C9781466580060SM PDF

Chapter 2: Energy – Solutions
2-1. You are given the depth upstream (y1) and downstream (y2) of a sluice gate. Using
conservation of energy at the sluice gate, find an equation for the unit discharge, q, in
terms of y1 and y2.
Solution:
q2 q2
E1  y1   E2  y2 
2 gy12 2 gy 22
Re-arranging, we get
q2  1 1 
y1  y 2   2  2 
2 g  y 2 y1 
Some modest algebra gets us to,
q 2  y12  y 22 
y1  y 2   
2 g  y1 y 2 
Factoring the numerator on the right hand side, we get,
q 2   y1  y 2  y1  y 2  
y1  y 2   
2 g  y12 y 22 
Simplifying,
q 2   y1  y 2  
1  
2 g  y12 y 22 
Re-arranging and solving for q,
2g
q  y1 y 2
y1  y 2
2-1
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2-2. For a fixed specific energy of E*=0.9 m and in a rectangular channel, vary depth from 0.0
m to 0.9m in increments of 0.01 or 0.05 meters and determine the unit discharge, q, at
each depth. Plot depth vs. q over the range of calculated values. Verify that the
maximum specific discharge occurs at y = 2/3E*.
Solution:
Using the equation,
q2
E*  y   0. 9 m
2 gy 2
We let y = {0.0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, …0.90} m. and use the Excel goal seek function to
determine the value of q that solves the equality above. For instance, when y = 0.60 m,
we find that q = 1.45 m2/s, which is the largest q that is observed for this fixed amount of
energy and corresponds to a depth of y=2/3E*. The graph over the requested range of
depths is shown below:
Visually, it should be clear that the unit discharge, q, is maximized at 0.6 m. This is
2/3rds of the energy provided, E * = 0.9 m
2-2
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2-3. Given a rectangular channel 3.50 feet wide. The flow depth upstream of a sluice gate is
2.15 feet. Downstream of the sluice gate the depth is 1.25 feet.
a. Find the unit discharge, q, and the discharge, Q.
b. What specific energy, E, does the flow have?
Solution:
a. Using the equation from problem 2-1, we have:

2g 232.2  ft 2
q  y1 y 2  2.15  (1.25)  11.7
y1  y 2 2.15  1.25 s
ft 3
Q  q  w  11.7   3.50  40.9
s
b. Specific energy for either depth, y, is the same:

q2
E  y
2gy 2
Use y1:
E  2.15 
11.7 2  2.61 ft
232.22.15
2
2-3
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2-4. The flow depth upstream of a sluice gate is 0.60 meters. The velocity is 0.9 m/s.
a. What is the minimum allowable gate opening for the upstream flow to be possible as
specified?
b. If the gate opening is instantaneously set to 0.15 meters:
i. What is the initial unit discharge, q, under the gate?
ii. What is the final depth at the upstream side of the gate.
Solution:
a. The minimum gate opening will be the alternate depth to the depth upstream of the
gate:
2 y1 20.60 
y2    0.18 m
8 gy13 89.810.60 
3
1  1  2 1  1 
q 0.90.62
b.
i. The gate is a choke, so the flow will be the value of qinit that has the same
energy as the flow initially possesses:
E  y
q2
 0.60 
0.9 0.6  0.64 m
2
2 gy 29.810.6
2 2
2
qinit
0.64  0.15 
29.81(0.15) 2
By iteration, the value of qinit that satisfies the above equation is
approximately 0.47 m2/s.
ii. Final depth on the upstream side of the gate will be the alternate depth to 0.15
m for a unit discharge of (0.60)(0.9)=0.54 m2/s. This is:
2 y2 20.15
y1    0.79 m
8 gy 2 89.810.15
3 3
1 1 2 1 1
q 0.542
2-4
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2-5. Water is flowing at a velocity of 2.6 ft/s and a depth of 1.1 feet in a rectangular channel.
a. The flow encounters a smooth upward step of 0.2 feet.
i. What is the depth of flow on the step?
ii. What is the absolute change in water level compared to the channel bottom before
the step?
iii. What are the Froude numbers upstream and at the step?
b. Find the maximum allowable size of upward step for the upstream flow to be possible
as specified.
Solution:
a. E  1. 1 
 1.12.6
2
 1.2 ft
232.2 1.1
2
1/ 3 1/ 3
 q2   1.12.6 2 
E min  1.5     1.5  
 g   
  0.95 ft
   32.2 
Since E-Emin = 1.2 – 0.95 > 0.2 feet, the step is not a choke.
q2
E  z  y 2 
2 gy 22
i.
1.2  0.2  1.0  y 2 
1.12.62
 
232.2 y 22
Solve for y2. There are two roots, 0.81 feet or 0.50 feet. Because incoming flow
is subcritical and step is not a choke, use same flow regime as incoming flow, so
use subcritical root. y2 = 0.81 feet.
ii. The absolute change in water level is calculated by considering change in water
level at location 1 vs. location 2. At location, the water level is at y1 = 1.1 feet.
At location 2, the water level is at y2 + z = 0.81 + 0.2 = 1.01 feet. Thus the
change in water level from location 1 to location 2 is 1.1 – 1.01 = 0.09 feet.
Location 2 is 0.09 feet lower than at location 1.
iii. The Froude numbers at locations 1 and 2 are:
v 2.6
Fr ,1  1   0.43 (subcritic al)
gy1 (32.2)(1.1)
Fr ,1 
q

2.6  1.1  0.69 (subcritic al)
y 2 gy 2 0.81  (32.2)(0.81)
b. Maximum upward step is calculated by observing that,
E  Ec  z max
1.2  0.95  0.25 feet
2-5
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2-6. Consider a system with a specific discharge of 3.0 m2/s. The depth, y1, upstream of the
step is 0.9 meters. The downward step height is 0.2 meters. Determine:
a) The downstream specific energy, E2.
b) The downstream depth, y2.
c) The absolute change in the water surface from location 1 to location 2.
d) The downstream Froude number, Fr,2.
Solution:
Before making any other calculations, let’s first determine the Froude number.
v q 3.0
Fr     1.12
gy y gy 0.9 9.81  0.9
Therefore, the flow is supercritical.
a) First we calculate the upstream energy:
E1  y1 
q2
 0.90 
3.0 
2
 1.47 m
2 gy1 29.810.90
2 2
The downward step adds energy to the flow equal to the step height so:
E2  E1  z  1.47  0.2  1.67 m
b) The downstream depth will satisfy:
E2  y2 
3.02  1.67 m
2 gy 22
Since the step adds energy, the downstream depth must also be supercritical (subcritical
flow is not accessible for this problem). Thus, by iteration: y2 = 0.68 m.
c) The channel bottom is reduced by 0.2 m, and the depth decreased from 0.90 m to 0.68
m. Thus the absolute change in depth is the water surface level is 0.2 + (0.90 – 0.68)
= 0.42 m (downwards), that is the water surface is 0.42 m lower downstream
compared to upstream.
d) Downstream Froude number is:
q 3.0
Fr    1.71
y gy 0.68 9.81  0.68
Thus the flow has become more supercritical, owing to the 0.2 meter increase in specific
energy.
2-6
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2-7. Consider a system with a discharge of 9.0 m3/s. The channel is rectangular. The width at
location 1 is w1=4.5 m. A constriction is encountered at location 2 downstream such that
the width w2=3.0 m. The depth of flow y2 at downstream location 2 is 0.7 meters.
Determine:
a. The specific discharges at locations 1 and 2.
b. The downstream specific energy, E2.
c. The downstream Froude number, Fr,2.
d. The upstream specific energy, E1.
e. The upstream depth, y1.
f. The upstream Froude number, Fr,1.
g. The absolute change in the water surface from location 1 to location 2.
h. Sketch the transition of the system from location 1 through the flow constriction to
location 2 on an E-y diagram.
Solution:
a. Specific discharge at 1:
Q 9. 0 m2
q1    2. 0
w1 4.5 s
9. 0 m2
q2   3. 0
3. 0 s
b. The downstream specific energy is:
q2
E 2  y 2  2 2  0.7 
3.02  1.64 m
2 gy 2 29.810.7 
2
q2 3. 0
c. Fr , 2    1.64
y 2 gy 2 0.7  9.81  0.7 
d. E1  E 2  1.64 m
e. Looking for the value of y1 that satisfies,
E1  y1 
q12
 y1 
2.0  1.64 m
2
2 gy1 29.81 y1 
2 2
There are two solutions: y1 = 0.41 m or 1.64 m. Because the downstream flow
supercritical and because the constriction is not a choke, we choose the root that
corresponds to the same flow regime, supercritical in this case. Thus y1 = 0.41 m.
q1 2.0
f. Fr ,1    2.43
y1 gy1 0.41  9.81  0.41
g. At location 1, the water surface is at 0.41 m. At location 2, the water level is at y2 =
0.7 m. Thus the change in water level from location 1 to location 2 is 0.7 – 0.41 =
0.29 m (the flow has become deeper by 0.29 m).
2-7
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h. The sketch for this system is shown below:
2-8
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2-8. Re-Solve Problem 2-7 except w2 = 6.0 m (so the flow encounters an expansion, not a
constriction) and y2 = 1.0 m.
Solution:
Q 9.0 m2
q1    2.0
w1 4.5 s
9. 0 m2
q2   1.5
6.0 s
E2  y2 
q 22
 1.0 
1.5
2
 1.11 m
2 gy 22 29.811.0
2
q2 1.5
c. Fr , 2    0.47
y 2 gy 2 1.0  9.81  1.0
d. E1  E2  1.11 m
E1  y1 
q12
 y1 
2.0  1.11 m
2
2 gy1 29.81 y1 
2 2
There are two solutions: y1 = 0.71 m or 0.77 m. (Note: the flow is very close to
critical conditions, so it becomes necessary to carry more precision in the energy.)
The specific energy of 1.11 m reported above is more precisely 1.1147 m. Using this
value, it is possible to determine the two alternate depths reported above. Because the
downstream flow is subcritical and because the expansion will not make supercritical
flow accessible, we choose the root that corresponds to the same flow regime,
subcritical in this case. Thus y1 = 0.77 m.
q1 2.0
f. Fr ,1    0.95
y1 gy1 0.77  9.81  0.77 
Note that although the upstream flow is subcritical, it is only barely below 1.0.
0.23 m (the flow has become deeper by 0.23 m).
2-9
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2-10
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2-9. Re-Solve Problem 2-7 except w2 = 6.0 m (so the flow encounters an expansion, not a
constriction) and y2 = 0.3 m.
Solution:
Q 9.0 m2
q1    2.0
w1 4.5 s
9. 0 m2
q2   1.5
6.0 s
E2  y2 
q 22
 0. 3 
1.5
2
 1.57 m
2 gy 22 29.81(0.3) 2
q2 1. 5
c. Fr , 2    2.91
y 2 gy 2 0.3  9.81  0.3
d. E1  E2  1.57 m
E1  y1 
q12
 y1 
2.0  1.57 m
2
2 gy1 2
29.81 y1 
2
There are two solutions: y1 = 0.42 m or 1.48 m. Because the downstream flow is
supercritical and because the expansion will not make subcritical flow accessible, we
choose the root that corresponds to the same flow regime, supercritical in this case.
Thus y1 = 0.42 m.
q1 2. 0
f. Fr ,1    2.34
y1 gy1 0.42  9.81  0.42
0.12 m (the flow has become shallower by 0.12 m).
2-11
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2-12
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2-10. Water flows in a horizontal, rectangular channel initially 10.0 feet wide and 2.0 feet deep.
The initial velocity is 6.0 ft/s. This flow encounters downstream a simultaneous
downward step and constriction. No energy losses are associated with these changes in
channel configuration.
a. What is the specific discharge, q:
i. Upstream (for w = 10.0 feet)?
ii. Downstream (for w = 6.0 feet)?
b. What specific energy, E, is associated with the flow as initially specified (at the
upstream location)?
c. What is the minimum energy needed to pass the full discharge at the downstream
location?
d. What is the height (z) of the smallest downward step necessary for the upstream
flow conditions to remain as specified?
Solution:
ft 2
a. q1  v1  y1  6.0   2.0   12
s
ft 3
From knowing q1, we know the total discharge, Q  q1  w1  12  10.0   120 .
s
By continuity, we then know that,
Q 120 ft 2
q2    20
w2 6 s
q12
b. E1  y1   2.0 
12 2
 2.56 ft
2 gy12
2  32.2  (2.0) 2
c. Minimum energy downstream is critical energy for a specific discharge of 20 ft 2/s.
So,
1/ 3 1/ 3
 q2   20 2 
E2, min  Ec  1.5   2   1.5     3.47 ft

 g   32.2 
d. The minimum needed downward step is the energy difference between answers to
parts b and c above. Thus,
z min  E 2,min  E1  3.47  2.56  0.91 ft
2-13
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2-11. A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 20. ft, side slopes of 2H:1V, and carries a
flow of 750 ft3/s.
a. Find the flow depth at the head of a steep slope.
b. If there is a short but smooth transition to a rectangular section 20. feet wide just
before the head of the steep slope, find the depth at the upstream and downstream
ends of the transition, assuming that the specific energy remains unchanged through
the transition.
Solution:
a. As stated, we can assume critical conditions apply. This is simple application of

Figure 2-24 which deals with critical depth. From the provided information the
horizontal axis is determined,
Z
Qm 3 / 2

750 2 3/ 2
 0.209
b gb 20 32.2 20 
2 2
Entering the horizontal axis at this value and moving vertically to the line for the
trapezoidal cross section, and then moving horizontally to the vertical axis, we pull
off a value of,
my c
 0.31
b
Therefore,
yc 
0.3120  3.1 ft
2
Alternatively, one could note that the Froude number is 1 at critical depth,
Q/ A
Fr  1
 A
g 
B
With the trapezoidal geometry known, A and B, are simple functions of depth, y.
using the Excel goal seek function, a value of 3.15 ft is determined. Clearly the
provided figure performs adequately but slightly greater precision is available if using
goal seek.
b. If there is a short but smooth transition to a rectangular cross-section at the head of
the slope, then the rectangular critical depth equation applies. At the head of the
slope,
1/ 3 1/ 3
 q2   750 / 202 
y c        3.52 ft
 g   32.2 
The specific energy is 1.5 times this value, or 1.5(3.52)=5.28 ft. The depth at the
upstream end of the transition is the depth in a trapezoidal section that satisfies the
general specific energy equation,
2-14
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E  y
v2
 y
Q2
 y
750  2
 5.28 ft
2g 2 gA 2

2 g by  my 2 
2
The above equation recognizes and shows that area, A, is a simple function of depth,
so we are seeking the subcritical root to the above equation. By iteration (or goal
seek) this depth is y=4.86 ft. This is the trapezoidal depth at the upstream end of the
channel before the transition to a rectangular cross-section.
2-15
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2-12. A horizontal, frictionless channel of circular cross-section and diameter equal to 5.0 feet
flows at a depth of 3.0 feet and a velocity of 2.0 ft/s.
a. Find the discharge in the channel.
b. Determine the specific energy of this flow.
c. Determine the Froude number of this flow.
d. What is the maximum upward step height (zmax) that this flow can negotiate without
a choke?
Solution:
a. Using the circular sections table, (y/d)=(3/5)=0.6. Searching the table for this value,
we find that the associated value of (A/d2)=0.4920. Therefore, the cross-sectional
area is,
 A
 
A   2   D 2  0.4920  5 2  12.3 ft 2
d 
The discharge is then simply the product of the area, A, and velocity, v,
ft 3
Q  A  v  12.3  2  24.6
s
b. The specific energy is,
E  y
v2
 3
 2
2
 3.06 ft
2g 2  32.2 
c. The Froude number requires knowing the top-width, B, of the wetted flowing
channel. From the circular sections table, for (y/d)=0.6, the wetted top-width is
(T/d)=0.9798,
T 
B     D  0.9798  5  4.899 ft
d
The Froude number is thus,
v 2
Fr    0.22
 A  12.3 
g  32.2   
B  4.899 
d. The maximum upward step is equal to E - Ec where E was found in part b. and Ec can
be determined by using Figure 2-25. The horizontal axis of this figure gives,
Z 2
Q
 2
24.6  0.0776
D gD 5 32.25
Entering the horizontal axis at this value and moving vertically to the line for the
circular cross section, and then moving horizontally to the vertical axis, we pull off a
value of,
Ec
 0.36
D
Therefore,
Ec  0.36  5  1.8 ft
The highest step, is thus E - Ec = 3.06 -1.8 = 1.26 (or 1.3) ft.
2-16
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2-13. A trapezoidal channel with a base width of 20. feet and side slopes of 2H:1V carries a
flow of 2000. ft3/s at a depth of 8.0 feet. There is a smooth transition to a rectangular
section 20. feet wide accompanied by a gradual lowering of the channel bed by 2.0 feet.
a. Find the depth of water within the rectangular section, and the change in the water
surface level.
b. What is the minimum amount by which the bed must be lowered for the upstream
flow to be possible as specified?
Solution:
a. Assume no losses in energy from upstream to downstream. The energy downstream
is thus equal to the energy upstream plus 2.0 feet of energy due to the lowering of the
channel bed in the rectangular section. Have the information we need to calculate the
energy in the trapezoidal section once we know the cross-sectional area in the
upstream section. Firs solve for this area,
 
A  b  y  m  y 2  20  8  2  8 2  288 ft 2
E  y
Q2
8
2000
2
 8.75 ft
2 gA 2
2  32.2  2882
Although not requested, let’s calculate the Froude number so the flow regime is
known,
Fr 
Q / A  2000 / 288  0.52
 A  288 
g  32.2   
B  20  2   2  8 
So the upstream flow is subcritical. We therefore expect subcritical flow downstream

as well. The energy in the downstream rectangular section is 2 feet greater than the
upstream energy, or 2+8.75=10.75 ft. We solve the rectangular specific energy
equation to determine the subcritical root,
E  y
q2
 y 
1002  10.75 ft
2 gy 2 2  32.2  y 2
The subcritical root to this equation is y=8.70 ft. Letting the upstream (trapezoidal
section) be location 1 and the downstream (rectangular section) be location, 2, the
absolute change in water level is calculated as,
y  y1  z  y 2  8.0  2.0  8.70  1.3 ft
(notice that although the channel bottom declined by 2 feet, the water surface did not
decline by as much because the flow became more subcritical (from the energy “gift”
of the downstream step) and was also pinched into a narrower cross-section
(rectangular vs. trapezoidal).
b. The minimum energy “gift” for the step would correspond to the flow being at
exactly critical conditions in the downstream (rectangular) section. This energy is,
1/ 3 1/ 3
 q2   100 2 
E c  1.5     1.5     10.16 ft
 g   32 . 2 
Given that the upstream flow has 8.75 ft of energy and the downstream flow must
have at least 10.16 feet of energy, the downwards step must be, at a minimum,
2-17
K16885_SM_Cover.indd 27 10/03/15 4:46 pm

z min  E c , 2  E1  10.16  8.75  1.41 ft
Any downward step smaller than this will not provide sufficient energy to pass the
upstream discharge at the flow conditions specified, and thus the downstream
transition to a rectangular cross-section will serve as a choke to the flow.
2-18
K16885_SM_Cover.indd 28 10/03/15 4:46 pm

Courtesy of CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group
v2
2g
Datum
Figure 2.1 A typical open channel flowing at depth, y, with velocity, v. The channel bottom
shows the datum of the system.
002x001.eps
2.5
2
Depth (m)
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Energy (m)
Figure 2.2 E-y diagram for q = 3 m 2/s. The dashed line shows the E = y asymptote.
002x002.eps
2.5
2
Depth (m)
1.5 Increasing
q
E=y
1
0.5
2
E=y
3
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Energy (m)
Figure 2.3 A family of E-y curves for q = {2, 3, 4, 5} m 2/s. Note that the dashed line for 2/3E
= y crosses each curve at its mimimum energy value.
002x003.eps
0.9
0.8
0.7 yc
0.6
y/E*
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
q/qmax
Figure 2.4 Specific discharge (q) normalized by the maximum specific discharge (qmax) as it
varies with depth (y) normalized by a fixed specific energy, E*.
002x004.eps
t =0 t = t* t = t* t = t*
d = gy . t*
d = gy . t*
Observer
d = gy . t*
v1 v2 v3
d1 = v1t* d2 = v2t* d3 = v3t*
Figure 2.5 Propagation of shallow waves (ripples) from an object thrown into subcritical,
critical, and supercritical flows. At v1 (subcritical), some ripples propagate upstream. At v2 = vc
(critical) the upstream edge of the ripple forms a standing wave at the location of observer. At v3
(supercritical) all ripples are washed downstream.
002x005.eps
Sluice Gate
3
1 2.5
y1
2
Depth (m)
q 1.5 Alternate
depth pair
y1 1
2
y2
0.5
y2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Energy (m)
Figure 2.6 A sluice gate introduced to a flow imposes subcritical flow upstream of the gate
and supercritical flow downstream of the gate. Depths y1 and y2 make up an alternate depth pair.
002x006.eps
v
2
y1
∆z
Figure 2.7 Definition sketch for flow encountering an upward step of height, Δz.
002x007.eps
q = 10 m2/s
2.5
y1 = 2.0 m
2
∆y
Depth (m)
y2 = 1.76 m
1.5
∆z
1
E2 = 1.91 m
E1 = 2.11 m
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Energy (m)
Figure 2.8 E-y diagram showing solutions to Example 2.2.
002x008.eps
y1
2
∆z
Figure 2.9 Definition sketch for flow encountering a downward step of height, Δz.
002x009.eps
2.5
y = 2.22 m
q = 10 m2/s
2 y = 2.0 m
y = 1.76 m Example 2.3
1.5 Example 2.2

Depth (m)
E1 = 2.31 m
E = 1.91 m
E = 2.11 m
1
y = 0.59 m
0.5
y = 0.54 m Example 2.4
0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
Energy (m)
Figure 2.10 Summary of energy shifts on E-y diagram for Examples 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4.
002x010.eps
3
Depth (ft)
2 ystep = yc
yinit
1
dz
0
3
Depth (ft)
2
dz
1
ystep = yc
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Energy (ft)
Figure 2.11 Screen capture from step.avi animation. Capture shows a step height dz
that is large enough to act as a choke. Upper subplot shows physical system. Lower subplot
shows E-y diagram.
002x011.eps
1 Top View
Q w1 q1 w2 q2
Figure 2.12 Definition sketch for flow encountering a constriction in flow width.
002x012.eps
2.5
2.15
Inset
2.1
2
y1 = 2.06 m
2.05
2 y2 = 2.0 m
1.5
E1=E2=2.11 m
Depth (m)
1.95
1.95 2 2.05 2.1 2.15 q = 3 m2/s
0.5
q = 2 m2/s
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Energy (m)
Figure 2.13 E-y diagram showing solutions to Example 2.5.
002x013.eps
10
Width (ft)
5 Top View
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3
Depth (ft)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4 4
3 3.5
Depth (ft)
Depth (ft)
2 3
2.5
1
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 2 2.5 3 3.5
Energy (ft) Energy (ft)
Figure 2.14 Screen capture from constriction.avi animation. Capture shows a con-
striction in width (top subplot) that is severe enough to act as a choke. Middle subplot shows
flow depth upstream of, within, and downstream of the constriction. Lower left subplot
shows overall E-y diagram, while lower right subplot shows enlargement of a portion of the
E-y diagram.
002x014.eps
4
Depth (ft)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4.5 120 5
Steady-State Q=100 ft3/s dz
100 4
4
D/S Q (ft3/s)
Depth (ft)
Depth (ft)
80 3
Step Added
3.5
60 2
3
40 1
2.5 20 0
0 2 4 0 20 40 60 0 2 4
6
U/S Vol. (ft3)×10 Time (hours) Energy (ft)
Figure 2.15 Screen capture from step_transient.avi animation. Capture shows a step
height of 2 ft, that appears instantaneously at time = 2 hours. Upper subplot shows physical
system with the right/lower dashed trace showing the initial water surface at the introduc-
tion of the step and right/upper dashed trace shows the final, steady-state water surface. The
solid trace shows the water surface at the current place in the evolution. Dashed lines on right
side indicate that both subcritical and supercritical flow are accessible downstream. Lower-left
subplot shows depth-storage relationship upstream of step with the lowest square marking
the initial condition, the middle square marking the current condition, and the highest square
marking the ultimate, steady-state condition. Lower-middle subplot shows the discharge pass-
ing the step as a function of time. Lower-right subplot shows the transient E-y diagram in the
dashed curve and the ultimate, steady-state E-y diagram in the solid curve.
002x015.eps
Figure 2.16 Mental experiment: A ball is placed at the exact top of a perfectly symmetrical
hill. Which way does it roll down?
002x016.eps
1 Transition 2
zone
v2(x)/2g
H y(x)
z(x)
Datum
Figure 2.17 Definition sketch for water surface shapes discussion.
002x017.eps
dy/dx < 0
q
yc
y
dz/dx = 0
Lake
x Steep
channel
Figure 2.18 Flow depth transitioning through critical depth, yc , at the outfall from a lake.
002x018.eps
y 1
m
Figure 2.19 Definition sketch for trapezoidal section geometry.
002x019.eps
D
B
r
y
Figure 2.20 Definition sketch for a circular section geometry.
002x020.eps
Figure 2.21 Initial programming of spreadsheet for Goal Seek root-finding exer-
cise to determine the alternate depth, y2, in a trapezoidal section that produces a desired
specific energy.
002x021.eps
Figure 2.22 The Excel “Goal Seek” dialog with entries populated to solve for the
alternate depth to y1 = 2 m in Example 2.7.
002x022.eps
Figure 2.23 Final programming of spreadsheet for Goal Seek root-finding exercise. Note
that the depth indicated for y2, approximately 0.62 m, produces an energy of 2.03 m which was
the goal indicated in the “Goal Seek” dialog shown in Figure 2.22.
002x023.eps
102
101 Q
Q
Mdesign,x
Mdesign, circular = Mdesign, trapezoidal =

y 2c gyc my 2c gyc
100
D
yc
Trapezoidal section
yc/D or myc/b
Circular section
10–1
yc 1
m
b
10–2
10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101
3/2
Q Qm
2
or 2
D gD b gb
Figure 2.24 Critical depth, yc , in trapezoidal and circular cross-sections.
002x024.eps
102
Q
Mdesign, trapezoidal =
mE2c gEc
101
Mdesign,x
Q
Mdesign, circular =
E2c gEc
100
D
yc
Circular section
Ec/D or mEc/b
Trapezoidal section
–1
10
yc 1
m
b
10–2
10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101
Q Qm3/2
2
or 2
D gD b gb
Figure 2.25 Critical energy, Ec , in trapezoidal and circular cross-sections.
002x025.eps
Q=?
Flow
direction y=?
0.6 m
y
Lake
Outfall
Steep
channel
Figure 2.26 Flow conditions at lake outlet structure for Examples 2.8a and 2.8b.
002x026.eps
FUNDAMENTALS OF OPEN
CHANNEL FLOW
© Taylor & Francis, 2015

Glenn E. Moglen
<<Slides relating to Chapter 2

Energy>>
Remember fluid mechanics?
 Name two important equations you learned…
 Continuity:
Q  Av

 Bernoulli:
2
p v
E  y
 2g
How is that we can measure energy
in units of feet ([=] length)?
 In physics I learned E [=] ML2T-2
Total Energy  Kinetic Energy  Potential Energy

1 2
E  mv  mgh
2
 Divide by mg
2
v
E'  h
2g
 Call E’E and hy
The basic energy equation for open
channel flow
2
v
E y
2g

 or, actually we usually equate energy between
an upstream location (1) and downstream
location (2):
2 2
v v
1
 y1   y2  hL
2
2g 2g
 where hL is headloss between 1 and 2
What’s happened to the pressure
term from Bernoulli’s equation?
2 2
v v
1
 y1   y2  hL
2
2g 2g

 Pressure isn’t zero. It’s simply that we are
studying open channels and therefore the
pressure at location 1 and 2 is the same –
atmospheric pressure.
Analogy to Pipe Flow – the Dual Role
of Flow Depth
 << to be drawn on whiteboard >>

“Specific” or “Unit” Discharge
 Discharge is Q [=] L3/T
 Consider a rectangular channel of width, w.
 Specific or unit discharge (q) is the

discharge per unit width of channel:
Q
q
w
 Specific or unit discharge is q [=] L2/T
 q is ONLY defined in the context of a
rectangular channel
Alternative Expression for Specific
Energy
 By continuity:
Q  Av  y  wv

 Therefore:
q  y v
 and:
q
v
y
Alternative Expression for Specific
Energy
 Substituting in specific energy equation:
2 2
v q
E y y

2
2g 2 gy
 This second form of the equation is:
 ONLY defined for rectangular section
 Useful because it expresses E as a function
of y only (all other terms are constants)
Example 1:
 Let Q = 10 ft3/s, w = 1 foot
2
q
E  y

2
2 gy
 So q = 10/1 = 10 ft2/s
 We could let y vary over a range of values (say
0.4 feet to 10 feet). The resulting relationship
between E and y looks like:
Example 1(cont.):
10
9
This is the E-y or
8
specific energy

7
diagram
6
y (feet)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E (feet)
Example 1(cont.): Consider E=5 feet
10

7
6
y (feet)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E (feet)
Example 1(cont.):
 How can there be two depths that possess the
same energy?
 E is sum of kinetic and energy sources.

 One depth has high kinetic, low potential
energy
 One depth has high potential, low kinetic
energy
 Which is which?
 How do we find these two depths?
Example 1 (cont): Take-away facts
 There are 2 depths (called “alternate
depths”) which have the same energy for
a given discharge.
 Depths can be calculated by trial and

error
 For a RECTANGULAR channel if we know
one depth, y1, we can calculate the other,
y 2:
2 y1
y2 
3
8 gy
1  1  2 1
q
Example 1: Relevant Animation
(available only at Scholar Site)
 Sluice gate followed by a hydraulic jump

Example 2: What is the smallest
energy that can be associated with
q=10 ft2/s?
10

8
6
y (feet)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E (feet)
Example 2 (cont): What is the
smallest energy that can be
associated with q = 10 ft2/s?
 << to be derived on whiteboard >>

 Critical depth in a rectangular channel:
1/ 3
q2

yc   
 g 

 Critical energy in a rectangular channel:
Ec  1.5 yc
 Definition of Froude number in a
rectangular channel:
v
Fr 
gy
 Froude number at critical depth
Fr c  v
1
gyc

 Regions of super-critical or sub-critical
flow. 10
6
y (feet)
3
Sub-critical
2
Region
1
Super-critical Region
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E (feet)
Example 3: Sluice Gate
 Settings:
 q = 10.0 ft2/s
 Incoming flow depth is y1=4.94 feet

 Gate opening, yg is set to yg=1.30 feet
 Fact: Energy is conserved at a sluice
gate.
 What is depth downstream of gate?
 Flow accessibility:
 Super-critical flow downstream ONLY if
gate opening is less than or equal to

critical depth.
 Depth downstream is alternate to depth
upstream (generally less than gate
opening).
 What if yg>yc ?
 What if yg<y2 ? (Example 4)
Sluice Gate Problems: A flow chart
Sluice Gate Problem
no yes (supercritical

yg<yc? DS)
Gate does NOT yes

impose yg<y2?
supercritical flow
no
Gate is NOT a Gate is a Choke

choke
Example 4: Sluice Gate
 Settings:
 q = 10.0 ft2/s

 Gate opening, yg is set to yg=0.50 feet
 Recall, alternate depth to y1=4.94 feet is
y2 = 0.59 feet (so yg<y2)
 What is depth downstream of gate?
Are any other depths changed?
 With E=5.0 feet, at the instant yg=0.50
feet what is unit discharge?
Example 4 (cont): E-y diagram for
choke 6
y1 = 4.94 ft
5

4
y (ft)
2 q = 10.0 ft2/s
y2 = 0.59 ft
1
q = 8.51 ft2/s
y2 = 0.50 ft
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
E (ft)
Example 4 (cont): E-y diagram for
choke 7 y = 6.68 ft 1
6
y1 = 4.94 ft
5

E = 5.00 ft
E = 6.71 ft
4
y (ft)
3 q = 10.0 ft2/s
y2 = 0.59 ft
1
q = 8.51 ft2/s
0 y2 = 0.50 ft
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y2 = 0.50 ft
E (ft)
 This example shows the sluice gate
acting as a “choke”. The gate is
requiring the flow to have more energy

than is initially present to pass the full
discharge.
 The choke changes the steady-state
values of both y1 and y2
 There is a temporary transient condition,
for which we can determine the initial
passed discharge based on critical
energy considerations.
Example 5: Step Problem (sub-
critical flow upstream of step)
 Settings:
 q = 10.0 ft2/s

(E=5.0 feet)
 A short, smooth upward step (Dz=1.0
foot) is encountered.
 What is the depth of flow beyond the
step?
 What is Froude number before/after the
step?
Example 5 (cont): Upstream and
Downstream depths for an upward
step 6
y1 = 4.94 ft
5
y2 = 3.90 ft

4
y (ft)
3
q = 10.0 ft2/s
2
Dz = 1.0 ft
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
E (ft)
 Step acts as an energy “tax”.
 Depth of flow downstream of step is
smaller than upstream of step.

 Net water surface elevation shifts
downwards!
 Flow is driven closer to critical
conditions.
Example 6: Step Problem (super-
critical flow upstream of step)
 Settings:
 q = 10.0 ft2/s

(E=5.0 feet)
 A short, smooth upward step (Dz=1.0
step?
step?
Example 6 (cont): Upstream and
Downstream depths for an upward
step 6

4
Dz = 1.0 ft
y (ft)
3
q = 10.0 ft2/s
2
y1 = 0.59 ft
1
y2 = 0.68 ft
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
E (ft)
 Step again acts as an energy “tax”.
 Depth of flow downstream of step is
greater than upstream of step.

 Flow is driven closer to critical
conditions.
Example 7: Step Problem – a
“negative” step
 Settings:
 q = 10.0 ft2/s

(E=4.0 feet)
 A short, smooth downward step (Dz=-1.0
step?
step?
 Step again acts as an energy “gift”.
 For sub-critical upstream depth, depth of
flow downstream of negative step is

greater than upstream of step.
 For super-critical upstream depth, depth
of flow downstream of negative step is
less than upstream of step.
 Flow is driven further away from critical
conditions.
 Can assemble examples 5 & 7 or 6 & 7
into steps of finite length.
Example 8: Maximum step – a step
as a choke (sub-critical upstream)
 Settings:
 q = 10.0 ft2/s

(E=5.0 feet)
 What is the biggest step possible with
flow as specified?
 What if step is bigger than that?
Example 8 (cont): Maximum step size
6
5
Dzmax = E1-Ec

4
y (ft)
3
q = 10.0 ft2/s
2
y1 = 0.59 ft
1
y2 = yc = 1.46 ft
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
E (ft)
 Biggest step corresponds to step that
brings flow to the brink of critical
conditions.

 A larger step acts as a choke.
 There is a temporary transient
condition, for which we can determine
the initial passed discharge based on
critical energy considerations.
A comment on q and the E-y diagram
6

4
y (ft)
q = 2 ft2/s
2
q = 10 ft2/s
1 Increasing q
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
E (ft)
Example 9: A constriction (sub-
critical)
 Settings:
 Q = 100. ft3/s
 w1= 10.0 ft, q1 = 10.0 ft2/s

 Constriction: w2= 8.0 ft, q2 = 12.5 ft2/s
(E=5.0 feet)
 What is the depth of flow in the
constriction?
 Interpret effect of constriction on E-y
diagram
Example 9 (cont): E-y interpretation
6
5.05
q = 10.0 ft2/s
5 y (ft)
5
q = 12.5 ft2/s
4.95

4.9
4
4.85
4.85 4.9 4.95 5 5.05
E (ft)
y (ft)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
E (ft)
 Constriction has the effect of changing
the “q-curve” which applies to the flow.
 Since flowing sub-critically, depths

shifts downwards to corresponding
higher q-curve.
 Energy is conserved so shift on E-y
diagram is in vertical direction.
 Constriction moves flow closer to critical
flow conditions.
Example 9: Relevant Animation
(available only at Scholar Site)
 Steady-state constriction animation

Example 10: A constriction (super-
critical)
 Settings:
 Q = 100. ft3/s
 w1= 10.0 ft, q1 = 10.0 ft2/s

(E=5.0 feet)
constriction?
 Interpret effect of constriction on E-y
diagram
6
1
0.95
q = 12.5 ft2/s
0.9
5 0.85
0.8
y (ft)
q = 10.0 ft2/s
0.75

0.7
0.65
4 0.6
0.55
0.5
4.8 4.85 4.9 4.95 5 5.05 5.1 5.15 5.2
y (ft)
E (ft)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
E (ft)
 Constriction has the effect of changing
the “q-curve” which applies to the flow.
 Since flowing super-critically, depths

shifts upwards to corresponding higher
q-curve.
 Energy is conserved so shift on E-y
diagram is in vertical direction.
 Constriction moves flow closer to critical
flow conditions.
Example 11: A “negative”
constriction (sub- and super-critical)
 Settings:
 Q = 100. ft3/s
 w1= 10.0 ft, q1 = 10.0 ft2/s

 Incoming flow depth 1a is y1a=4.94 feet
(E=5.0 feet – sub-critical)
 Incoming flow depth 1b is y1b=0.59 feet
(E=5.0 feet – super-critical)
“constriction”?
 “Negative” constriction has the effect of
changing the “q-curve” which applies to
the flow.

 Expansion drives depths in opposite
direction from constriction
 Sub-critical flow depth increases
 Super-critical flow depth decreases
 Froude #’s move further away from
critical flow conditions.
Example 12: Maximum constriction –
a constriction as a choke (sub-
critical upstream)
 Settings:
 q = 10.0 ft2/s

(E=5.0 feet)
 What is the biggest constriction
possible with flow as specified?
 What if constriction is bigger than that?
6
q = 34.5 ft2/s
5

4
y (ft)
q = 10.0 ft2/s
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
E (ft)
 Width that drives flow to critical
conditions determined from observing
the yc=2/3Ec.

 To think about: Repeat same theme as
Examples 4 and 8 where constriction is
instantaneously applied (say, new width
is 2.50 feet).
 What is flow (Q) initially?
 What is final upstream depth?
 What if flow upstream of constriction is
super-critical?
 Width that drives flow to critical
conditions determined from observing
the yc=2/3Ec.

 To think about: Repeat same theme as
Examples 4 and 8 where constriction is
instantaneously applied (say, new width
is 2.50 feet).
 What is flow (Q) initially?
 What is final upstream depth?
 What if flow upstream of constriction is
super-critical?
Example 13: Simultaneous step and
constriction
 Settings:
 Q = 100. ft3/s

(E=5.0 feet)
 Upward step Dz=1.0 foot
 Constriction: w1 = 10 feet, w2 = 8 feet
 Find E2, y2, Fr2
 Interpret on E-y diagram
6
4.2
4.15
5 4.1
4.05
y (ft)

4
3.95
4
3.9
3.85
3.8
y (ft)
3.8 3.85 3.9 3.95 4 4.05 4.1 4.15 4.2
Dz = 1.0 ft
E (ft)
3
q = 12.5 ft2/s
1
q = 10.0 ft2/s
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
E (ft)
 Problem is just a simple composite
(super-position) of the individual step
and constriction problems.
 Since both upward step and constriction

individually move flow towards critical
flow, the pair acting together move it
even more towards critical flow
 Permutations on this theme:
 Constriction causes choke, how much
of downwards step is needed?
 Upwards step causes choke, how much
of an expansion is needed?
Occurrence of Critical Flow
 Previously, we derived:
2
dE q
 1  3  1  Fr2

dy gy
 Now, let’s consider total head (H) measured
along longitudinal flow direction
2
v
H  Ez  y z
2g
 Let’s take dH/dx: <<see whiteboard>>
Occurrence of Critical Flow:
Take-away facts
 Regardless of cross-sectional shape:
dH dE dz  dy 
      1  Fr 
2 dz
 

dx dx dx  dx  dx
 Can be invoked to identify locations where
critical flow occurs (e.g. outfall to steep slope)
 Can also be used to determine qualitative value
of depth of flow under varying circumstances
(esp. step problems)
Non-Rectangular Geometry –
obvious but…
 Trapezoidal Cross-
B
Section
y 1

m
A  by  my 2
b
B  b  2my
 << Sample calculation on whiteboard >>

Using Circular Cross-Section
Properties Handout

Circular Cross-Section B
 Calculate factor, y/d

 Look up A/d2, T/d
D

y
 A 2
A   2  D
d  From Circular Cross-Section
Properties Handout
T 
B    D
d 
 << Sample calculation on whiteboard >>
( yc )
Figure 2-24

( Ec )
Figure 2-25

Example 14: Using Figures 2-24 and
2-25
 Settings:
 Trapezoidal Channel, b = 5 feet, m = 2
 Outfall to steep slope

 Lake level away from outfall is 2 feet
higher than outfall invert
 Find Q
mEc 2  2
  0.8
b 5
Z  0.6

Zb 2 gb
Q 3
2
m
(0.6)(5) 2 32.2(5)
Q 3
2
2
ft 3
Q  67
s
Solving Example 14 w/o Figure 2-25
 Re-arrange Specific Energy equation,
solving for Q:

Q Ec  y   (2 gA 2
)
 Note that A is f(y)
 Build spreadsheet with trial y values,
A(y), and resultant Q (from above eq’n)
 Choose maximum resultant Q
Solving Example 14 w/o Figure 2-25
 Maximum Q value
 Note that solution
points to 68 ft3/s

(Figure 2-24 gave
us 67 ft3/s)
 Looks like we can
really only read
Figure 2-25 to one
significant figure
 So Figure 2-25
answer is more
accurately, 70 ft3/s
Example 15: Using Figures 2-24 and
2-25
 Settings:
 Trapezoidal Channel, b = ? feet, m = 2.0
 Outfall to steep slope

 Depth of flow at outfall is 3.0 feet at
outfall invert
 Discharge is 260 ft3/s
 Find b
 Which Figure?
Q
M1  2
 1.47, use 1.5
my c gyc
myc 2  3
  1.1
b b
b  5.5

2
 Qm 2  3 5
b 
Z g 
 
2
 260  2 2  3 5
b 
 2 32.2 
 
b  5.3
More Precision: Solving Example 15
w/o Figure 2-24
Q
Fr 
 A
A g  

B
 Use definition of
Froude # and
known trapezoidal
geometry. Vary b.
 Compare to b = 5.3
ft.
Review of Approach to Solving
Critical Flow in Circular or
Trapezoidal Channel
 Identify Figure. Does the problem
pertain to critical depth or energy?

 Identify what problem pertains to:
1. Discharge?
2. Depth or Energy?
3. Geometry (D or b)?
 If high precision is needed, spreadsheet
approach may be indicated.
Non-Rectangular Channel
Relationships – Discharge
 Previously (unit discharge [=] ft2/s):
Q
q

b
 Now (discharge [=] ft3/s):
Q
Relationships – Specific Energy
 Previously:
2
q
E 

2
y Always good:
2 gy 2
v
 Now:
E y
Q 2 2g
E 2
y
2 gA
Relationships – Critical Depth
 Previously:
1
q2


3
yc   
 g 
 Now (use Figure 2-24):
yc  f1 (Q, m, b) or f 2 (Q, D)
Relationships – Critical Energy
 Previously:

Ec  y c
2
 Now (use Figure 2-25):
yc  f 3 (Q, m, b) or f 4 (Q, D)
Relationships – Froude Number
 Previously:
v q
Fr  

gy y gy
 Now:
v Q
Fr  
 A  A
g   A g  
B B
Relationships – Alternate Depth
 Previously:
2 y1
y2 

3
8 gy
1  1  2 1
q
 Now:
N/A : use trial & error
or Goal Seek in Excel
Reminder: “Summary…” under
“Help Files and Useful Links”

Brief Digression: Missing Discussion
about Critical Flow
 “Information” travel and shallow wave
ripple propagation

vw  gy

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Chapter 2: Energy – Solutions

K16885_SM_Cover.indd 11 10/03/15 4:46 pm

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a. Using the equation from problem 2-1, we have:

b. Specific energy for either depth, y, is the same:

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Therefore, the flow is supercritical.

a) First we calculate the upstream energy:

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e. Looking for the value of y1 that satisfies,

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e. Looking for the value of y1 that satisfies,

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K16885_SM_Cover.indd 20 10/03/15 4:46 pm

e. Looking for the value of y1 that satisfies,

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a. As stated, we can assume critical conditions apply. This is simple application of

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So the upstream flow is subcritical. We therefore expect subcritical flow downstream

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d1 = v1t* d2 = v2t* d3 = v3t*

Figure 2.8 E-y diagram showing solutions to Example 2.2.

1.5 Example 2.2

Figure 2.13 E-y diagram showing solutions to Example 2.5.

Figure 2.17 Definition sketch for water surface shapes discussion.

Figure 2.19 Definition sketch for trapezoidal section geometry.

Figure 2.20 Definition sketch for a circular section geometry.

Mdesign, circular = Mdesign, trapezoidal =

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

<<Slides relating to Chapter 2

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

Gate does NOT yes

Gate is NOT a Gate is a Choke

© Taylor & Francis, 2015

© Taylor & Francis, 2015