the only rnanusclipt that pl'esents
pictures of tulips along with theil names, was formerly in the
Ayverdi Collection but is now in the De Belder Collection in
Belgium. It contains 49 water'-colours ol some of the most
famous tulips. The names of the tulips are written near the
flowers.9
The tulip in book decoration: illumination,
kafi'ø, book-bindings
New flolal designs first rr-rade their appearance in manuscript
illurninations. Sholtly afierwalds they began to be applied in
other alt florn-rs. This was no coincidence. The nakkcrsan
(designels, paintels, decorators, ilh.rminators) of the irnpelial
stuclios had an immense influence on the work of all the
other artists in the palace. This lesulted in the splead of the
new designs and helpecl to establish a particlrlal'artistic tasie
thloughout the Ottoman territories. In rny opinion book
illuminations were often Llsed as pattern soul'ces lol othel'
techniques. It is interesting to note that the same
composition of a tulip between two large leaves as part of
the illurrinatorr of the copy of fhe Dittctn of Muhibbî
(pseudonyrn of Süleyman the Magnificent), signed by Kara
Memi and dated I 561 (istanbul Univelsity Liblary T . 5467),
occuls on tiles of the Rüstem Paqa Mosque clated 1562 in
istanbul, as well as in an ernbroidely olaround the year 1600
(61).r0 The design in the manuscript could well be the
prototype. In the same book decolation in the halkíirî (or
Italkíir) tcchnique sulrouncling the text often includes the
foul classical flowers of the period, the tulip, together with
the calnation, the lose and the hyacinth. But Kara Memi also
intloduced many new kinds of plants and f1owers wl-rich
were not usecl in pattelns of the ealliel altists, and which
were regarded as wild flowers by the gardenels.
The most widely used decoration on paper is tezltib ot
illuniination. The title page, the serlevha, of nearly all
handwl'itten books is nìore or less illuminated. The sulahs of
the Koran, and diffelent palts of any book, often begin with
an illuminated panel. At the end of the book there is often
another decorated page whele the date and the name of the
calliglapher' (hartut) ale recolcled. Only on rare occasions is
the name of the illuminator (nakka$ also given (Topkapr
Palace Libraly Y.332, F.537v; 62). This rnay be due to the
fact that illuminations wele carried out in ateliers by groups
olclaftsmen. Illurninations are genelally in traditional
styles, and consist of abstract ol highly stylized patterns. It
was in the mid- l6th century that the natulalistic trend filst
appealed in the decoration of books. The palace atelier
created more natulalistic designs with real flowels, while
rnany othel illuminators remained loyal followers ol the
tladitional style. In this period, besides the four classical
flowels many new flowers as well as the blossoming tree
wele added to the l'epertory of the artists.
The term 'tezhib' is delived h'om the Alabic 'zeheb' (gold),
and in fact gold is one of the most important n'raterials. The
designs ale generally on a golden ol dalk blue ground, and
 Indeed the margins of manuscripts were filled with rich
floral halkârî decoration.
The 1 8th century blought much more to floral decoration.
The style is often still classical, but is mixed with interesting,
rather naturalistic flowers. In many illuminations there is a
single flower or a bunch of flowers. Sometimes the flowers
are in oval frames, but in most cases they arejust placed in
the centre of the abstract designs. In Korans and prayer-
books the medallions in the malgins are replaced by flowers.
In this form of decoration the tulip is often depicted at the
top of the bunch. The flower in the margin is sometimes in
an oval medallion (65).
From the end of the 1 8th century on, rococo is the
predominant style in Turkish decorative arts. Especially in
book illumination very lich decoration, often on a golden
ground, is preferred. Here too tulips are among the flowers.
On illuminated pages they are very small and rare. But in
margins, single tulips as well as tulips in mixed bouquets
replace the medallion of the classical period. Flowers often
appear in different shaped vases in rococo as well as the later
styles. In this type of decoration the tulip frequently occurs.
This folm of floral decoration can also be considered as
flower miniatures.l2
An interesting category of manuscript decoration is the so-
called 'katr'a', i.e. cut-paper and collage. The technique is
suitable for floral decoration, and in Ottoman manuscripts

ó1 Kara Memi, illumination from tîe Divant Muhibbî

signed and dated 1566
istanbul University Library, Ìstanbul (Ms. T. 5467)
This detail shows the prototype for the tiles in the Rüstem Pasa Mosque

the paper itself is not visible. The designs are done with thin
colltours in black. But in the lìaturalistic trelrd, Lhe l.iny
flowers often appear without a painted ground. The designs
produced in this manner look much more natural, even
though the flowers themselves are stylized. The tulip in this
kind of decoration often has a rather rounded form (e.g. in the
Topkapr Palace Library H.2248;63). The most interesring
tulip designs of this category are in the above mentioned
Divan-t Muhibbî (istanbul University Library T. 5467).Here
the tulips are not only used in illuminated panels and
borders. Illuminations had been surrounded by arrowlike
lines and decorations. But now Kara Memi, director of the
imperial studios, replaced them with small tulips.rl
Another type of illumination is The halkârî in which the artist
has a freer hand, even though here as in so many decorations
patterns are used. The ground is not painted, and the design
is painted with a thin, rather transparent layer of gold and
coloured lightly. In the above mentioned manuscript, the
margins are filled with designs inthe halkârî technique.
Here the tulip appears in many different shapes and
compositions. In a panel on the last page of a Koran
(Süleymaniye Library Laleii 16) the tulip is depicted in a
garden, under a tree in blossom (64).
The naturalistic style, although it was applied in most arts
and crafts of later periods, was not preferred for
illuminations by practitioners of the classical technique. On
the other hand, in halkârî floral decoration rather naturalistic
62 lllumination with bouquets from the last page of a Koran
designs were still used. In the lTth century very little had dated:1764/65
changed in the style and the designs of this technique. Topkapr Palace Library, istanbul (Y. 332)

62
there are tulips of differing quality and style. In two albums
of the 17th century (Bibliothèque Nationale Estampes Od.
26 and26a), though the design is rather simple, even the
bulbs are shown.13 In other such works the design is made
out of many layers of paper, and the flowers look very
natural. In a l7th-century manuscript in the British Library
(Or. 13763) tulips appear with other flowers in vases of
different shapes. Sometimes Íhe kan'a technique is used for
depicting a whole garden as on a richly decorated page in an
album in the istanbul University Library (F. 1426). Tulips
are shown together with other flowers under trees.la

63 Page ofan album illuminated with smaÌl tulips (detail)

lóth. century
Topkapr Palace Library, istanbul (H. 2248,F.6 r)

64 Halkârîpanel from a Koran

16th century
SüÌeymaniye Library, istanbul (Laleli ló)

65 Medaillon with mixed bouquet fromthe Terci¡me-¡ Resehat

dated 1753154
Topkapr Palace Library, istanbul (Ms .'f. 5467)

63
 In anothel technique which cornbines fhe hall<ârî and katt'a,
the design is made with the help of cut-out paper patterns.
The pattern is used to coloul the diffelent palts ofthe design.
Shading and contours of gold are then added in the lnlkiirî
technique. In a manuscript copy of the poems of Muhibbî
fron'r the mid- 16th centlry this type of decoration is applied
(Topkapr Palace Liblaly R. 738m.). The rnargins of the book
look like a galden in which many dilfelent species of
flowers are situated at random. HeIe the tulip occufs as a
single plant in the galden (66). The blossom has the lounded q{
form, as in all decorations of the pel'iod.rs
EbrLt ot malbled papel is often used fol book-bindings ol the c{
.

decoration of panels of calliglaphy. In recent titnes ebru

with floral decolation, especially with tulips, becomes quite
colllmon. Some artists like Necmeddin Okyay, Sami Okyay
and Mustafa Üstün have proclucecl ebru with tulips.t6
In Ottoman bookbinding many cliflerent matelials and
techniques have been used. The classical type binding is in
leather with a central medallion and colner'-pieces. The
designs ale stamped, gilded and painted. In this categoly of
decoration, tulips in mixed bunches occur (e.g. Topkapr
Palace Libraly EH. 2690 and 2271).n Lacqueled bindings
are more suitable for'floral decolation. While in nany
exarnples the decoration consists of traditionally stylized
motifs, there ale also those with rather naturalistic designs.
The best known frequently cited example is the binding of a
hadith translation dated 1540 (Topkapr Palace Liblaly EH.
285 t ). The exteriol is decorated with tladitional hatuT,i
design. The intelior resembles the Galden of Eden format.
Blossoms of many different species are shown in theil'
natural forms. The blue and red tulips are egg-shaped.rs
Along with book-bindings thele ale some othel objects
decolated in lacquer technique. Most ofthem ale
calligraphels' items like pen boxes ol wlitiug pads. Orr a pcrr
66 Margin decoration with tulips frotnthe Dítunt Multíbbî
box dated 1757 in the Mnsenm of Tulkish and Islamic Arts I 6th. century
in Ìstanbul (No. 2 I 1 ), the inside clecolation consists of tulips Topkapr Palace Library, istanbul (Ms. R. 738n, F. I9 I v)
and other naturalistic flowels. Tulips ale also found on
embloidered bindings. An intelesting example of this is the by the same ailist (67). Tuþras of latet'peliods are often
bincling of a Koran fi'orn the seconcl half of the l6th century decorated with flolal bouquets in the style ofthe peliod. The
(istanbul Univelsity Liblary A. 6570). The embroidely in flowers ale placed around as well as inside the løfrn. These
gold and blue is on sharkskin. The colner quadlants ale filmans are exhibited in many museums, e.g. Museum of
re
decorated with tulips. Turkish and Islamic Arts 2234 (Mahmud II dated 7
Septernber 1745) with tulips among tl.re sclolls; Museum of
Turkish and Islamic Arts2232 (Mustafa III dated l7 ApLil
Illuminated documents and calligraphic
1 766) with a bunch of roses, anemones and tulips between
panels
scrolls which beal abstract designs; Museum of Tulkish and
The techniques ernployed in the decoration of books are also Islanric Arts 2294 (Mustafa II dated I 9 July 1809) with single
used for docurnents bearing the s¡"rltan's tuþrn, which is the tulips orr both sides of the tuþru and a tulip in a bouquet.2r
sultan's monogram and serves as his coat of arms. Filmans In Islamic cultule calligraphy plays an important role as a
(impelial edicts) are in the f'olm of sclolls which begin with decorative art. The lace of the Prophet Mohammed was
lhe tuþra.The tuþra and the space alound it ale usually never depicted.The Hilye-i ¡errf a written text desclibing
illuminated. Since firmans are olten dated to the day, they the Prophet, replaces his portlait. Especially aftel the I 8th
help us date the appearance of many decolations and century, fhe Hilye-i qerildecolated the walls ol almost every
diffelent styles. Ir{ras also occnr in the folm of single Ottoman home. The illuminators decorated the texts which
panels. The oversize ørfra of Stileyrnan the Magnificent of were w|itten by rnany famous callig|aphers. In this type of
the 1550s (Topkapr Palace Libraly GY. 1400) is one of the panel the open spaces were filled with medallions or'
most beautifully decorated examples, and is perhaps the bouquets. Sometimes single flowels were used. Hele too the
wolk of Kara Men.ri. Hele the tulips, depicted as they are in tulip is one of the favourite subjects.
nature, are among the most natulal in Ottoman alt.20 The
67 Tulra ol Murad lll. detail
arjzr of Mulad lll
('l'opkapr Palace Libraly GY. 1392) is late l6th century
perhaps the greatest, and is decorated in the same style and Topkapr Palace Library, istanbul (Ms. GY. 1392)

64
I -./
 Calligraphic panels wele decolated in a similal manner. The
written text was neally always an ayeÍ (verse) of the Kolan.
The text is often lepeated in s¿'l1ll.ç and nesilt script which left
rectar.ìgular spaces fol decolation. In the case of the fo'lik
script, which is genelally written with a diagonal slant, the
open spaces are tliangular'. In these spaces we find some of
the rnost attractive tulips with other naturalistic flowels (e.g.
in Topkapr Palace Liblary H. 2288 and H. 2306; 68).
Flowers occur scatteled between the lines too. This kind of
calligraphy was not only employed in panels, but was also
pasted on cardboald (murakka) and collected in albums.

Ceramics and tiles

Tiles with tulip decorations
Ceramics and tiles, being arrong some of the best known
wolks of art, ale also the easiest to date thanks to the designs
and techniques employed on them. The new underglaze
technique used from the 1550s on facilitated naturalisric
decolation. Flowers, including tulips, rnade up palt ofthe
naturalistic decolation frorn this date on. The famous red and
the beautiful gleen cololu'found on tiles gave them a natural
and vivacions chalacter. It is interesting to note the use of
the tulip alongside tladitional nlotifs in tiles and celamics of
this period.
On tiles of the Takkeci Mosque in istanbul 11591 .¡. for
instance, the palmette motifs of classical art are fìlled with
flowers of the Ottoman naturalistic style, wheleas the rnain
field is filled with traditional motifs. The tiles of the Rüstem
Paqa Mosque ( 156 I ) are famous for theil tulips of very
clifferent types (69). Here too tulips are used together with or
instead of traclitional abstract motifs.22 Tiles decolated with
tulips are so numerolls during this centul'y that it would be
nearly irrpossible to compile a complete list of them. Neally
all irnpoltant buildings ale decorated with tiles, and on
nearly evely one ofthem the tulip is an irnpoltant important
motif. This type of decoration, along with trees in bloorn,
roses and tulips, even appears on a small tile tombstone.23
The exceptionally high technical quality of Tulkish tiles
lasts fi'om the I 550s to the end of the century. In the 1 7th
century the coloul begins to fade. As the century proceeds
only bluish colours remain, the glaze is cracky and not as
clear as before, and yet the floral design becomes even
richer'. Many new flowers begin to bloom on the tiles. The
beginning of this period is marked by the production of the
tiles of the Sultan Ahmed Mosque (ol Blue Mosque) in
istanbul, dated to the first years ofthe century. Gleat panels
with flolal designs alongside lepeated smaller designs
include many tulips in the red colour which has not yet
disappeared.
The Topkapr Palace is perhaps the most remalkable complex
for the study of tiles. The building activities of the palace
began in the second half of the l 5th centuly, and continued
as long as it was used as such. The same is true of its
decoration. Consequently, tiles ofthe whole intervening
period have been used in the different buildings of the
complex. In l Tth-centuly tiles of the Topkapr Palace the
design of the tulips is acculate and lich, but the only
lernaining colour is blue.
A revival of the alt of tilemaking occuned in the I 8th
century. Although the Mehmed Ala Mosque in istanbul
68 Mixed bouquet fron a 'murakka'
Topkapr Palace Library, istanbul (Ms. H. 2306, F.37 r)
belongs to the 1590s, it is partially decoratecl with 18th-
century tiles from the Tekfur Salayr workshop. A typical
l Sth-centuly tulip with a lose and a carnation in rococo style
is depicted in a panel ofthis rnosque (70).
Ceramics with tulip decorations, and ceramic vases
Ceramic aft is one of the most highly esteemed of Ottoman
arts throughout the world. This reputation is well deserved.
The best of the tiles and ceramics of the classical period
come from the iznik wolkshops. Here too the naturalistic
trend begins towards the mid- l6th century. The first tulips
appear on the blue-white ceramics dated 1535-40. The tulips
ale depicted in vases, and as complete plants in nature.
Sometimes they occur on sclolls as well. On such ceramics
we observe how vases were arranged on small tables. None
of the vessels on the ceramic forms are called vases, the thin-
necked ones are sürahis (bottles), the wide-necked ones are
called kavanoz (jars). In fact, in many miniatures flowers
appear in cel'amic containers of almost any form.
In the I 530s new colours were added to the blue and
turquoise. Till the mid-16th century pale green and violet
remained the predominant colouls. The tulips found on this
category of ceramics have the same forms as in the second
half of the century. An interesting example of the multiple
use of the tulip design is a bottle owned by the Alessandro
Bruschetti Foundation in Genoa. Tulips as whole plants
alternate with vases containing tulips. Tulips are even part of
the decolation of the vase design.2a

66
 70 Tiles from the Mehmed Ala Mosque, istanbul
18th. century

Slip ware and especially the polychrome underglaze

ceramics ofthe 16th century are rich in tulip designs.The
design of these tulips does not differ much from designs on
contemporary tiles. The tulip's beautiful red colour, typical
of this period, accords with the flower's Tulkish name lâle,
which is derived from lâ1, the Persian word for red. In the
17th century the tulips are similar in design, but the earlier
beautiful clear colour is gone. In later periods the iznik
ceramics were replaced by those of the Kütahya and
Çanakkale workshops whele the naturalistic designs were
seldom used.25

c Ottoman glass and the tulip vase

Special vases are among the most important items connected
with tulips. The typical tulip vase had a thin neck and a
rounded base to hold sufficient water for the flowers. If
numerous flowers were required indoors, several vases
would be placed side by side. In many instances the vase
was designed with an accompanying plate underneath it.
Most surviving vases ale of glass and date from the end of
the 18th to the 1gth century. But we know fi'om miniature .

representations that glass vases were used for tulips earlier.

Nearly all the extant eallier examples are in ceramic. These
69 Tulip decoration on tiles of the Rüstem Paqa Mosque. istanbuJ t l56l) have been discussed above in connection wiih ceramics
ca.1566-1570 bearing tulip decorations.

67
 Although much is known about glass making in earlier
times, none of the fine vases preserved in museums and
private collections are earlier than the I 8th century. This
may be due to theil fragility, as well as to the fact that
keeping flowers in a vase was not the most popular way of
displaying them. In catalogues only the wide-necked ones
are described as vases. Thin-necked vases are often mixed
up with the gülâbdan, the bottle for rose-water. However, in
many works of alt a single tulip is shown in a vase of this
kind. In an iliustrated Tulip Book the famous red tulip called
'Nize-i Rummânî' is depicted in such a vase.26 The same
type of vase is recorded in different materials and decorated
with different techniques. On a marble tombstone relief,
da|ed, 1739/40 in the cemetery of the Hadrm ibrahim Paqa
Mosque in Silivrikapr (istanbut), we find an 18th-century
tulip in a typical thin-necked tulip vase together with rich
floral decoration.
Some of finest vases are embellished with the filigree
technique, which has the rather romantic Turkish name
'ÇeEm-i Bülbü1', meaning 'Nightingale's Eye'. The Topkapr
Palace Museum as well as some private collections have
thin-necked as well as wide-necked Çeçm-i Bülbül vases.
The slender-necked vases which appear in a 17th-century
miniature and are filled with tulips seem to be deco¡ated
with ÇeEm-i Bülbül fihgree27
Another, rather ¡ich category of vases is the so-called
'Beykoz ware'. In the Ethnographical Museum in Ankara
there are several thin-necked vases produced in different
colours. Some of them, although similar to vases which
appear in painted and sculpted works of art, are described as
gülâ.bdan.2z Only the rather wide-necked ones are described
as vases. In the larger museums there are nunÌerous
examples of this category. Since Beykoz glassware is very
popular amongst collectors, many specimens are found in
private collections.2e
71 Painted wall decoration from the Yemis Odasi (Fruit room) of Ahmed
Harem ofthe Topkapr Palace, istanbul
I 8th century
Painted wall decoration
In Turkish alchitecture the upper parts of interiols
commonly bear painted decorations. Only a few original
examples of these earliel painted decorations still exist
today. This is due not only to the decay of the plastel on
walls and ceilings, but also because in many buildings the
decoration was renewed according to the taste of a later day.
For instance, in the mosque of Sultan Selim I ( 1 5 1 2- I 520) in
istanbul the ceiling of the müezzin's lodge was redecorated
in the 1 8th century. The border consists of caftouches filled
with bunches of flowers.
The most elaborate collections of painted flowers date from
the 1 8th century. The so-called Fruit Room or Breakfast
Room of Ahmed III in the Topkapt Palace is richly
decolated with panels on which are depicted different kinds
of fruit and flowers in vases. The flowels are in bunches,
which is very different from what we know about the
Turkish way of arranging flowers one by one in vases. This,
togethel with the style of the paintings, is a sign of Western
artistic and cultural influence. The tulips which are very long
and sharyly pointed resemble arrows (71.).
The same type of decoration can be observed in various
techniques. Beautiful examples were carved in marble
especially as decoration for fountains and tombstones. On a
lacquered book-binding signed by Ali Üsküdar'î (Ayverdi
Collection) the same composition of flower bunches in oval
medallions occurs (72).
From the end of the 1 8th centuly on, ceilings of palaces and
houses wele decorated with flowers. But in such
ornamentation the tulip rarely occurs, having been replaced
by other flowers.
Marble and stone
The use of ca¡ved stone in Anatolia is as old as recorded
histoly. Pre-Ottoman Tulkish buildings are no exception to
this long tradition ofalchitectural decoration. On the other
III,
68
 hand, since the capital of the early Ottoman period was not
rich in stone, blick and teü'a-cotta were first employed for
architectural façades. Nonetheless, eventually in Edirne, and
then in istanbul after the conquest, stone became the
standard material for façades of imperial Ottoman buildings.
The naturalistic trend, however, is not much in evidence in
the decoration on these monumental buildings.
Smaller constructions such as public fountains (çeçme and
sebil)have the finest decoration in carved stone, ol more
precisely in carved malble. They were calved like exquisite
jewels, especially after the I 7th century. By the I 8th
century, building and dedicating fountains was becoming
more and more popular. In evely corner of Ìstanbul, public
fountains, some small-scale, others quite monumental, were
constructed. Among the best known are the Ahmed III
Fountain near the entrance of the Topkapr Palace, the Saliha
Sultan Fountain in Azapkapt, the Tophane Fountain and the
Bereketzade Fountain. They all had in common a rich
surface ornamentation. Decoratively calved marble bore
their inscliptions in beautiful caliigraphy. Almost no space
was left without decolation, most of which was of a
natulalistic character. Potted trees, bowls of fruit and vases
with flowers embellished the shallow niches which broke up
the wall surfaces. In the I 8th ceniury this scheme is also
found in the painted decolation of interiors. Most of the
monumental or richly decorated fountains date from the I 8th
century. The vases which appear are filled with a great
variety of flowers. The centre of the flolal bouquets is often
filled with roses, while the tulips in the upper part look like
an'ows. They resemble the ideal tulips of the Ottoman
gardener (73).

72 Lacquered binding of a poetry album signed by Ali Ûsküdarî 73 Flowers in a vase, marble decoration on the Saliha Sultan Çeqmesi
I 8th century istanbul (detail)
Ayverdi Collection, istanbul 18th century

69
 ., I ùtt
,, t
Jr t.

74 Marble tombstone decorated with single tulips in vases

dated 1746/4',7
Cemetery ofthe Hadrm ib¡ahim Paqa Mosque, Silivrikapr

75 Tulip decoration on a marble sarcophag

End of the I 6th. certury
Cernetery oI tlre Piyrle Prsl Mosque. isrunbul

10
Tombstones are a second important source for tulips carved
on marble, especially as most of them are dated. Naturalistic
flowers appear on tombstones much earlier than on
fountains. Some examples from the l6th centuly ale
decorated with stylized tulips (74). Towards the close of
the l6th and throughout the 17th century, the tulip is part
of the regular floral decoration found in graveyards.
Generally speaking, the relief is not very high, and the
characteristics of the flower ate merely indicated by a few
simple lines.
The tombstones of the 18th century are much richer in floral
design, and the relief is much higher. Some of them
resemble small-scale copies of fountains of the same period,
rather than tombstones. Looking ât them we are not
reminded of death, but perhaps of Paradise. One remarkable
example of such floral design is provided by the tomb dated
l'/46147 and located in the small cemetely of the Hadrm
ibrahim Paqa Mosque in Silivrikapr (istanbul). On the head
and foot stones ale carved flowers in vases, a fi'uit tree and
fruit in bowls. But the most interesting detail is the single
tulip in a thin-necked vase which is repeated on both sides
of both stones (75).
Although few examples of painted marble are extant today,
we may safely assume that such ornamentation was not so
rare in the classical Ottoman peliod. The scarcity of
surviving specimens may be due to diffelent forms of
cleaning or dusting.
But on some marble tombstones and sarcophagi the coloured
decoration is still visible. In the türbe (mausoleum) of Piyale
Paqa in Kasrmpaqa (istanbul), the painted decoration is
flo¡al. The painting is often combined with carved designs
on the same surface. Carved tulips occuÏ together with
painted ones. On a tombstone inthis türbe tulips glowing
undel a tree in blossotn recall numel'ous tiles of similar
design.3o
Carpets and Kilims
Turkish carpets hold a speciai place in the history of Turkish
arts and crafts. Owing to their production technique, their
decolative patterns, even when they include flolal motifs,
have a stlongly geometrical character. As the naturalistic
trend in Turkish arts becomes popular, floral designs begin
to appear in carpets too. In the 16th and 17th centulies many
carpets with floral motifs were produced. Typical
compositions of floral decoration such as the fruit tree in
blossom with groups of flowers underneath, flowers in vases
and flowels as part of abstract designs are all found in these
carpets too. And here as well the tulip is one of the favourite
flowers. The form of the tulip is rather stylized and to some
extent depends on the number of knots employed in the
weaving technique.
Most examples are found on the Ladik and Uqak type
carpets. In some multiple-niche Uqak player-rugs dating
from the 16th and the 17th centut'ies, the tulip has a rather
natural form, whereas on the bol'der of an l Sth-century Uqak
calpet, it appears with a more geometrical character. The
two multiple-niche prayer-rugs of the Museum of Turkish
and Islamic Arts from the mid-16th century ale similal in
design. Each of the niches has in the center an oval
medallion with a bouquet of diffelent flowers.3r In Centlal
7I
Anatolia we find much latel carpets which resemble the
16th-century Uqak carpets with floral rnotifs. But their'
designs are of a more geometrical character. Most Ladik
pl'ayer-rugs are also of a latel date, and tulips are among
their typical patterns.
Another category of artefact which uses tulips for'
decoration is the kilim or the woven carpet. The production
technique, however, does not allow lound lines, and hence it
is not easy to employ naturalistic flower designs. For the
most part, kilims can be defined as folk art. Nonetheless,
there is a gloup of kilims from the 17th century which
employ flolal designs with rounded folms and al'e woven
with such fine technique that it is possible io identify
individual flower species. In this categol'y known as
'Ottoman palace kilirns' because of their resemblance to the
Ottoman palace carpets, one of the preferred motifs was the
tulip. Of the few surviving examples two ale in the Ulu
Cami of Divriþi, others in Gümüq near Amasya and in the
Army Museum in Ingolstadt (Germany).r2
Tulips on Turkish textiles and clothing
The tulip is among the favourite motifs ernployed as
decoration on Ottoman textiles and reproduced thlough
different techniques. Textiles used for clothes such as
caftans, shirts or ¡aluars (shalwars, baggy trousers) are
woven with an infinite valiety of patterns. Fot' cushions or
prayer-rugs they were prepared as special panels. Therefole
the designs differ greatly. Diffelences ale dué also to the
matelial used ol the technique.3s In all cases the tLrlip plays a
major lole in the design. On velvet the designs are not as fine
as on silk fabrics such as serenk (blocade), allas (satin),
kemha (brocade), etc. Most fabrics only survive in
fi'agmcnts. Thc clothes of the sultans wele preserved in the
palace, though sorne of them were placed in their tombs.
Consequently, the Topkapr Palace Museum has a lich
collection of caftans and other clothes of the sultans.3a This
includes a wide variety of representations of tulips on
textiles and embroideries. A ìarge amount of silks and
velvets has also survived and may be viewed in museums
and private collections.
Some of the most plecious textiles wet'e used for the caftans
of the sultans. But the tulip is found on matelials used for
other garments too. On a safin Vlvur in the Topkapt
Museum (131512) groups of a tulip and a carr'ìation are
scattered over a beige ground.35
Talismanic shirts wele worn by lhe sultans to protect them
flom all kinds of evil. These cotton or linen shirts were
decolated with Kolanic verses and prayers. Tulips in the
classical style are part of a floral design on the back of a shilt
in the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts in Istanbul. The
shilt is dated to about 1400 by the museum, and supposedly
belonged to Sultan Yrldtrtm Bayeztd I ( 1389- l402) simply
because it was obtained fi'om his türbe.Bùllhe tíirbe was
lebuilt much later and the sultan is not the only pelson
buried there. In fact, on the basis of stylistic clitelia the date
of the shirt cannot be earlier than the mid- 1 6th century.
Leather is another material used for clothing. The leather
caftan in the National Museum in Budapest belongs to the
l6th century and is a unique work. There are cut-out designs
of flowels in the lining which is also of leather. Among them
 78 Embroidered cover -J
76 Tulips and canlations on the leather binding of an European book lóth century
dared I 549 Burton Yost Bery Collection, Chicago

72
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 the tulip is recognizable in a vase with some other flowers.36
Even leather shoes and boots wele decorated with flower
motifs. There is the example of a tulip embroidered on the
top of a single surviving shoe. Other shoes bear stamped
decorations in lobed oval medallions. The design was
stamped on the leather befole the shoe was folmed. It is
intelesting to note a similar design with tulips and carnations
on the binding ofa European book dated 1549 (76).31
For cushions the preferred material was velvet. Tulips often
appear alongside the more popular carnation on cushions of
various dates. They turn up in almost any collection of
Islamic art. Woven flool coverings are rather rare. They
imitate the designs on textiles used for clothes. But the
genelal compositions are like those employed on carpets.
Tulips on embroideries
Alongside simple embroidered objects, some ver.y richly
emb¡oideled articles are to be seen in museums and private
collections. Various accesso¡ies for dlessing are r.ichly
embroidered. But the richest embroidelies occur on prayer-
rugs, quilt covers, cushion covers or fhe bohça (the square-
shaped wrapper for a bundle ofclothing).
The largest group is the quilt cover. Museums and private
collections in many countdes have large quantities of them.
Usually the whole cover is embroidered with a border
enclosing the overall pattern. Flowers are the most common
77 Embroidered prayer rug (detail)
I 8th century
Anhegger Collection, istanbul
74
form of decoration, and the red of the tulips of some r-ather-
early examples are still as bright as when they were first
embroidered. Two covels fi'om the 16th century are among
the richest examples (Topkapr Palace Museum 3l/44 and
Washington Textile Museum1.22). The l6th-century cover
in the Burton Yost Berry Collection (Chicago) is most
interesting for its design which imitates that of tiles in the
Rüstem Paça Mosque and,fhe Divan-t Muhibbî discussed
above (78). An 18th-century embroidery in the Petsopoulos
Collection ploves that the tradition was still alive at that
time, although the tulip design in this case is much
rougher.3s
Embroidered prayer-rugs were indispensable for the
tlousseau of a Turkish bride. Often it was her own
handiwork. In the trunk of every old family in Turkey an
embroidered player-rug is to be found, even if it is of rathe¡
simple workmanship. Whenever the young women
producing the embroidery had enough time and skill, as well
as the money to purchase finer material, the final result was
a wo¡k of art. Fine tulips ale embroidered on a pr.ayer-rug of
the 1 8th century in the Anhegger Collection in istanbul. (77).
The tulip in war and on war trophies
The Turks decorated their arms and armour', as well as other-
objects used in war, with flowers. War trophies make up an
important part of the Turkish works of art preser.ved in the
museums of Central Eulope. In these collections we find not
only objects needed directly for fighting, but also evidence
of the large amounts of equipment carried by the al'my:
bottles lor water made out of diffelent matel'ials, decorated
spoons, player-rugs, documents and ofcourse the Kolan.
And all these with tulips for their decolation. Even the
saddles of holses were covered with velvet woven in a
special form and with tulips in the design.3e
The helmet worn by the sultan is at times a masterpiece of
thejeweler's claft. A l6th-century helmet in the Topkapt
Palace Museurn has large golden tulips with precious stones
in the center.ao
The shields are often made of iron ol' coppel'. But there are
also many wicker shields with a metal boss for protection.
The osier branches al'e woven around this metal centel like a
basket. This part of the shield often beals floral decorations.
On exarnples from the 16th century, tulip motifs frequently
appear'. Interesting specimens may be seen in the Topkapt
Palace Museutn, as well as among the war tlophies in
different European museums.4l
Impelial tents al'e among the most interesting objects in
these collections. They are made of felt and are often
decorated in appliqué technique. In the collections of the
Military Museum of istanbul, the Topkapr Palace Museum
and many museums of Central Europe there are complete
tents or irnportant fragments. A tent in the Army Museum in
Ingolstadt (Germany) which was captured at the Battle of
75
Mohacs in 1687 is decorated with flowels including the
tulip. The flora1 compositions at'e very similar to those on
tiles. The design consists of a series of niches filled with
floral pattel'ns and an oval medallion in the center'. This
design is also comparable to the two prayel'-rugs of the
Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts discussed above. There
are similar tents in the Museum of Krakow in Poland; a
museum in Vienna has another example of a 17th-century
tent with tulip decorations.a2
Final word
The tulip oliginally set out fi'om Turkey and then returned
centuries later to its native land. Pelhaps more than any other
flowel it has entered the daily life of the people. The
gardenel, in the hope of going to heaven, planted tulips.
Turkish women embroidered tulips as a pastime or to earn
money. It was nearly the only way they had of expressing
their thoughts and leelings. Women knitted them on socks,
and produced fine flowels of lace work. Theil husbands,
brothers and fathers carried items decorated with tulips when
they went to war. By embroidering tulips women offeled up
a prayel' for the sale return of their" menfolk. It would
pelhaps be an easier task to list Tulkish works of art which
do not employ flolal decoration. In any case, reviewing the
wide-ranging decorative use to which flowers such as the
tulip were put, has given me a great pleasule.
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[Ardène, J.-P. de R. d'], 'Traité des Tulipes', Traité de la culture des
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plantrffum, ex Thracia vsque delatarum, in Rariorum aliquot
stirpium per Hispanias obseruatarum Historia, Antwerpen 1576,
509-528.
Clusius, C., Rariorvm Plantarvm Historia, Antwerpen 1601.
Clusius, C., Cvrae Posterior¿s I.../, Leiden 161 l.
Damme, A. van, Aantekeningen betreffende de geschiedenis der
bloembollen - Hctarlem 1899-1903, Leiden 1976. (Reprint of
articles in the Weekblad voor Bloembollencultuur, 1899-l'903.)
Dodoens (Dodonaeus), R., FIorum et Coronorívm Odorararvmque
Nonnvlanm Historia, AnÍwerpen 1568. (2nd edition 1569.)
Dijk, W. va:n, A Treatise on Tulí¡ts by Carolus Clusius of Arras,
Haarlem 195 1. (Translation, including cornmentary, of Clusius
r 601.)
Escluse, Ch. de l' (Carolus Clusius), in Valerius Cordus,
Annotationes in Pedacii Dioscoridis Anazorbei [...] Hic
accedunt: Stocc Homii et nessi in Bernatium Helvetiorum clitione
monîiutn & nascentium in eis stirpium Item Conradi Gesneri De
hortis Germaniae liber recens, una cum descripl¡one tulipae
Turcarum [...], Strasburg 1561.
Escluse, Ch. de l' (Carolus Clusius), Rarlorwn Plonxtrunr Historia,
Antwerpen 1601. (See also Dijk, W. van.)
Frefz,D., Conrad Gesner als Gärtner,Zûich 1948.
Gobelius, 5., Plantarum seustirpium Icones, Antwerpen 158 1.
(Reprinted 1591.) (Usually attributed to Lobelius.)
-77
Gtaft, C. v ande, A gne s B lock - Vo nde Is ttic ht e n vrie ndin, Ulrecht
1943.
Hall, A. D., The Genus Tulipa,Lond,on 1940.
Helmus, L. M., 'Drie contacten met zilversmeden', A. M. Koldewey
(ed.) Irt Buscoducis Kunst uit de Bourgondische tiid te's-
Hertogenbosch - De cultuur van late middeleeuwen en
renaissance - Bijdrzrgen, Maarssen & Den Haag 1990, 473- 481.
Hondius, P., Dapes inemptae, Of de Moufe'schans / drtt is, De
soeticheydt des bvyten-levens [ ... ] ,Leyden 1621.
Kaiser, W.-D. & R. R. Vetter, Na rzissus und Tulipan - Über alte
und neue Blumenzwiebeln, Stuttgart 1985.
Kampen (et fils), N. van,Traité desfleurs à oignons, Haarlem 1760.
(German edition Regensburg 1764.)
Krelage, 8.H., Bloemenspeculatie in Nederland De tulpomanie
van 1636-1637 en de hyacintenhandel 1720-36, Amsterdam
1942.
Krelage, 8.H. De patnfleÍten vãn de Tulpenwindhandel 1636-1637,
DenHaag 1942.
Krelage, 8.H., Drie eeuwen bloembollenexport - De geschiedenis
van den bloembollenhandel en der Hollandsche bloembollen tot
./938, Den Haag \946.
Levey, M., The World of Ottom.an Art, New York 1975.
Levi d'Ancona, M., The Garden of the Renaissance - Botanical
Symbolism in Itûlian Painting, Florence 1 977.
l.lartels,Z. R. M. W. von , Augerius Gislenius Busbecquius - Leven
en werk van de keizerlijke gez(tnt aan het hof van Süleyman de
Grote - Een biografische, literaire en historische studie met
editie van onuitgegeven teksten, Dissertation Groningen 1989.
Mourik, 8., Staatkundige Historie van Holland [...], XXXXVI,
Amsterdam 17-19, 100- 104.
Munting, A.,Waare Oeffening der Planten, Amsterdam 1672. (2nd
edition Leeuwarden I 682.)
Obel, M. de l' (Lobelius), Plant(trum seu Stirpíum Historia,
Antwerpen 1576.
Obel, M. de l' (Lobelius), Kruydtboeck ofi bescrryvinghe van
allerleye Ghewassen, Kruyderen, Hesteren ende Gheboomten
/... /, Antwerpen 1581. (See also Gobelius 1581/1591)
Oosten, H. van, De Neederlandsen Bloem-hof, Of de Naauw-
keurig,e Bloemist. Verhandeling Van de Culture cler Tulpen,
Neevens de wyze om die wel te kweeken, mitsgaders haare
Naanten, Verwen en Schoonheyt, naar de Fransche wyze.
(Verhandeling Van de Culture der Angelieren, Volgens de
behandeling der Franssen. De Nactuvv-keurige Hovenier,
Handelende van de Boomen en Boomgewassen, &c.
Verhandeling Van het voortktveken, en Culture der Límoen en
Oranje-boomen), Leiden 1700. (The different editions also differ
in compilation; 2nd edition Leiden 1703,7th edition Amsterdam
& Rotterdam 1792, English editions; The Dutch Gardener [...],
17 03, 71 I 1 ; German editions 11 06, \7 28, 1 75 1 ; French editions
1',7 14, 1121.)
Parkinson, J., Paradisi ìn Sole Paradisus Terrestris or A Gorden
ofall sorts ofpleasantflowers [.../, London 1629. (Facsimile
reprint Amsterdam 1 975.)
Passe (de Jonge) , C. de, Hortus Floridus [... ] Crispi Passi iunioris
deliniatae [...],4 pafts (seasons), Utrecht & Arnhem 1614, with
additions to the first part (Spring) until 1 6 1 7; Dutch edition: Den
Blomhof, I. . . /. The additions also include two short treatises:
Traicte compendieux et abrege des tvlipans et de levrs diverses
sortes & espeçes [... ] , and Necessaire instrument povr replanter
tovtes sortes de flevrs ovec vne facile & lres excellente maniere
de retirervnTulipanhors de îerre sansfaire dommage a lafleur.
(There is also a French and an English edition, the latest is from
1615. Thele are two facsimile prints ofthe English edition
published by E.S. Rohde, London 1928-29 and l9'74.)
Posthumus, N. W., 'The Tulip Mania in Holland in the Years 1636
and 1,63'Ì' , Jourtnl of Econotnic and Business History,I,4, 1929,
434-466.
 Roman, ,{., Sa¡rz en-spraeck / Tusschen Waerntondt Ende
Gaergoedt, Nopende opkonste ende ondergangh van Flora,
Haarlem I 637. Tweede Samen-spraeck / Tusschen Waerntondt
Ende Gaergoedt, Zijnde het ven,olgh Van den op ende
ondergangh van Flora, Haarlem I 637. Register Vande Prijzen
der Bloemen / Zijnde De Derde Samen-spraeck / Tusschen
Gaergoed ende Waermond, Inhoudende het vervolgh Van den Op
ende Onderganghvan FIora, Haarlem 1637. (2nd edition 1643;
3rdedition 1734.)
Sautijn Kluit, W. P., 'De tulpen- en hyacintenhandel', Handelingen
der Maotschappij der Nederlandsche Letterkunde over het jaar
I 866,3-7 t
Segal, S., 'Exotische bollen als statussymbolen' , Kutlstschrift -
Openbaar Kunstbezit,3, 1981 ,88-97 .
Segal, S., Tulips b¡, ,\¡1¡þ6ay Claesz 56 Seventeenth Century
Warercolour Drawings by Antony Claesz (ca. 1607/08 - 1649),
Maastricht 1987.
Segal, S., Flc¡wers arul Narure - Netherlandish Flower Painting of
Four Centuries, Den Haag 1990.
Solms-Laubach, H. Graf zu, Weizen und Tulpe und deren
G e s chic ht e, Leipzig I 899.
Stamm, G., Karlsruher Tulpenbuch Eine Handschrift der
B ctdis c he n kmde sb i b I i othek, Karlsruhe I 982.
Stork, A. L.,Tulipes sauvages et cultivées, Genève 1894.
Sweert, E., Florilegivm [...], FrankfuÍ am Main 1612. (Various
editions.)
Trcw, J., Hortus Nitidissimus [...], Nürnbelg 17 50-52.
Vallet, P., Le Jardin du Ro¡'Tres Chrestien Henry IV [...],Pùr's
I 608.
Visscher, R., Sinnepoppen, Amsterdam 1614. (Edited by L.
Brummel, Den Haag 1949.)
Walthern, G. C., Die Tulpe, zum Ruhm ilres SchöpJfers, uncl
Vergnügung edler Gentüther, bescltrieben von dem Ve(asser
clerer Gedancken über das reich derer Blum¿n, Dresden &
Leipzig 1741.
White, C., The Flower Dratvings of Jan van Huysum, Leigh-on-Sea
1964.
Zoller,H. & M. Steinmann, Conracli Gesneri Historia Plantarutn
[...] Nachlass von Conrad Gessner (l 5 I 6-] 565 ) in der
Un¡versitätsbibliothek Erlangen, 2 vols., Dietikon -Zürich 1987 -
1991.
ro Clusius (1601), 137 -152.
r r Vy'althern (11 41), 129-17 6.
Notes
Tulips portrayed. Tulip trade in Holland in the 17th century
r Most authors simply repeat what other authors wrote before them.
Among the more important and oÍiginal sources the publication
of Solms-Laubach ( I 899) should be mentioned. The publications
of Krelage are authoritative cornpilations. The non-specialist
publications do not always give correct information nor do they
necessarily analyse the material corectly. S. Schama's
controversial bookThe Entbarrassment of Riches An
hlterpreîetion of Dutclt Culture in the Golden Age (New York
1987) contains many inacculacies at least as far as the tulip mania
is concerned.
: There are various versions and countless editions ofFitzger.ald's
tlanlations. This translation is stanza no. 40 of his fifth version.
: Levey ( 1 975), 6l-62: ancl Maltels (1 989), 450.
+ Ibid.,69.
s Cf. Ibid., 449-450.
r The drawings are in the Universitätsbibliothek in El.langen, MS.
Inv.2386, F.220v andF.466r.Zoller & Steinmann (1991), II, 1S,
no. 22, described as Tulipa spec., is presumably the r.ed
'Kurdistanic fulip',Tulipa stapfü; this is the original dr.awing for
the woodcut of the 1561 publication. F.213r, I 10-l I l, no. 476,
Tulipa spec., is probably the yellow 'Wood Tulip', Talrya
sylvestris. In the album of watercolours of 1563 Kreutterbuchby
Johann Kentmann, in the Sächsischen Landesbibliothek in
Dresden, a yellow tulip appears with the natneTulipa turciccr.
This is presumably the just mentioned Tulipa sylvestris, cf .
Kaiser & Vetter (1985),7. I have not had rhe opporrunity to srudy
this album. Kentmann was in contact with Gesner.. The dr.awing
of the lirst tulip had been sent to Gesner before he had observed
fhe tulip hìmself. Prof, Dr. H. Zoller considers that the second
drawing together with those of a number of Mediteranean plants
by the same artist were sent to Gesner from Padua, Venice or
Bologna (letter dated 17-l-1992).
r Conrad Gesner in Valerius Cordus (1561) F.213-214, with the
illustration of the red tulip. That the illustration definitely is one
of the tulip growing in Augsburg is confirmed by Gesner's notes
of 1560, see Frerz (1948),294.
s Edition 1569,205 and20'7.
ç Lobelius (1581), 160-169. Presumably new marerial became
available after this text was written. The numbers froni the list are
written next to the woodcuts; one of these has the number 49.

r2 Var. = variety, ssp. = subspecies. After the scientific Latin name

(in italics) the 'author's' name is listed, that is the name of the
person who first published the valiety in question following
internationally accepted norms. The names of authors who had
another notion about its classification are inbrackets. Tulipa
chryscuttha is not described as a botanical 'species' but is
recognized in horticulture (hort.). For an attempt to attribute
botanical varieties to the tulips described by Clusius see DUk
(19s1).
r: Edition 1969,204.
r¿ Levi d' Ancon a (19'7 1 ), 390-39 1 . In the book of Hieronymus
Bosch a tulip has also been identified inconectly.
rs Segal (1990), 161, no. 13, 162,no.14, and 163, no. 15.
rc Ibid,., 162, no. 14D.
r: Edition 1581, 166, no. 16.
ra F.[5], F.5, F.8, no. I and Lentedeel F.27, respectively.
rs Cf. Damme (1916), 16-17 and 23; Krelage (1946),471-413.|n

78
 the N e de rlandsc h M a gazij n of I 838, I 5, a price as high as
I 3.000 was recorded for one bulb.
zo The spelling of the names is sometimes different in diffelent
sources, for instance Viceroy andViseroi.
:r Anonymous, Florilegium Artis Naturam Imiîantls, Bibliothèque
Royale Albert I, Brussel, inventory no. 350 A 173; also in Pieter
van Kouwenhoorn, Verzanteling van Bloenten naor cle Natuur
geteekend, Lindley Library, London, an album of drawings from
the same period.
22 Walthern (l'741), 44-45.
z: A number of distinguishing features are not visible or usable in
the watercolours; the lattel, for instance, is the case with the
leaves because the leaves were often painted separately from the
flowers.
u+ Trew (1750-17 52), no. 59.
:s Lobelius (1 576), 65; Lilio-Narcissus phoeniceus percuttoøus oris
luteis; ofLobelius (1581), 168; also in Clusius (1601), Sweert
(1612),F.9. no. 13, Passe (1614), Lentedeel,F.29;Tulipa Duris.
:o Price accordin g to the Derde Santen-spraeck, see Roman ( I 637);
for 1000 'aces' (48 grams) of Viceroy one could reckon to pay
f 6.700.
:r Helmus (1990),474.
:s Cornelis Danckerts III after Pieter Nolpe; see Segal ( I 990), no.
22, together with further details and bibliography.
r Crispyn de Passe the Younger in imitation of Hendrick Pot. Pot's
painting is in the Frans Halsmuseum in Haarlem.
¡o 124, modern edition (1987), 67-68.
:r Hondius (1621), 9\-92, and 241.
:z Stamm (1982).
r Segal (1987),94.
r+ Krelage (1942a),201-202, notes 60-73 and75-'77; numbered
from A to S.
a tulip book by Pieter Saenredam is
:s In the literature on the subject
erroneously mentioned (Bergström (1948),302, note 89). Thele
are however drawings of plants that are known to be by this
painter of architecture.
16 Graft (1943), 139 and Kun'srho¿k, 28, no. l0l.
¡r Graft (1943), 147 and Kunstbo¿k, 30, nos. 9-15.
:s White (1964), nos- 32-84.
Turkish tulips and delft flowerpots
r P. Biesboer (ed.), China - Delft Europa - Chinoiserie (exblb.
cat. Museum 'Het Prinsenhof'), Delft 1976, 9-15 andlT ff. See
also idem, 'De chinoiserie in Nederland', Antiek, 13,1978,99-
111 . (Erkelens, Delftse vaz.en). The audience toom of Het Loo has a
z See the Van der Burgh archive in the Stedelijk Museum 'Het
Prinsenhof', Delft (copies from the city archive), no. 923, I
November 1684, V, no. 80, 107, not. Philips de Bries.
¡ It concerns an inventory of valuables, furniture and paintings
partly in 'Huis ten Bosch', 'Huis in het Noordeinde' and the
castle of Turnhout: S. W. A. Drossaers and Th. H. Lunsingh
Scheurleer, lnventarissen van de inboedels in de verblijven van
de Oranjes en daarmede gelijk te stellen stukken, I 567'1795,'s-
Gravenhage, 191 4- 197 6, I (no. I 47), 250, no. 27 8.
¿ H. Havard, Catalogue des Failences de Delft, composont lo
collection de Mr. John F. Loudon, Paris 1877, 15,no.20 and2l
(fan-shaped); idem, Histoire de Ia Fat'ence de Deft, Amsterdam,
I 878, I 3, no. 8 (triumphal arch); I 80, no. XII (pyramids); 245,
nos. 200 and 101 (fan-shaped). See also idem, l¿¡ Céramique
Hollandaise, Histoire des Failences de Delft, Haarlent, Rotterckun
1.../,2 vols., Amsterdam 1909, I, 8, no.4 (triumphal alch); II,94,
nos.292 and 19 (fan-shaped). For the hyacinthomania see E. H.
Kre\age, Bloemenspecularie in Nederlutd, de tulpomartie van
I 636-37 en de hyacintltenhandel I 720-36, Amsterdam 1942, 142
ff.; and S. Schama, The Embarrassmenl of Riches, an
f Intery)returion of Dutclt Culture in the Golden Age, New York
1987,365.
s For a brief introduction see J. de Kleyn, 'Een paar piramiden in
Colonial Williamsburg (U.5.A.)', MededeIingenblctd Vrienden
van de Nerlerlandse Cerantiek,40, 1965, 15-21, 16; and D. F.
Lunsingh Scheurleer, Delft, N iede rltintlische Fa),ence, München
1984, 86 (Lunsingh Scheurleer,Fayenc¿). Both authors mention
'pyramids' or 'pagodas' in 'ancient archives'; The author of the
present article has only come across the mention of pyramids.
c Aelbrecht Keyzer (or De Keyzer), was bunied I I January 1667.
Havald's attributions have affected the determination of objects;
cf. H. H. Ressing, 'Delfts aardewerk in Zweden, een ceramiekreis
in de zomer van 1990', Mededelingenblad Neclerlandse
Vereniging van Vrienden van de Ceramiek, 143, l99l,27 .
r For a few exemples: J. S. Benall, A Historl, of p¡6vru
Atangemenr, London 1969 (ed. princ. 1953), l0-1 l, nos. l-3.
See also: A.Lane, Later Iskunic Pottery, Persicr, S1,ria, Eg¡,pt,
Tu rkey, London 1951,'7 3, no. 85 a.
s Berrall, op. cit.,25-26,nos.22-23: M. Archer', 'Pyramids and
Pagodes fol Flow ers', C o unt ry Life, I 59, 197 6,1 66-1 69, I 68, no.
6 (Archer, Pyramids); Lunsingh Scheut'leer,Fa.l,ence,86 and 163,
note 828.
q For the small ltalian vase see R. J. Challeston (ed.), Masterpieces
of Westem and Near Eastent Ceramics,8 vols., Tokyo 1979, V
(Italian Ceramics), 292, no. 107.
ro Antonio Guidobono ( 1605- I 685) or his son Baltolommeo
Guidobono (also called Guidoboni, I 657- I 709) See E.
Schlumbelger, 'Eloge de la Tulipièr'e', Connaissance cles Arts,
1960, 153-159, 154, 158, no. l4; H.-P. Fourest, Defis
aardewerk, Amsterdan 1981,21 (ed. princ., La Failence cle Delft,
Friboulg-Paris, 1980). About Guidobono see G.Batini, L'Amico
rle lla C e rami ca [... ], Firenze I 974, I 80 (Fioriera) ; and E.
Pichelkastner and E. Hölzl, B ruc kntcuttt' s Fcty e nc e - Le xikon,
München 1981,261.
r r For these spherical vases see F. T. Scholten, 'Delftse
'pitarnides", Mededelingenbl ad N ede rlandse Ve rení gin g vcut
Vrienden vcm de Cerqmiek,130-131, 1988. 47-51. 47 (Scholten,
Pirantkles), L. L. Lipski and M. Archer (eds.), Dated Englislt
D e l.ftwar e, Ti n- g lazed Eart he nw a re I 600- I 800, London, I 984,
1 2, 355, nos. I 564- I 565, 356, no. 156'7 . The numbers 1564-1565
are decorated with a cartouche, number 1567 with a Chinese
motif.
r: Erkelens points to the ceiling decoration in Mary's bedroom in
Het Loo, showing four straw baskets with flowers. See A. M. L. E.
Erkelens, "s Koninginnes Gonst, Delftse vazen van Mal'y Stuart
(1663-1695)' ,Antiek,23,1988, 88-92, 89-90, no.4 (cf. 88, no. 1)
tompe-l'oeil ceiling with floral garlands and garden vases with
flowers designed by Marot ( I 692). See also W. K. Zieleman,
'Een bloeiend verleden, koninklijke bloemsierkunst', Groei &
B Lo e i, 6, 1988, 24; and Berrall, o p. c i t., 25 and 29, no. 26.
r¡ Erkelens, Delftse vazen, 92, note 22: Algemeen Rijksarchief,
Nassausche Domeinen, Register-Generaal, 602, fol. 234; and
Zieleman art. cit.,22.
r+ C. S. Oldenbulger-Ebbers, 'Historisch onderzoek ten behoeve
van het opstellen van het beplantingsplan Museumtuin Paleis Het
Loo' , Groen,40,1984,246 and249. See also J. Dixon Hunt and
E. de Jong (eds.), 'The Anglo-Dutch Garden in the Age of
William and Mary' / 'De Gouden eeuw van de Hollandse
Tuinkunst', Journal ofGarden History,8, 1988, 2-3 (= exhib. cat.
Rijksmuseum Paleis 'Het Loct', Apeldoorn 1988) London-
Amsterdam 1988,288, cat. no. 139, no. IV.
rs P. Thornton, Seventeenth-Century- Interior Decoration ín
England, France & Holland, New Haven-London 1983,263-264,
3'7 , no. 43, and 404 (ed. princ. I 978).
re Drossaers and Lunsingh Scheurleer', op. cit.,7,233, nos. 1 188-
ll 9t.
79
 r? Th. H. Lunsingh Scheurleer (ed.), De Stadhouder-Koning en
Tijd,l650-1950, exhib. cat. Rijksmuseum, Amsrerdam 1950, 103-
I 04, cat. no. 43 I ; and M. Archer, 'Delft at Dyrham', Z/re
Nationa I Trust Year Book, I 97 5 - I 976, London I 975, I 2-l 8., 5,
1 is also obliged to buy the pottery already produced.
no.8 (Archer, Delft a¡ D¡,l.þa¡n); Thornton, op. cit.,266,no.253;
and Hunt and De Jong, op. cir.,294, cat. no. 147 .
rs V. Woldbye, Geyveven boeket,exhib. cat. Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam 1971,5-12.
rs Thornton, op. cit.,287 , nos.277-278; and S. Bursche, Tafelzier
rle s Ba rock, M ünchen I 91 4, nos. 23-26.
:o lbid.,49.
:r A.-Ch. Gluber, 'Les Décors de table éphérnères aux XVIIe et
XVIIIe siècles', Gnzette des BeauxAr¡s, LXXXIII, 116 (6th
series), 1914,296.
zz Erkelens, Delftse vazen,90-91. See also Thornton, op. cit., 103,
no. l0l, 176, 267,381,note 100; Drossaers and Lunsingh
Scheurleer, op. cit., I, 25'l , nos. 557 -559. The same inventory
mentions two crates with four large 'French bouquets' to be
placed on a bed (27 5, no. l0l7).
z: For pyramids see H. E. van Gelder, 'L'obelisque en majolique de
Delft', Faenat,36, 1950, 77;D.F. Lunsingh Scheurleer, Defrs
Blauw, Bussum l9'15,48 (Lunsingh Scheurleer, Delfts Blautv);
idem, Fayence,56; C. J. A. Jörg, Oosters porcelein / Delfts
aarcleyverk / Wisseltverkingen,Groningen 1983, cat. no. 33 (JöLg,
Oosters porcelein); and Br'.Tietzel, Fayence I, Niederlande,
Frcnkreiclt, England, Koln 1980, 147.
:¿ See also: M. Archer, 'Queen Mary's Delft' , Oude Kunst in de
Nieuwe Kerk, exhib. cat. Amsterdam 1983, 18-25, l9 (Alcher,
Queen Mory's Delft).
zs Berrall, op. cir.,72-73, no. 85 (Hollar). For the painting by
Emanuel de Witte see Thornton, op. cit.,265,224,no.XIII.
ro S. Donahue Kuretsky,'Hetschilderen van bloemen in de lTde
eeuw, Flora & Pictura, bloemen en schilders in de lTde eeuw',
Kwtstschrift,3l , 198'7 ,85-86, no. 3.
ur S. Segal,A Prosperous Past, rhe Sumptuous Still Life in the
Netherku'tds 1600-1700, Den Haag 1988, 109, 235,no.23.
:r For these llou'er vases 75 cm in height (ca. I 700), preserved in
the Musée de la Chartreuse in Douai (France), see Erkelens,
Delftse va7en,90-9 I , no. 6; Fourest, op. cit., 50, no. 36. Hunt and
de Jong, op. cit.,297, no. 150; Lunsingh Scheurleer, Fayence, Sg-
90; and Scholten , Piramitles,49-50, no. 4.
:e Archer, Pyramids, 168-169, nos. 7-8; and Hunt and De Jong, op.
cit.,314-315, no. 11 L
:o Krelage, op. cit., 691, and Erkelens, D¿ lftse vazen, 90.
¡r De Mol van Oud Loosdlecht, 'Oude tulpen in oude vazen' , Oud
Nederkmrl, 4, 1950, 165-112.
t Ibid., 171-112. Cf. A. Lane, 'Daniel Marot, Designer of Delft
Vases and of Gardens at Hampton Court', The Connoisseur,
1949, 19-24,21 (Lane, Marot).
:: See for examples of the denial of the functionality De Kleyn, arr.
cit.,16-111' De Mol van Oud Loosdrecht, art. cit., 172; and
Lunsingh Scheurleer, Fayence,89 and 164, note 870.
:¿ For an l8th-century description ofthe production process see
Genit Paape, De plateelbakker of Delftsch aardetverkmaaker,
Dordrecht 1794.
:s It concerns two pyramids (De Grieksche A: AK, ca. 1690- 1700),
I 30cm in height, Gloucestershire, The Blathwayt Collection,
Dyrham Park (National Trust). See Archer, Delft at Djrhatn, 12-
14, no. l; Hunt and De Jong, op. cit.,296, no. 149,308-309, no.
165; and G. Jackson-Stops, The Treasure Houses ofBritain, Flv¿
Hundred Years o;f Private Potronage and Art Collecting,
Washington-New Haven-London 1985, 11 2- I 7 3, no. 104.
:o Archer, Queen Mary's Delft, 19; Iacob Stodel, De Glorie van
Delft, 125 jaar Stodel, (Salomon Stodel), Amsterdam,l984; and
M. E. W. Goosens, BIue Delftware, 1680-1720, (Salomon
S tode I ), Amsterdam 197 9, 20.
:r See the Van der Burgh archive in the Stedelijk Museum 'Het
Zijn Prinsenhof', Delft (copies from the city alchive), no. 930, l9
Nov. I 686, VII, no 98, I 08, not. Philips de Bries. In rhis documenr
concerning the sale of De Grieksche A to Adriaen Cocx, the latter
¡s For Pieter Adriaensz. Kocks' tlademark see E. Neurdenburg,
'Niet Adriaen Pijnacker maar Pieter Adriaansz Kocks en diens
weduwe in de 'Griekse A' te Delft', Oudheidkurtdig Jaarboek,
12, 1943,3 1-33. After Pieter Adriaensz Kocks death in I 703 his
widow, Johanna Kocks-van der Heul, continued to employ the
trademark until I'122. See also Archer, Delft at Dyrham, 13.
:q E. Neurdenburg, Oude Nederlandse Majolica en Tegels / Delftsch
Aa rdev e rk, Amsterdam 1943, 53J 6.
ro Archer, Queen Mary's Delft, 19. The author comes to the same
conclusion in his unpublished master thesis 'Deffie Porcelijne'
1.../, Delft 1990.
+r J. Wilson, 'A Phenomenon of Taste: the China Ware of Queen
Mary II', Apollo,96 1912, 116- I 19. Wilson based his
conclusions mainly on A. Lane, 'Queen Mary II's Porcelain
Collection at Hampton Court' , Trutsactiotts of the Oriental
Ceramic Society, 25, 1949 - 1950, 2l-3 I (Lane, H ampton Court).
See also China und Europa, Chinaverstiindnis und Chinunode int
17. und 18. Jahrhundert, exhib. cat. Schloss Charlottenburg,
Bellin, 1973,39.
rr Erkelens, D e lfts e v o ze n, 92; Lane, H a ntpt on C ou rt, 24; Biesboer,
op. cit.,24. Marot probably designed for Mary the 'Indian
Cabinet' in Honselaersdijk whele for the first time in the
Netherlands minors were employed on a large scale. The source
for this practice is probably the 'Cabinet du Dauphin' in
Versailles. See A. M. L. E. Erkelens, 'Delfts aaldewerk op Het
Loo' , Neclerlonds Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek, 31, I 980, Haarlem
1981,263-212,210-272, note 23 (Erkelens, Het Loo); and S.
Hafiog Enkele indrukken van Nederlandse porseleinkanrcrs en
verzatnelingen vcm cle zeventiende tot begin achftientle eewv
(unpublished master thesis), Leiden 1986, 37.
¿¡ A. M. L. E. Erkelens, 'In Willem en Mary's Huis', Antiek, l4-15,
1979-1980, 433445,444,.suggests a relation between Mar.ot and
the De Grieksche  factory, in Adliacn Kocks pcriod. See also
Elkelens, Het Lc¡o, 268-21 1.
¿+ For Marot see M. D. Oztnga, Dutiël Marot, de schepper van tlen
Hollnndschen Lodewijk XIV-stijl, Amsterdam 1938; and P.
Jessen, Das Ornantentyverk des Dutiël Marot, Bellin 1892.
+s Erkelens, Het Loo,263 ff.; idem, Delftse vazen,88 ff .
¿a Erkelens, 11¿¡ Loo,266-267; J.F. van Someren (ed.), 'Journal of
Dagverhaal, van een Plaisir Reisje, van Groningen na Kleef, in
1740 door P. Muntinghe en A.H.W. de Vriese.....', D¿
Navorscher,45 (second series, 28), 1895, 366. Drossaers and
Lunsingh Scheurleer, op. cit., I (no. 147),65 8, nos. 285-296, 659,
nos. 297-305,685, no. 1018. Erkelens, Delftse vazen,91.
+: This does not concern Mary's collection, which was donated to
Arnold Joost van Keppel, Duke of Albemarle ( I 669- 7 I 2). See 1
Archer, Pyrantids, 169 (Archer mentions George Monck, Duke of
Albemarle); Erkelens, Het Loo,270; and Wilson, art. cit., 122-
123. Wilson discusses the Kensington Hoì"rse Collection which
was given to Van Keppel on 24 Novembel 1 699.
+s Drossaers andLunsingh Scheurleer, op. cit.,I(no. 147), 453, 464,
nos. 23 5 -237, 4'1 0, no. 42'7, 41 6, no. 592- 593 and 608-609, and
411 , no. 627 .
¿q Ibid., I, 466-46'1, nos. 323 and325-335;Hartog, op. cit.,35-36.
Lane, Hünpton Court, 25, no. 6; Scholten, Piramides, 50,.
Wilson, ¿rt. cit.,116-117, no.l; and G. Upmark, 'Ein Besuch in
Holland 1687, aus den Reiseschilderungen des schwedischen
Architecten Nicodemus Tessin d.J.', Oud Holland,lS, 1900, 146.
so Scholten, P i rcuni de s, 47 -48; and Upmark, art. c i t.,l 52.
sr Elkelens, Deftse va1en,97; Thornton, op. cit.,266; andDe
Kleyn, art. cit.,17.
sz For the Douai vases see note 28; and Erkelens, Delftse vazen,
90-9 l .
80
53 Lane, Marot,19 ff.; idem, Hamptort Court,26-281' idenl, 'Delftse
tegels uit Hampton Court en Daniel Marot's werkzaamheid
aldaar' , Bulletin wut het Rijksnutsetun,'/,1959, 12 2l (Lane,
Delftse tegelS); Wilson, r¡¡¡. cit.,ll9-l2l and I. C. E. Peelen,
'Versieringen op tegels naar ontwerpen van Daniël Marot',
Ourlheitlkundig Jaarboek, s.l. 1923, 160 f|.
¡¿ Middlesex, Hampton Court Palace (The Royal Collection): two
obelisks on an uln-shaped base (ca. 100 cm in height), two ut'ns
with a lid (ca. I00 cm in height) and two hexagonal pyramids
(145 crn in height). See Erkelens, Het Loo,268, no.6; Fourest,
o p. c i t.,44, nos. 21 -28, 42-43, no. 26i Lane, M cu'ot, I 9, nos. I-III,
and 23, rro. XV; Lane, Delftse tegels, 1 3, 1 7, no. 6; Lunsingh
Scheurleer,F¿.y¿ nce, 88-89,26 1 , nos. 209 ancl 210a,263, no.21 l:
G. Mellor, 'Dutch Delft l, Country Li;fe,58,1925,923-926,923,
no.2,924, no.8, and 925;and Schlurnberger', art. cit.,156,no.6'
ss Archer, Qtreen M or¡" s D elft, 191, Archer, P¡'ramids, I 69; Lane,
Marot,20;Lane, Delftse tegels, 13 I. C. Goodison, 'Dutch Delft
pr-rrchased by Queen Mary' , Cowttry Life,59,1926,67. Another
trace forms the Calendal of Tteasury Books. On 5 ApLil I695 the
following delively is mentioned: '[...] to Sir ChLìstopher Wren a
chest containing 600 tiles paìnted according to a pattern sent to
Holland by the late Queen's directions, to supply such as were
fallen flom the bolders undel the hangings in the Palace of
Gre enwich'. See Archer, P),ramids,169.
sc Archer, P),rantids,166 and 169, states that the absense of
depicted llowervases is due to the fact that they gained popularity
only in England. The f'ew vases on the continent were in his
opinion sent flon.r England by cor.rrtiels, such as the Duke of
Albemafle who no doubt sent a part of his collection to The
Haque. Archel published his alticle before the excavations of Het
Loo had started @fter 1977). See Erkelens, Het Lt¡o,210-27 l:
Sclrolten, Piramitles,4S and 51, note 8.
¡z Wilson, art. cit.,l22; Atcher, Del;ft at Dyrlnn, 131,Lane,
Hampton Court,2l-22.Tietzel, op. cit., 145. Tietzel even
assumes that Mary herself invented the flowerpots.
ss Derbyshire, Chatswot'th (The Trustees of the Chatsworth
Settlement). Exenples are a spherical vase on a base (De
Glieksche A: AK) (see Archer, P),rantids, 166-167 , no. l; Hunt
and De Jong, op. cit.,309, nos. I 66 and XVIb; Jackson-Stops, op.
cit.,l'/2, no. 103; Lane, Marot,20-21, no. Vi; F. T. Scholten,
'Een Delftse wijnkan van de faiencebakker Adriaen Kocks',
Antiek, 18, 1983,247-251,249,251 , no. 4) and four pyranids
(De Grieksche A: AK) (see Archer, Pyrantids, 167 , no.3, 169,
no. 9).
sq K.-M. Walton, 'An Inventory of 17l0 flom Dyrham Park', Il¿
Jountcl of the Funtitm'e Hislot'¡' Society,22,1986,25-80., 55 (1),
s6 (6-'/), s8 (12-15 and l9), 59 (23,26'28),61(30,32,34-35); on
page 7 I another couple of'Flower potts' is indicated. (the
numbels between brackets refer to Walton's plan). See also
Archer, Delft at Dyrham, 12ff .; and Tietzel, op. cit.,l45'
Lunsingh Scheut'leer's assumption that the flowerpots were
purely decot'ative objects, is at least premature. See Lunsingh
Scheurleer', Fa¡'ence, 89.
ro Van Gelder, art. cit.,JJ ff., nos. XXIIa-XXIIb. Van Gelder
sìiggests that the flowerpots could have been inspired by pagodas
as well. See also Goosens, op. cit., 12-13, no. 5; Lunsingh
Scheurleer, Fayence, 56-57; SchlumbergeÍ, út't. c¡¡., 155; and
Tietzel, op. cit., l4'7-148.
ar This implies that the obelisk was used as a decorative element
throrÌghout the century. See Drossaers and Lunsingh Scheurleel',
op. c it., I (no. I 47), 203, no. 5 12, 207, no. 612, 208, nos. 633 and
644,209, nos. 652, 665 and 668.
a: Scholten, Pi¡znùdes, 5l,note 8. Inventory of the Estate Nienoold:
Rijksarchief Groningen, Huisarchief Nienoord l'7 37, no. 825, 29:.
4.
o¡ Sclrolten, Pirunitles,49; Schlumberger, art. cit.,l55',Bursche,
o p. cit., 48 and 7 I, nos. 22 and 2'7 ; Gruber, arr. c i t., 293 -296; ar¡d
81
Drossaers and Lunsìngh Scheurleer, op. cit.,II (no. 148), 196, no.
1225,320, no.20l.
or Scholten, Piranùdes,48-49. For exarnple, the tomb olWillem de
Zwijger in the Nieuwe Kerk in Delft ( 1623) is decofated with
obelisks.
o.s Fol triunrplral processions see D. P. Snoep, Protrl tntl
Proptrgurlrr, Triuntpltalia in de Noordelijke Neclerlattdett itt cle
16de and lTcle eeuw, Alphen a.d. Rìjn 1975,9l ff. See also R. W.
Chr'. Dessing, Kortirtg-statlltouder Willem III Tríonfutor,Den
Haag I 988. Goosens indicates the relation between this kind of
flower vase and tliunphal arches. See Goosens, op. cit.,44-45,
cat. no.3l.
66 Cesale Ripa, Icortologia rl tt¡,tbeeld'rtglte des verstrtttcls, Soe'st
197 l, 440-441 (ed. princ. Amsterdam l644); and Scholten,
Piranüdes,49,no.3, and 51, note 14.
cr Nieuliof belonged to the delegation lecl by Jacob de Keyset and
Pieter de Goyer, that was received I 7 Jr"rly 1656 at the Peking
inperial court. See Biesboer, op. cit., l01' and Cltítttt tuttl Euro¡,tt,
I 58. See also C. J. A. Jörg, 'De pagode van Paolinxi and ander
Chinees export ivoor', Antiek,24, 1989,530-531, no. 1.
aa For a pagoda depicted on a tile see A. Berendsen, Elseviers
Tegelboek,Amstet'dam-Brussel 1965, 142-143.
os Biesboer, op. cit.,l0. Scholten, Piranùtle.s,49-50.
ro An incornplete delft-ware oliginal (late l7th. century, De
Grieksche A: AK) is in the Museum für Kunst ttnd Gewerbe,
Hamburg. The Chinese copies are not ol the same quality as the
delft originals; some details have been changed, but the
traden.ìark is well irnitated. See M. de Visser, 'A Delfì and a
Chinese vase rnarked AK', Burlington Magazirte,53 1928,312
fT., 317, no. B. The Nedellands Keramiek Museum 'Het
Princessehof' (Leeuwarden) has two Chinese copies in its
collection; another pair is in the collection of the Mttseum voor'
Stad en Land, (Groningen). See Jörg, Iör'g, Oosters porcelein, tto.
33; C. J. A. Jör'g, húeructiort in Certunics, Oriental Porceluitt &
Delfttt'ore, exhib. cat. Museum of Afi, Hongkong 1984, 76 and
77, no. 33 Schlur.nbet'ger, art. cit., I55; and De Visser, ¿r'¡. cl¡.,
312, no. A.
r Scholten, Pircunitles,50. Scholten l'efers to an acctllnttlation of
polcelein in Honselaersdijk, as desclibed by Tessin.
r: Fol'the history of Tr"rrco-Dutch relations see H. Theunissen, A.
Abelmann and W. Meulenkamp (eds.), Tnpkapr & Turkortttutie,
Arnsteldam 1989.
¡ A. C. A. W. van der Feltz, 'Belanglijke meubelen uit het tijdperk
van Stadhouder Koning Willem lII, in de Stichting 'Hannema-de
Steurs Fundatie' , Antiek,13,1919,397 ff.; and E. Elzenga (ed.),
Het Witte Loo, Vnn Lodex,ijk Napoleotl rd Wilhelmina 1806-
l962,exhil't. cat. Riiksmuseum Paleis Het Loo, Apeldoorn 1992,
ts9,t64.
r+ Alcher, Plrcunicls, 167. Archer assumes drat the ìntelest fbr this
kind of pottery did not last morc than two decades, lron loughly
1688 to 1710.
z: These flowerpots are in the collection of the Harlìnger Aaldewerk
Museurn (Collection Van den Akker'), Hallingen. The objects
under discussion are a heart-shaped fan with five spouts (ca.
1770, decolation by Gatse Sietses, Makkum) and a comparable
one with nine spouts (ca. 1750, made in Bolsward).
ro Lunsingh Scheurleer, Fayence, 87 and 163, note 840; Archer,
P),rantids,168.
;r Modern tulip vases were exhibited by Marijke Gérnessy of
Galerie Westeinde in The Haque: 'De tulpenvaas in ere liersteld'
( I 989). See H. Oort-Dengerink, 'Tulpenvazen aan het
Westeinde', Keranùek, I , 1989, I 2- I 3. Other exhibitiÕlìs were
'De tulpenvaas in ere helsteld' in Arcen ( I 99 1 ); The Dutch
Pavillion, World Exhibition Sevilla ( 1 992) and 'Moderne
Tulpenvazen' in the Stedelijk Museut.t.t 'Het Prinsenhof', Delft
(1992).
zs Sclrolten, P i rmnitle s, 5O-5 l.
 Tulips, Turks and tiles
r K. Pool, 'Turkse en Nedellandse ker.amiek: 'iznik' en 'Nieuw
Delfts Driekleulen", H. Theunissen, A. Abelmann and W.
Meulenkarnp (eds.), Topkapr & Turkontcmie,Amsterdam 1989,
107 -1 t] .
: A. Berendsen, Elseviers tegelboek, Amsterdam 1964,36.
: O. Wijands, 'Tulpen naar Amstel.dam: plantenverkeef tussen
Nedelland en Turkije', H. Theunissen, A. Abelmann and W.
Meulenkamp (ed,s.), Topkap & Turkontcmie,Amster.dam 1989,
91-t06.
¿ B. Haak, Tlte GoldenAge, London 1984, 118, no.2l8.
s S. Schama, Tlte Entbarrassntent ofRiches, New York 1987,355,
no.159.
o A. Brouwer-Bl'and, 'Bloemtegels in de l7e eeow',Tegel,19,
199t, t3-34.
; J. D. van Dam, 'Het ornament op Nederlandse tegels 1560-1625',
Tege l, 12, 1984,2-27 .
r D. Kolf, Tegels,Haarlen 1979.
q G. J. M. de Ree, 'Een bijzondere tegel',Tegel, 17,1989,10-ll.
ro R. Marggraf, Niederländi.çclrc Wantlfliessen in
Norrlwestdeutscltland,Osnabrúck 1984, l6-18, no. XIV. See also
P. F. Knochenhauer, N iede rlcind ische F liesen-O nutntente. Berlin
I 886 (repr. Hannover I 988), VI, no. 2 and VII, no. I .
r r C. van Sabben and J. HoIlen, Antieke Zagels, Rockanje I 987,
136,no.425.
r: C. H. de Jonge, Nederlandse tegels, Au.rsteldam 1971, nos. 3l
and 3la.
r¡ J. Jansen, 'Prent en tegel; Een beschouwing over een drietal
tegels, waarvool het boekje'Dracht Thoneel' van Zachaias
Heyns (Amsterdam l 60 l ) model heeft gest aan', Te g e l, 1 9, 199
38-42.
r+ D. F. Lunsingh Scheurleer, 'Tegels met zeventiende eeuwse
Oranjevorsten', A nti ek, lil, 6, 1969, 321 -336.
rs J. van Loo, 'Over wederdopels en klein-for.rnaat portrettegels',
Tegel,10,1982,2-l l. See also G. de Goederen, 'In duysenr
vreesen', Vrienden van de Nederlandse cerruniek,2T , 1962, l4-24.
ro This tile is fegarded to be a portrait of Sultan Süleyman the
Magnificent. Cf . Collectíe G. tle Goetleren, Exhib. Cat. Steclelijk
Museum De Lakenhal, Leiden s.a., 6. A sonrce for the portraits of
sultans has been J.-J. Boissard's (1533-1598) Viroe et lcones
Stthcutorum Turcicorwn, Principum Persctrum [... ],Frankfurt
1596.
n Nicolas de Nicolay, De schipvoert ende rvsen gedaen int landt
van Turke¡,en [ ... /, Antwerpen 1576.
rs M. Roding, "Die met dit zoot't van volk wil verkeeren...', het
beeld van de Turk in de Nederlandse grafiek (1450-1900)', H.
Theunissen, A. Abelmann and W. Meulenkamp (eds.), Topkapt &
TLrrkonurni e, Amsterdam I989, 1 l.
p R. Marggraf, 'Nederlandse siettegels inPofiugal' , Arylegos
gisteren en vcutclctcrg, Blussel 1991, 3l-36.
uo Ibid., 3l-36.
See also J. M. dos Santos Simoês, Carreaux
céranùques Holltrnduis au Portugal er en Espctgne, Den Haag
19s9.
zr H. van Lemmen, Delfttvare Zlles, Aylesbury 1986,26.
The tulip in istanbul during the Ottoman period
r T. Baytop and B. Mathew, The Bulbous PkutÍs of Turke\',London
1984, 1 and 100 (Baytop, P/anrs).
: Ibid.,1.
z Ibid.,2.
t Ibid.,2.
s lbid., l.
o A. Refik (Altrnay), Onbirinci asr-t hicrî'de istcutbul hayott
( I 592- I 688), istanbul I 988, 3.
7 Baytop, Phnts,4.
r Ibid.,1.
s Z. R. W. M. von Martels, Augerius Gislenius Busberluius. Leven
en werk vot de keizerlijke gezant oan het hofvcut Síilel,mon de
Gro¡¿, Dissertation Groningen 1989, 449-452.
r0 E. S. Forster, Tlte Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq,
Oxford,1927,24.
r Martels. op. cir..449-452.
r: C. Schefer, Jountal d'Antoine Gallantl penrkutt sort séjour à
Constcrntittople ( I 672- I 673 ), Paris I 88 I , 70.
r: T. Baytop, 'The Genus Tulipa in Europe anTttrkey' , Journal of
Íhe Facul\, of P|tamncy Istotlbul,XI, 1975,67;idem, Plants,
100; and W. Marais, 'Tulipa L', P.H. Davis (ed,.), FIora of Turkey
rutcl the Eost Aegean Islancls, Edinburgh I 984, VIII, 302.
r+ Nuluosmaniye Library, MS. 355114011: Ali Çelebi, çükûfenante-í
M u s avv e r (istanbul I 667) ; Ali Emiri Efendi Library, MS. I 74:
$eyh Mehmed Lãleza:{, Mizcutü 't-Ezhar (istanbul ca. l'703-
1730; Ali Erniri Efendi Library, MS. 157 and li2: Mehrned
Remzî, Goncat Lâlerurt Ba!-t Kodin iistanbul I 703); and Ali
Emiri Efendi Library, MS. 162: Mehmed b. Ahmed Ubeydî,
N e t af i¿ ¡' l - Ez.ha r (istanbul 1 699).
r: $eyh Mehmed Lãlezarî, M i zct it'l-A¿l¡¿i. ( istanbul ca. I 703-
t t
1730),F.4-7 .
rc $eyh Mehmed Lãlezafi, Mizanü 'l-Ezhar (istanbul ca. lj03-
t730),F.12-15.
n H. F. von Diez , Tulpen uncl Nat'cissen-Bau in der Turke,,, uus tlem
Türkisclrcn des Scheiclt Mulnntnted Lalézari, Halle-Berlin 1 8 15.
rs W. S. Mumay, 'The Introduction of the Tulip, and the Tulipornania',
Journal of the Royal HorricLthural Society, XXXV, 18, London.
rq Ali Emiri Efendi Library, MS. 162: Mehmed b. Ahmed Ubeydî,
1, Neta¡ti¿¡ 'l-Ezhar (istanbul 1699),F.1 .
2o Baytop, Pkuts,3.
: r M. H. Hoog, 'On the Origin of Tulipa' , Lilies tutd other Lilittceae
Year Book,London 1973,41 .
:: T. Baytop, 'Osmanh lãlesi', Líile, i, 5, 1987, 6 (Baytop, Osntanlt
liìlesi)
¡ Ibid.,7-8.
r lbid.,8.
¡ Ali Emili Efendi Liblary, MS. 162: Mehmed b. Ahmecl Ubeydî,
Nerq,icü 't-Ezhar (Ïstanbt I I 699), F.6- I 07.
zo C. Rüqdî, 'Sultan Mehmed-i Râbi' devr.inde çiçek enctimen-i
dãniçi', Edebiyar-t Unrutniye Mecntuau,I,3, 1911,69; Ali Emiri
Efendi Library, MS. 157 and I'/2: Mehmed Retnzî, Gonca-t
Líilezart Balt Kculim (istanbul 1703), F.8. Rüçdî, arr. clr., 69;
and S. Ünver, 'The Histoty of Tulips in Turkey', The Daffodil
cutrl Tulip Year Book, London I 968, 46.
:r M. M. Aktepe, 'Damad ibrahim Paça devrindelãle',Tctrih
Dergisi,IY,7, 1952,7 ;V, 8, 1953, 85; VI, 9, 1954,23 (Aktepe,
Lâle); idem,'Damad ibrahim Paça devrinde lâle'ye dair bir
v estka', Tü rkiy at M e cn tuct s r, XI, |95 4, 1 I 5 (Aktepe, Vesrkn);
B ay fop, O s nn nl t Iâl e s i, 3 ; and îdem, i s t cutb u I I â I e s i, Ankar a
1992, 4-1 0, (Baytop, i sxutbul tâlesi).
:s Baytop, Osntanh líìlesi, 4: idem, Ìsmnbul lâlesi, 4; ünver, art.
cit., 46; and Ali Emiri Efendi Library, MS. Ió2: Mehrned b.
Ahrned Ubeydî, Neîqticij 'l-Eztlar listanbul 1 699.¡, F.6- 107.
zr Nurnosrnaniye Libraly, }i4S.3551/4077: Ali Çelebi, Sükíifenante-i
M us cu¡v e r (isÍanbul I 667), F.52-54.
:o E. H. Ayverdi,XVill. ctstrda 1ri1e. istenbul 1950, 6; and Baytop,
istanbut lâlesi, 4.
:r Thlee of the illustrations are signed with the name Mehmed.
r. Bayfop, istrutbut lâlesi,4-10.
:: Refik, o p. c i t., 20 ; Aktepe, IÅ I e, 85 ; idem, Ve s i kcr, I I 8; and,
Cevdet Paça, Tarih, istanbtl 1 853, I, 41.
:+ Aktepe, Iiile,95; and idem, Vesika, ll8.
:s Baytop, lsranbut tâtesi,7.
:o F. Bayramoflu,TLtrkislt Glass Art rutd Beyl¡67Ware, istanbul
1976,14.
82
Tulips in Ottoman Turkish culture and art
r Topkapr Palace Liblary, MS. H.425, F.3v-4r, and elsewhele.
z There are different handwritten copies olthese books, e.g. in the
istanbul University Library, MS. T. 3923; Topkapr Palace
Library, MS. H.425; and Nuruosmaniye Lìbrary, MS. 3704.
: Topkapi Palace Liblary, MS. H. 425, F.6v-8v; and Topkapt
Palace Library, MS. H. 2365, F.2v.
r B. Kellner-Heinkele and D. Rohwedder (ed.),Türkische Ktutst
und Kultur aus osnrcuùsclter Zeit,2 vols., Recklinghausen 1985,
II,57, no. l/17 (Kellner-Heinkele and Rohwedder (ed.),
Türkische Kunst)', andN. Atasoy an<i J. Raby, iztik sertnttikleri,
London 1989,35,no.12.
s For more inlormation on the Sunnnte see N. Atasoy and F.
Çafrnan, Turki sh M in iatut'e P aintin g, istanbul 197 4, 39 -42.
o istanbul University Libraly, MS. T.5964: Matlakçr Nasuh,
Be¡,an-t Menazil-í Sefer-i lrakeyn-i Sultan Süle1'nnn Hcut,F.19r,
F.19v, and F.l09r'. A facsirnile edition of the manusct'ipt, edited
by H. G. Yurdaydtn was published in Ankara in 1976.
r Y. Demiriz, Osmanlr kitap sanatutda narurúlist üslupto çíçekler,
ÌstanbLrl 1 986, 1 12, no. I I (Derniliz, Ç i ç e kl e r).
I ldem, 'Birçiçek risalesinin Topkapr Sarayr Kütüphanesi ve
Münchner Stadtmuseum'daki da!rlmrç bölümleri hakktnda',
Atatürk'e Arnnþ¿n, Ístanbul 1981, 381-406.
e For a complete description ol the book see E. H. Ayverdi, X111.
astrda lâle, istanbul 1950; and T. Baytop, lstnttbul lâlesi, Ankan
1992.
ro Y. Petsopottlo s (ed.), T u li p s, A ro be s q ue s a rrl Tu rbtut s,
1982, 142, and no. 1 47.
n E. Atrl, Tlrc Age of Sulton Süleynrun tlte Magnifícertt, New York
1987 , 68-69, no.26.
n For some examples see G. Ünver, 'Tiirk sltn'atlrìda vazolu ve
vazosuz çiçek dernetleri', V akfl a r D e r g i s i, IX, l9l 1, 321 -325.
r¡ A. S. Ünvel and G. Mesara, Türk ince o¡tna scuuttr 'kaat't',
Ankara I 980, 36, nos. 3, 9, 16-19,24-25, and 29 (not nurnbered).
r+ N. Titley, Plants and Gartlens in Persian, Mughal anrl Turkislt
A¡¡, London 1979,33-34, no. l9; Kcllncr-Hcinl<clc and
Rohwedder' (ed.),Türkische Kunst,II, 12l, nos. I/106 a-d; G.
l.lesüa,Tärk sanatmda ince kâltÍ o)'ì1loctltÈI (Katt'), Ankan
1991, nos. 33-34; and Atrl, op.cir., 108, no. 49.
rs For a list of the different plants in this manuscript see Demiliz,
Çiçekler, 168-180, nos. 104-l 14. For some very similar
unfinished patterns prepared for such a book see Kellner-
Heinkele and Rohwedder (ed.),Türkische Kans¡, II, I 18, no.
t /104.
ro For more information see M. U. Det'man, Türk sonatutrkr ebrû,
istanbul 1977,46,53, and 55.
r; Demiriz, Çiçekler,64-65, nos. 36-37.
rs Ibid.,66, nos.38-39; and Atrl, op.clr.,58-60, no. 18a.
rs Ibid.,60-61, no. 19.
¡ Ibid.,38-39, no. l.
zr For these and other examples of arjizs see A. Nadir, Ostncutlt
padiçahferntonlan (lmperial Ottontan Fennans),London 1986.
:: In F. Dayrgil, 'istanbul çinilerinde lãle' ,Vakflar Dergisl, I, 1938,
83-90; and II, 1942,232-230. A great nutnber of different tulips
are designed on the tiles.
r Atrl, op.c ít., 21 8-27 9, no. 207.
:r Atasoy and Raby, op.cit., no.361 .
¡ An exhibition of Ìznik ceramics brought together many of the
most important ceramics of the Íznik workshops. For a complete
catalogue containing numerous examples of tulip vases and tulip
decoration see Atasoy and Raby, op.cir.
rc Formerly in the Ayveldi Collection (istanbul), now in the De
Beldel Collection (Belgium). For an illustration see Ayverdi,
o ¡t. c i t. (not numbered).
,r Ü. Canav, Türkí¡'e çiçe ve Ccnt Fabrikalart A. .$. cam eserler
koleksil,ortu, istanbul 1985, I 33. For the miniatìire see
F. Baylamoflu, Turkish Gkss Art and Beykoz-War¿, istanbul
1976,4; and, Atasoy and Raby, op. cl¡., 35, no. 14.
:s Bayranrollu, op.cit., 14-16.
:s Canav, op.cit.,l03.
:o For a detailed study ofthe rürbe and its decoration see Y.
Demiriz, 'Piyale Paqa türbesi ve lahitleli üzerine bir ara-çhrma',
Vakrflar Dergisi, XIII, 198 I , 387 -4231and idem, 'Das Piyale
Paça Mausoleum und seine dekolierten Sarkophage', Ars
Turcica, Akten des VI. intentationalen Kongresses für türkisclte
K¿¿ns¡ (München 1979), München 1988, 197-200.
rr g. Yetkin, Historical Turkish Carpets.istanbul 1981, nos. 64 and
67; and J. M. Rogels and R. M. Wañ,, Sclttitze ctus dent Topkapr
Serail. Das Zeitalter Sülq,ntan des Prtichtigert, Berlin 1988, 200,
nos. I 32 and I 33.
:: $. Yetkin, 'Zwei türkische Kilims', In Mentoricun Ertlst Diez,
istanbul 1963, I 82-88; idem, 'The kilims in Ottoman court style
discovered in Divlili Ulu Mosque', Fifth Intenutiottal Congress
of Turkislt Art, Budapest l9'15,907-9201' and idern, 'Osmanlt
saray sanatr üslûbundaki kìlirnlerden yeni iki örnek', Vakfhr
De rgisi. XÍll. I 98 ì. 375-8 l.
:: For more inlonnation on the subject and examples see N. Gürsu,
The Art of TurkishWeaving, Designs through rfte Age.i, istanbul
l 988.
:+ F. Altay, Kaftanlar,istanbul 1979.
:s Kellner-Heinkele and Rohwedder (ed.), Türkische Kunst,264,no.
5il6.
¡e G. Fehér, Türkisclrcs Lutd balkanisches KLutstllüldwerk,Bùdapesr
London 1915, 12-14, nos. III-IV and l-10.
:r Anonymous, 'Les leliutes aux armes', L'Estturtpille,54, June
1974,22-23. Fol the shoes see N. Atasoy, 'Shoes in the Topkapr
Palace Museum, a rarely explored branch of Turkish
craltmanship', Journal oJ the Re gional Cultural Institute, III, I ,
1969,24-25, nos.2-23.
x Afrl, o p. c i t., 203-205, nos. I 36- 1 37; and Petsopoulos (ed.), o p.
cit.,142-143, no. 147, and 144, no. 155.
:s Kellner-Heinkele and Rohwedder (ed.), Türkisclrc Kunst,II,268,
no. XXX, and 365, no. I l/25o. For o rich collection of such itet.ns
see E. Petrasch (ed.), Die Karlsruher TürkenbeLt¡¿, München
I.
199
n Afrl,op.cit.,148-150, no. 84.
+r T. Tezcan, Silahlar, istanbul 1983, 22 and 40, and the back cover;
and Atrl, op. cit.,160-161, no. 102.
qu Petrasch (ed.), o p c i t., 3 l7 -320, no. 282; D i e T ürke n v o r W i e n,
Exhib. Cat. Vienna I 983, I 04- I 05, no. I I /2 | ; and Z. Zdzrslaw,
'Turkish Alt in Poland', Sevenrh Inlentationctl Congress of
Turkish Art, Warsaw 1990, 290, no. 5.
83
Photo Credits

Universitätsbibliothek Erlangen (via Prof. Dr. H. ZolIer,

Basel): 1,2.
Documentation collection Dr. S. Segal, Amsterdam: 3-12;
15-18.
Frans Halsmuseum, Haarlem: 13, 14.
Rilksmuseum, Amsterdam: 17.
Museum Sypesteyn, Loosdrecht: 19.
Haags Gemeentemuseum, Den Haag: 20a/b,23.
Gemeentemusea Amsterdam: 2 1.
Stedelijk Museum Het Prinsenhoi Delft: 22,32,33.
Museum Boymans-van Beuningen, Rotterdam: 24-27, 38.
Kunsthandel Pieter Hoogendijk, Baarn: 28.
Christie's Amsterdam: 29.
Hooykaas Fine Arts BV, Den Haag: 30.
Drs. R. Blouwer, Delft: 31.
Museum 'Het Princessehof', Leeuwarden: 34-37 , 39a/b,
4t-44, 46 &.47 .

Dhr. J. ten Broeke, Rijswijk: 40.

Dr. W. Joliet, Königswinter: 45.
Documentation collection Dr. T. Baytop: 48-55,70.
Documentation collection Prof. Y. Demiriz: 56-69,71-78.

85
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