Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Flat plate solar photovoltaic–thermal (PV/T) systems: A reference guide

Jee Joe Michael a,n, Iniyan Sa, Ranko Goic b
a
Institute for Energy Studies, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Anna University, Chennai, India
b
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, University of Split, Split, Croatia

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The increasing installed area of solar technologies around the world gives us an idea about the unlimited
Received 11 August 2014 potential available in solar energy. This combined with the rising fossil fuel prices and frequent power
Received in revised form outages, favor decentralized power generation among domestic consumers and small industries.
29 April 2015
However, the low energy of the solar PV module, the low exergy of the solar flat plate thermal collector
Accepted 1 June 2015
and limited usable shadow-free space on building roof-tops could be overcome by the high overall
(electrical and thermal) efficiency of a solar Photovoltaic Thermal (PV/T) system, which combines the
Keywords: electrical and thermal components in a single unit area. This paper gives a brief overview of the different
Solar PV/T solar flat plate PV/T technologies, their efficiencies, applications, advantages, limitations and research
Photovoltaic thermal
opportunities available.
PV
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Thermal
Flat plate
Hybrid
Combined heat and power

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2. Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3. PV module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4. PV/T collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5. Previous reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6. Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.1. Electrical efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.2. Thermal efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7. Layers of the PV/T collector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.1. Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.2. Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.3. Anti-reflective coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.4. Crystalline silicon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.5. Poly vinyl fluoride (PVF or Tedlar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.6. Adhesive layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8. Construction details. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.1. Glazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.1.1. Unglazed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.1.2. Glazed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.2. Diffuse reflectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.3. Cooling methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.3.1. Air based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.3.2. Type of fins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.3.3. Water based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.3.4. Flow rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: jeemjoel@gmail.com (J.J. Michael), rgoic@fesb.hr (R. Goic).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.06.022
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88 63

8.4.Type of cooling channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

8.4.1. Sheet and tube absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.4.2. Channel below the PV module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.4.3. Channel above the PV module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.5. Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.6. Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.7. Heat pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.8. Heat pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.9. Types of cells used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.9.1. Monocrystalline/polycrystalline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.9.2. Thin film. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9. Experimental investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
10. Theoretical investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
10.1. TRNSYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.2. MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
11. Applications of PV/T collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
11.1. Water heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
11.2. Solar desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
11.3. Space heating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
11.4. Solar heating and cooling system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
11.5. Thermoelectric generators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
11.6. Building integrated photovoltaic thermal (BIPV/T) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
11.7. Solar drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
12. Limitations of PV/T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
12.1. Adhesive requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
12.2. Stagnation temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
13. Advantages of PV/T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
13.1. Renewable targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
13.2. Aesthetics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
13.3. Payback period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
13.4. Compact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
13.5. Environment friendly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
14. Research areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
14.1. Simulation software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
14.2. Suitable adhesive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
14.3. Standard for testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
14.4. Introduction to nanotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
14.5. Advanced materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
14.6. Reliability studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
14.7. Single package lamination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
15. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Acknowledgement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

1. Introduction
The national energy policy drivers of any country are Energy
security, economic growth and environment protection [1]. The
average global surface temperature of the earth has increased by
0.76 1C, due to the onset of the industrial revolution in the 18th
century. But, the renewable energy sources are used to supply only
14% of the world’s total energy consumption [2]. Solar energy,
among all other available energy resources is the most abundant,
inexhaustible and cleanest till date [3]. It is also the ultimate
energy resource for the future, because of the rising fossil fuel
prices, global warming and pollution, offering enormous potential
in India, as 45% of the rural areas are still un-electrified. This is
evident from the increasing use of Solar Photovoltaic modules over
the years. This self-sufficient sector has attracted academicians,
researchers, industrialists and governments through solar energy
courses, research funds and incentives for solar energy installa-
tions, to invest once and reap the benefits for decades [4]. Solar
energy from the sun experienced by us as heat and light, can be
used for thermal applications like water heating, water purifica-
tion, cooking, drying, power generation, and other applications,
and photovoltaic applications such as lighting, communications,
pumping and power supply. Solar energy, especially the Solar PV,
has one of the highest capital costs among all renewable energy
sources, but it has the lowest operational cost, owing to the very
low maintenance and repair needs [5]. The increasing efficiency,
lower capital cost, and minimal maintenance, and pollution are
the advantages of the solar photovoltaic systems [3]. India is
located in a tropical region, thereby receiving a good level of solar
radiation ranging from 2300 to 3200 h throughout the year, with
more than 5000 trillion kWh/year equivalent of solar energy [1].
The installed capacity of solar photovoltaic modules and solar
thermal collectors throughout the world is shown in Fig. 1.
The Photovoltaic Thermal (PV/T) is a solar energy collector,
using PV as the absorber [6]. The present photovoltaic technology
has a major inherent drawback in its inability to absorb solar
radiation from the complete solar spectrum. This causes PV solar
cells to deliver relatively low electrical efficiencies, since a major
part of the incident solar energy is rejected as heat. Solar PV/T
collectors harvest this rejected heat, and thus increase the overall
thermal and electrical efficiency [7,8]. Incident Photons, with
energy smaller than the PV cell bandgap will not be absorbed,
but reach the back surface of the solar cell, get reflected by the
metal contact to a greater extent and leave the solar cell at the
64 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88

Nomenclature τ transmittance
η efficiency (%)
A area (m2)
Cp heat capacity (J/kgK) Subscripts
Ee electrical energy (W)
Eth thermal energy (W) a ambient
FR heat removal factor C collector
G global solar radiation (W/m2) e electrical
I Exergy i inlet
m_ mass flow rate (kg/s) m mean
pF photovoltaic packing factor o outlet
Q energy (W) prim primary
S area covered with photovoltaic cells (m2) PV photovoltaic
T temperature (1C) PV,ref reference photovoltaic
(TPV)eff photovoltaic module effective temperature (1C) pv,T temperature of PV module
UL overall heat loss coefficient (W/m2 K) PV/T photovoltaic thermal
ref reference
Greek th thermal
T temperature
α absorptance u useful
β temperature coefficient of photovoltaic cells (1C  1)

front. Photons with an energy above the bandgap will be absorbed
by the PV cell, and generate only one electron-hole pair per
photon, and the remaining energy will be converted to heat in
the crystal lattice. Also, part of the electron-hole pairs will be
converted into heat by internal recombination and ohmic losses
[9]. The rise in temperature of the PV cell is linearly proportional
to the incident photons and ambient temperature, but it has a
negative impact on the electrical efficiency, though higher insola-
tion values produce more current output. So, to reduce the
temperature, the commonly used cooling techniques are the less
expensive air cooling, and the more effective water cooling. If the
PV module is not actively cooled, the increase in temperature will
be 1.8 1C for every 100 W/m2, and hence, the solar cells can
achieve an efficiency of only 8% to 9%. However, if the PV module
is actively cooled, then the module temperature increases only
1.4 1C for every 100 W/m2, leading to an increase in efficiency
between 12% and 14%. But this increases the complexity and cost
of the completed component. Nevertheless, the energy payback
period and the annual energy output per unit area have substan-
tial improvement [10]. For an average insolation of 749 W/m2, and
an ambient temperature of 8 to 9 1C, the average cell temperature
was reduced from 52 1C to 18 1C, by cooling with cold water at
10 1C to 12 1C [11]. Fig. 2 shows a solar PV/T water collector, placed
adjacent to a commercially available solar thermal collector and a
solar photovoltaic module. The solar PV/T collector combines the
solar thermal and solar photovoltaic technology in a single unit,
thereby, producing overall higher efficiency at less roof-space.
Installing photovoltaic (PV) modules can use only 10% to 15% of
the incident solar energy, and they reduce the possibility of using
solar thermal collectors in the limited roof-space of buildings [12].
Also, the PV/T collectors have lower electrical efficiency and
thermal efficiency compared to the individual conventional col-
lectors [13]. But, the PV/T systems are more efficient than conven-
tional solar thermal or solar photovoltaic systems per unit area
[14]. PV/T collectors of unit area annually produced 1.1
103kWh
of heat, and 55 to 83 kWh of electricity, respectively [15]. The PV/T
collectors partially covered with PV modules are beneficial for
thermal energy applications, and PV/T collectors fully covered with
PV modules are beneficial for electrical energy applications [16].
The temperature of a solar PV module in a PV/T collector is less
compared to an individual PV module placed outdoor in similar
conditions as shown in Fig. 3, due to flow of water to remove the
heat in a PV/T collector.
More amount of practical research is required in PV/T flat plate
collectors for widespread commercial acceptance of the technol-
ogy. PV/T technology should be marketed for the residential sector
in countries, with widespread use of solar water heaters and solar
PV modules for domestic water heating and electricity production,
respectively [6]. According to the US Department of Energy, 43% of
the total energy consumed by residential consumers was in the
form of heat used for space heating and water heating, and the
remaining is for electricity [17]. A survey conducted by the
International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling program
(IEA SHC) in 2006 found, that approximately 141 million m2 of
solar thermal collectors were installed in its 41 member countries
till 2004 [18]. The inventor of the flat plate PV/T liquid system was
Martin Wolf in 1976, who analyzed the performance of a com-
bined heating and photovoltaic system for residential applications
[19,20]. Multi-family buildings can be considered as an important
early market for PV/T technology, due to the limited roof area
which promotes efficient renewable energy utilization [6]. A
photovoltaic thermal hot water system was designed and studied
for a domestic household in China [21]. The potential of PV/T
technology in China was investigated by conducting experimental,
economic and sensitivity analyses in Beijing [22]. Building inte-
grated systems can be used in countries with low sun and cold
climate, to lower the temperature of the PV modules with air, and
supply the hot air for space heating. In warmer climates, these are
mostly used for water heating for domestic uses, like showers and
washing [23]. The most suitable region to use PV modules is in
environments with plentiful amounts of sunlight, which often are
regions with warm climates [24].
2. Formulae
The efficiency of the photovoltaic thermal system is given by
[25]
Qu ðT  T a Þ
ηi ¼ ¼ F R n τα  F R n U L i  ηPV
Gn Ac G
 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88 65

Fig. 1. (a) World installed PV capacity in 2013 [Source: Wikipedia], (b) Worldwide installed SWH capacity in 2009 [Source: Global Energy Data of Enerdata from EurObserv’ER
and the International Energy Agency].

Fig. 2. A flat plate solar PV/T system with same sized separate flat plate SWH and
solar PV module.

Fig. 4. A solar hybrid PV/T system [Source: www.tessolarwater.com].

where ηPV is the photovoltaic efficiency, which is given as follows


ηPV ¼ τC n ηPV;ref n pF 1  βðT m  T ref Þ
The efficiency of crystalline silicon cells decreases with increas-
ing temperature, since the open circuit voltage and fill factor
decreases, but the short circuit current slightly increases. This
combined effect is given by the following formula
ηpv ¼ ηpv; T ¼ 25 1C ð1  β ½T  25 1CÞ

The formula that can be used for the calculation of the standard
PV module temperature is a function of the ambient temperature
Ta, and the incoming solar radiation G, and is given by [26]
Fig. 3. A pictorial representation showing the temperature of a PV/T collector and
T PV ¼ 30 þ 0:0175ðG  300Þ þ 1:14ðT a  25Þ
PV module.
66 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
In PV/T systems, the PV module temperature (TPV)eff depends
also on the heat extraction fluid mean temperature.

Solar PV technology has one of the highest capital costs of all
ðT PV Þeff ¼ T PV þ T PV=T  T a
where TPV/T is the operating temperature of the PV/T system which
includes the temperature of the PV module and the thermal
absorber [26].
The thermal efficiency of the PV/T system is determined as a
function of the global solar radiation (G), the input temperature of
the fluid (Tin) and the ambient temperature (Ta) [26]
ηth ¼ m
_ C p ðT o  T Þi =GAa
The useful heat gain of the PV/T system is represented by [18]
 
Q ¼ AF R ðταÞPV nGU L ðT i  T a Þ
The above equation can be modified to account for the packing
factor, or fraction of the collector surface covered by PV cells (S),
and the transmittance–absorptance product of the collector mate-
rial (ταT) on to which the PV cells are laminated, as shown below:
[18]
     
Q ¼ S AF R ðταÞPV nG  U L ðT i  T a Þ þ ð1  SÞ AF R ðταÞT nG  U L ðT i T a Þ
By rearranging the above two equations, we can develop an
equation for determining the thermal efficiency, as shown below:
[18]


Ti Ta
ηth ¼ F R SnðταÞPV þ ð1 SÞnðταÞT  F R U L
G in performance due to a rise in temperature [36] because of its
In order to compare the total yield (electrical and thermal)
between the various PV/T systems, the electrical energy (Ee) and
the thermal energy (Eth) are converted into primary energy before
they are added.
Ee Eth
Eprim ¼ þ sunshine, resulting in a 43% electrical efficiency loss [36], but a
ηprime ηprimth
where ηprim-e and ηprim-th are the conversion efficiencies for
converting primary energy into electrical and thermal energy
respectively, in the conventional way. For ηprim-e the power
generation efficiency of a conventional power plant is used, which
typically is 40%. For ηprim-th the thermal efficiency of a conven-
tional gas-fired domestic hot water system is used, which typically
is 65% [27].
The outlet exergy is the combination of electrical and thermal
gains, and is defined as follows: [12]
 
To
I ¼ Eout_conv þ Q u 1 
Ta
where Eout_conv is the electrical output power divided by 0.38
which is the average efficiency of the thermal power plants. Qu is
the thermal gain of the collector and the To is the outlet
temperature of the water [12].
Fig. 5. The different layers of a PV/T module [Source: www.pss-ag.com].
3. PV module
renewable energy sources, but it has the lowest operational cost, due
to the very low maintenance and repair needs [5]. 70% of the capital
costs in a PV system are related to the PV module. Therefore, the
payback period of the whole solar PV system is determined mainly by
the initial power output, power degradation and lifetime of the PV
module [3]. A crystalline Silicon photovoltaic module converts 13% to
20% of the incident solar radiation to electrical energy [3] by photo-
voltaic action, and the remaining radiation is converted to thermal
energy, due to the infrared radiation of the solar spectrum and the
heat generated by the photovoltaic action [28]. The PV module
efficiency is less than the solar PV cell efficiency, due to ohmic losses
between any two series connected solar cells and the packing factor
(o1) [29]. The absorption factor in AM 1.5 of a typical encapsulated c-
Si photovoltaic cell is 90.5%, and it can be increased to 93%, by
minimizing the reflective losses [30]. For the crystalline silicon PV cell,
absorption occurs between 0.4 mm and 1.1 mm of the solar spectral
range. Beyond the Si cell, nearly no irradiance energy below 1.1 mm
remains, and after slight reflection in back contact and absorption in
the layers of the lower EVA and Tedlar, the transmissive irradiance is in
the band of infrared λ 41.1 mm [11,18,31–35]. A consequence of using
less reflecting back contact materials is that, the PV electrical efficiency
will drop by approximately 0.3% [30]. However, high reflectivity
metallic back contacts give lower emissivity in the long wavelength
region [11]. The Solar Photovoltaic is a semiconductor, which degrades
dependence on mobility, diffusion length and lifetime of the minority
charge carriers and saturation current [37]. The wind speed, ambient
temperature, and solar radiation are the natural factors which
influence the temperature of a photovoltaic module [31]. The tem-
perature of a standard PV module may attain 110 1C during peak
spectrally selective coated thermal absorber can reach up to 220 1C
[6]. PV modules normally operate at 50 1C above ambient temperature,
resulting in more than 25% drop in electrical efficiency [38], with
further reduction if installed in environments with warm climates
with high ambient temperatures [24]. The temperature control of PV
cells is very important, because the open-circuit voltage decreases,
when the temperature rises [39]. The electrical efficiency of a PV
module is determined by its packing factor (PF), ohmic losses between
two solar cells, and its temperature [16]. The enhancement of the
system’s heat capacity and heat extraction should be considered, to
maintain a low PV module temperature [31]. The energy allotment
analysis shows that during the day, the reflective and transmissive
losses are  26% and 13% respectively, while the convective and
radiative heat losses are  30% and  24% respectively, and hence,
only 7% of the incident solar energy is converted to electrical power
[31]. The current produced by the series connected PV cells is directly
proportional to the incident radiation. Hence, the PV cell that receives
the least illumination determines the power output of the PV module
[40]. The photovoltaic industry’s maturity can be confirmed by its
ability to design PV arrays for different applications and sites, and then
cost effectively verify its outdoor performance accurately in the field
[41].
4. PV/T collector
A Solar Photovoltaic Thermal System is a combination of solar
photovoltaic technology and solar thermal technology, to produce
both electricity and heat simultaneously [42]. The absorption
factor of a standard PV module should be above 80% for the PV/T
collector to be financially competitive with individual systems
[43]. The individual electrical and thermal yield of the PV/T system
 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
is lower, because of high solar reflectance and high infrared
emission [11], thereby obtaining higher U-value [44] compared
to separate conventional collectors yields. However, the PV/T
system produces more energy per unit area at lower cost [45],
compared to a PV module and a thermal collector adjacent to each
other [13]. A comparison showed that the reduced thermal
efficiency of the PV/T system was attributed to: [11]
1) The available solar energy reduced by the fraction converted to
electricity by the PV cells.
2) A lower optical absorption compared to the black thermal
absorber.
3) Increased heat transfer resistance introduced between the cell
and absorber.
A commercially available solar PV/T water heating system
placed on the roof-top of a building is shown in Fig. 4. A PV/T
absorber using the standard PV module will reach temperatures
up to 150 1C [11]. By reducing the PV module temperature using a
fluid, a balance can be produced between the electrical output and
thermal output [36]. The PV module, cooled using water, reached a
maximum temperature of 34.34 1C, compared to the naturally
cooled PV module temperature of 58.64 1C, thereby increasing the
electrical efficiency [46]. The degree of cooling achieved by a PV/T
collector is determined by the inlet fluid temperature and by the
thermal characteristics of the collector [11]. The cell temperature
can be kept below 45 1C, if the inlet fluid temperature is less than
40 1C without cover glass, and 30 1C with cover glass for 800 W/m2
solar insolation, 20 1C ambient temperature, and wind speed of
1 m/s [11]. The temperature of any solar heat collector exposed to
the sun, gradually increases from the cold water input edge to the
opposite end. Therefore, an increase in the area covered by the
photovoltaic module will reduce the cooling effect [47]. The mean
operating temperature will depend on the incident solar irradia-
tion, size of the thermal storage, and area of the collector [43]. The
optimal tilt angle in China was calculated for a PV/T system, using
a theoretical model and observed increased annual energy collec-
tion [48]. Better electrical performance is obtained for a series
connected PV cells operating at different temperatures than a
parallel connection of cells, because PV current is less temperature
dependent than PV voltage [20]. The PV/T technology is suitable
for low temperature applications in the range of 25 to 40 1C [44].
The arrangement of a solar photovoltaic module and a solar
thermal collector, along with the thermal insulation and alumi-
nium casing to make the solar PV/T collector is shown in Fig. 5.
5. Previous reviews
An introduction of the concept of PV/T technology with detailed
description of the different designs, mathematical modeling, market
conditions, experimental testing and standards, future potential and
challenges are presented [49]. A detailed review on the research and
development in solar PV/T technology in the last decade is presented
[50]. An overview of the research projects on Photovoltaic Thermal
(PV/T) collectors, and a thematic overview addressing the different
research issues for PV/T was discussed [51]. The design, performance,
theoretical and experimental studies of air and water PV/T collectors
are presented [52]. The classification of the flat plate PV/T collector,
design and performance evaluation using water, air and combination
of water and/or air based was elaborated. It is stated that the factors
which influenced the efficiency of the system are the area where the
collector is covered with PV module, the number of fluid passes, and
the distance between the absorber and solar cells [53]. An overview of
PV/T technology, using both water and air as heat transfer fluids for
better overall efficiency, were discussed [54]. A review on the
67
analytical, numerical, experimental, and simulation studies of PV/T
collector are presented [55]. The different design concepts of the PV/T
collector with stagnation protection and other construction materials
were discussed [56]. A review on the performance, theoretical,
experimental and simulation of different PV/T collectors including flat
plate, concentrating, water and air were presented [57]. The main
principles and studies performed on PV/T collectors, giving details of
their design, operation, performance and applications were presented
[58]. A review on the research, characteristics, results and future
studies on solar PV/T technology was presented [59]. A review
comprising the classification, design and performance of PV/T air,
water and combination configurations was presented [60]. The
different concepts, designs and developments of PV/T air based
collectors were elaborated [61]. The different design configurations
of the PV/T combi-panel were discussed [62]. A review covering the
factors affecting the electrical and thermal performance, of all existing
PV/T systems, and the important design parameters for maximum
performance is presented [63]. The trend of development, the
advancements in recent years, and the future work required in PV/T
technology were reviewed [64]. The different research and develop-
ments in PV/T technology carried out in Solar Energy Research
Institute are briefly reviewed [65]. The performance evaluation and
applications of different photovoltaic thermal systems were presented
[66]. The latest module aspects of different PV/T collectors and their
performances, in terms of electrical as well as thermal output were
focused on [67]. The impact and improvement strategies of various
parameters on the electrical and thermal performance of PV/T
collectors are reviewed [68]. A detailed review of the different types
and parameters influencing the electrical and thermal performance of
PV/T systems were presented [69]. An overview on the research and
development, and application aspects like solar heating, solar cooling,
solar greenhouse, solar still, solar PV/T with heat pump and building
integrated photovoltaic thermal (BIPV/T) were reviewed [70]. The
various types of up and coming PV modules based on the generation
of the solar cell, and their applications in terms of electrical as well as
thermal outputs were presented. The review also covers a detailed
description and thermal model of PV and hybrid photovoltaic thermal
systems, using water and air as the working fluid [16]. An extensive
review of solar PV/T technologies suggesting that refrigerant/heat pipe
based PV/T could achieve much higher solar conversion efficiencies
over air/water based systems, was discussed [71]. Different PV/T
collector systems, which utilize water and refrigerant as heat removal
media were reviewed for different applications, and it was confirmed
that a direct expansion solar-assisted heat pump system achieved a
better cooling effect [72]. Hybrid PV/T collectors, which can provide
both electrical and thermal energy from the same system were
reviewed, and manufacturers of commercial PV/T collectors and some
example projects were discussed [73]. A detailed review of PV/T
systems using water as the heat transfer fluid, and the material
components for the construction of PV/T collectors, were discussed
[74]. The different solar technologies, namely, photovoltaic system and
solar thermal system with their development, problems and solutions
in China are discussed [75]. The design, performance, future research
works and applications of PV/T air based solar collector are discussed
[76].
6. Efficiency
The factors responsible for the lower thermal efficiency of the
PV/T system, in comparison with the conventional thermal absor-
ber are: [77]
(a) The lower optical efficiency of 0.744 for the PV laminates,
instead of 0.89 for a conventional thermal absorber.
68 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88

Table 1
Efficiency of different PV/T collectors.

Type Thermal efficiency Electrical efficiency Combined efficiency Reference

PV/T water system 64 12 [35]

PV/T with functionality graded material (FGM) – – 71(3 to 18% increase) [24]
PV/T water system 40 10 - [80]
PV/T water system 79 8.7 87 [34]
PV/T with spiral flow design 64.4 12.13 [81]
PV/T water system 60 (Opaque PV) 9 (Opaque and – [72]
63 (Transparent PV) Transparent PV)
PV/T with spiral flow design 61.3 13.03 74.1 [82]
PV/T water system 54 8.5 62.5 [35]
PV/T water system 52 (Unglazed) 9.7 (Unglazed) – [72]
58 (Single glazed) 8.9 (Single glazed)
58 (Double glazed) 8.1 (Double
glazed)
PV/T unglazed water system 35.33 12.77 [83]
PV/T water system 58 9.7 – [84]
PV/T with Spiral flow design 50.12 11.98 – [53]
PV/T water system with diffuse reflectors – 19.2 60 to 80 [17]
PV/T water system (KNMI test reference year, ISSO tapping 33 6.7 – [13]
schedule)
PV/T system with R134a refrigerant 64 8 [85]
PV/T system collector area fully covered with PV cells 45 10 [86]
Dual flow PV/T liquid collector 69 10 [87]
Dual flow PV/T liquid collector (Bottom air insulation) 66 8.5 [70]
PV/T system with air flow through secondary absorber 42 8.9 [87]
PV/T system with air flow through corrugated secondary 40 7.8 [87]
absorber
PV/T collector with ITO layer above PV module 39 6.8
PV/T system Liquid: c-Si (55), a-Si (60) c-Si (12), a-Si (6) [88]
Air: c-Si (38), a-Si (45)
PV/T water system PV with packing factor 85% (25), PV with 11, 10 [89]
packing factor 72% (43)
PV/T system with single pass rectangular tunnel absorber 64, 55 11, 10 [27]
PV/T collector with single glazed sheet and tube with 40 to 50 10 to 13 [24]
Propylene Glycol
PV/T collector with corrugated polycarbonate absorber with 38 9 60 (Primary energy saving [90]
square box channels efficiency)
PV/T evaporator 53 to 64 12.4 to 13.5 [91]
PV/T system with flat box Al alloy in natural circulation 45 10.15 52, Primary energy saving [92]
mode efficiency (65)
PV/T system with flat plate and heat pipe 25.8 14.5 40.3 [93]
PV/T system with thermosyphon and heat pipe 23.8 9.5 [94]
PV/T system with polycarbonate material “Twintex” 29 14 43 to 65 [95]
(reduces the weight by more than half)
PV/T with spiral flow absorber 54.6 13.8 68.4 [96]
PV/T air collector 22 15 [97]

(b) A smaller heat transfer between the PV laminate and water.
Due to this heat resistance, the PV laminate surface is
relatively hot, and therefore, thermal losses are enhanced.
(c) The PV laminate is not spectrally selective, since glass has a
high emission factor in the infrared. Due to this, the emission
of the PV module is 0.9, compared to the spectrally selective
thermal absorber of 0.12. This increases the radiation losses
from the absorber.
(d) Due to the law of conservation of energy, electrical energy can
be produced only at the expense of thermal energy.
As per the law of Conservation of Energy, an increase in the
electrical efficiency of the PV/T system causes a decrease in its thermal
efficiency and vice versa [78]. The inclusion of the photovoltaic module
as the absorber, changes the thermal performance of the system due to
changes in the surface absorptance, surface emittance [7] and absorber
heat transfer efficiency [25]. The solar absorptance of the PV module
can be increased, by choosing a PV module with black aluminum frame
and black backsheet, which yield an increased normal solar absorp-
tance of 92% compared to 85% otherwise [79]. A standard spectrally
selective solar thermal absorber has a very high solar absorption of 93%
to 95% and a very low infrared emission of 5% to 10% [6]. The
absorption coefficient of a PV module is around 0.85, whereas it is
around 0.95 for a spectrally selective coated thermal absorber. Similarly,
the global emissivity of a PV module is around 0.9, whereas it is only
0.05 for a spectrally selective coated thermal absorber [53]. Indium tin
oxide (ITO) which is transparent to the solar spectrum above 0.5 mm,
could be placed on the back of the PV panels, to pass part of the solar
radiation not absorbed by the amorphous layers, onto the blackened
absorber plate [23]. There are various methods available to combine the
value of electricity and heat, namely: [6]
a) Calculate the total energy by simple addition.
b) Calculate the primary energy savings.
c) Calculate the saved cost from the tariffs for heating energy and
electrical energy.
d) Calculate the exergy.
e) Calculate the CO2 emission reduction.
The electrical, thermal and combined efficiencies of different
PV/T systems obtained by different researchers are presented in
Table 1.
The lower thermal efficiency of a PV/T collector is attributed to
several reasons namely: (a) some percentage of the incident solar
 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
energy is converted to electrical energy, (b) inferior optical proper-
ties of the glass layer, (c) reflection losses in the encapsulation and
glass layer, (d) low thermal conductivity from the top layer of the
PV module to the heat transfer fluid [45], and (e) the additional
thermal resistance created by the adhesive. The lower electrical
efficiency is due to the optical losses in the glass cover [7,27,35].
The best performance was achieved by a single-covered PV/T
collector, producing 614 kWh/year, followed by a FPC producing
575 kWh/year, and a coverless PV/T producing 480 kWh/year, and
lastly by a PV module producing 72.6 kWh/year. But, using the
exergy analysis, the best performance was achieved by a coverless
PV/T collector producing 80.8 kWh/year, followed by the PV
module at 72.6 kWh/year, the third the single covered PV/T
collector at 71.5 kWh/year, and lastly, the FPC at 6.0 kWh/year
[17,98]. The overall system efficiency increased with an increase in
the length of the collector, fluid mass flow rate, and packing factor.
But, it decreased with an increase in the duct depth [23]. The fluid
channel below the PV module gave 2% higher efficiency than the
sheet and tube PV/T collectors [17]. A decrease in the packing
factor increases the thermal and combined efficiencies, but the PV
efficiency decreased slightly [23]. An improvement of the PV/T can
be achieved, by using an additional glazing to increase the thermal
output, and booster diffuse reflectors can increase both the
electrical and thermal output [15]. Better performance can be
obtained by using a high covering factor and glazing transmissivity
[99]. It can be concluded, that both the electrical and thermal
efficiency of a typical PV/T collector are about 10% to 20% lower,
compared to the separate conventional PV and thermal collector
systems [27]. The primary energy savings of the PV/T system was
higher than the individual PV module and the traditional solar
thermal collector [80].
6.1. Electrical efficiency
The climate, orientation and temperature are the factors
affecting the electrical performance of a given PV/T system [6].
The PV cell at the highest temperature will limit the electrical
efficiency of the whole module. The coolant fluid should flow
through a simple and reliable design, to maintain a low and
uniform PV module temperature, with minimum parasitic power
consumption [64]. The electrical efficiency of the PV panel is
slightly smaller than the electrical efficiency of the combi-panel
due to the lower temperature of the PV cells in the combi-panel, in
which the inlet temperature was kept constant at approximately
18 1C, which implies that the electrical gain due to cooling of the
PV cells by the water is larger than the optical loss due to
reflection at the glass cover in a combi-panel [77]. The TESPI panel
electrical yield is equal to or 2% to 3% higher than that of a PV
module exposed to air, because it works at an average temperature
of about 20 to 30 1C lower. Also, the TESPI panel temperature
during no heat extraction increases uniformly with an increase in
irradiation, but remains about 10 1C lower than the PV system
exposed to air, due to the high thermal inertia of the heat transfer
fluid [100]. Higher electrical efficiency can be obtained in winter
months, due to the low ambient temperature [101]. Also, high
wind speeds lead to an increase in the electrical efficiency due to
greater heat losses [18]. Although the electrical efficiency is
typically 40% of the thermal efficiency, the primary energy savings
are almost equal [6].
6.2. Thermal efficiency
Increasing the transmittance absorptance product improves the
thermal efficiency [18]. The PV module has a high reflection
coefficient, due to the high refractive index of the semiconductor
material [47]. The anti-reflective coating of the solar cells is
69
Fig. 6. A cross-sectional view of a PV/T water collector.
optimized for a shorter wavelength to optimize the photocurrent.
But, the reflection for a longer wavelength is high, compared to the
low reflection of spectrally selective coatings used in conventional
thermal collectors, leading to a reduced thermal performance [9].
The absorption of the longer wavelengths can be increased by the
use of a silicone encapsulant [102]. Decreasing the area covered by
the PV cells results in an increase in thermal efficiency, but results
in a slight decrement in the electrical efficiency [18]. However,
increasing the collector surface increases the available radiation,
but also leads to an increase in the heat loss of the system [12]. The
overall thermal efficiency increases with a decrease in the depth of
the air duct, because of more thermal energy extraction from the
back surface [29]. The wind speed also determines the thermal
efficiency of the PV/T collector [103]. The daily high thermal
efficiency could attain around 40% in an aluminum alloy flat box
type PV/T collector, when the initial water temperature is the same
as the daily mean ambient temperature [35,104]. A 50% increase in
thermal efficiency with simultaneous increase in electrical effi-
ciency were observed by encapsulating the silicon PV cells directly
on the fin type heat sink in a PV/T air collector [105].
7. Layers of the PV/T collector
7.1. Glass
Tempered and textured glass with high solar transmittance and
low iron content is used for photovoltaic module’s top protective
layer to facilitate the maximum solar radiation transmissibility
[14] of around 95% [106], which is greatly affected if the incident
angle of solar radiation is greater than 401 [99].
7.2. Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
A thermo-sensitive transparent resin of an EVA copolymer is a
thermal-set elastomer in sheet form, which is placed above and
below the photovoltaic silicon cells and module electrical circuitry.
It has low fusion and polymerization temperature, thereby acts as
an encapsulating sheet forming a permanent adhesive tight seal
through cross-linking and enhanced bonding when the sheet is
heated and pressed. It provides high optical transmittance similar
to glass with good dielectric properties for electrical isolation and
adequate mechanical compliance to accommodate thermal stres-
ses to prevent cell cracking, module deformation due to the
different thermal expansion coefficients of the different module
materials. It also protects against moisture and is stable at high
operating temperatures [106–109]. EVA is the highest thermal
resistance layer in encapsulated solar cells; hence, filling it with
thermal conductive materials enhances the thermal conductivity
of the EVA, the PV efficiency, and heat dissipating ability of the
solar cell effectively [110]. The browning of EVA which reduces the
optical transmissibility, happens after long term exposure to UV
sunlight, with module operating temperatures above 50 1C [111].
70 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
Fig. 7. Commercially available flat plate PV/T water collectors [Source: www.newformenergy.com].
Fig. 8. Pictorial representation of PV/T collector with diffuse reflectors.
7.3. Anti-reflective coating
Normally, Silicon reflects nearly 35% of the incoming solar
radiation. Double Porous Silicon layers formed by acid chemical
etching on the top surface of multi-crystalline silicon solar cells,
are an anti-reflective coating. To reduce the reflection losses,
nanometer thickness anti-reflective coating, such as Silicon Nitride
[112] is applied over the silicon cells [28].
7.4. Crystalline silicon
Different temperatures were measured on the glass, EVA and
Tedlar, using different temperature sensors under the same con-
ditions and the EVA layer recorded the highest temperature [41].
Long term damage to silicon cells can be avoided, if its tempera-
ture is maintained below 60 1C [14]. To cool the photovoltaic cells
effectively, the heat transfer between the PV module back surface
and the air flowing in the duct should be improved [101]. A
standard un-textured solar cell with a silver back contact has 74%
absorption factor, which can be improved to 87% if a semi-
transparent solar cell, without back contact is used in combination
with a second absorber, which is significantly lower than 95% of a
black thermal absorber [112].
7.5. Poly vinyl fluoride (PVF or Tedlar)
Poly Vinyl Fluoride polymer, commonly called as Tedlar, is the
simplest fluoro-polymer having excellent adhesion to EVA encap-
sulants, durability, excellent weathering resistance, good hydro-
lytic stability and high dielectric strength. It provides protection
from physical abrasions, moisture ingress, chemicals and isolates
the cells and electrical connections from the environment, UV and
heat. It also improves the electrical efficiency through high
internal reflection [106]. The glass back-sheet is used in some PV
modules, called BIPV (Building Integrated Photovoltaic) modules,
to facilitate the light radiation to pass through in facades or roofs
of buildings. But, the Tedlar sheet passes only 26% to 31% of the
incident solar radiation, which is blocked by the thermal con-
ductive adhesive. The PV module rear sheet is usually made of
white Tedlar with high reflectivity, to reflect the light in the non-
active layer of the PV cells, which leads to a slight increase in the
module efficiency. However, this leads to large reflection losses in
the PV/T collector, and therefore, to a reduction in usable heat [34].
7.6. Adhesive layer
The adhesive layer with good thermal properties is used to
mechanically couple the PV module back surface and a thermal
absorber, to increase the heat transfer, and therefore, a lower PV-
cell temperature, thereby increasing both thermal and electrical
efficiency. Thermally conductive but electrically insulating thixo-
tropic adhesive, with a thermal conductivity of 1.58 W/mK, was
used to adhere the polycrystalline solar PV module to a thermal
absorber [14]. However, the high cost of the thermal conductive
adhesive, non-uniform adhesiveness of the PV module on the
thermal absorber, and thermal stability at high temperatures, act
as deterrents to the PV/T collector. The presence of adhesive layer
between the solar PV module and solar thermal conductor offers
to transmit the heat generated in the PV module to the water
tubes in an efficient manner as shown in Fig. 6.
8. Construction details
The PV/T performance depends on various factors like the mass
flow rate, inlet fluid temperature, number of glass covers, absorber
to fluid thermal conductance, tube spacing and diameter and fin
thickness [23]. Copper was chosen as the thermal absorber
material in the PV/T collector, because of its high thermal con-
ductivity of 401 W/mK at a temperature of 300 K [84]. It was
concluded that PV/T water collectors have better performance
than PV/T air collectors, and that covered closed loop systems
performed better than uncovered closed loop systems [53].
8.1. Glazing
The best performance for producing energy gains is for a
single-covered collector, whereas the best exergy gain is achieved
for an uncovered collector [35]. In a thermosyphon solar water
heating system, a glazed PV/T collector is always suitable to
maximize the quantity of either the thermal or the overall energy
output. But for the unglazed PV/T collector, the increase of PV cell
efficiency, packing factor, water mass flow rate and wind velocity
are found favorable, for maximized exergy output [113]. Fig. 7
 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
shows the unglazed and glazed PV/T collectors commercially
available.
8.1.1. Unglazed
The coverless PV/T collector produced 8% more electrical
energy than a standard PV module [35,98], and 41% of the thermal
exergy of the FPC [23]. The total exergy of the coverless PV/T
collector was 11% higher than that of the PV module, and 12.87%
higher than that of the FPC. Also, the output density of the
coverless PV/T collector was 76% higher than that with the use of
a separate PV module and FPC, and the output density of the single
cover PV/T was 57% higher [23]. A single pass, unglazed and open
loop PV/T air system had increased thermal efficiency in the range
of 28% to 55%, and increased electrical efficiency in the range of
10.6% to 12.2% with the increase in the mass flow rate [114]. The
monthly performance of an unglazed PV/T system under forced
circulation in Cyprus, observed an increase of the mean annual
efficiency from 2.8% to 7.7% with a thermal efficiency of 49%,
respectively [29]. In countries with high feed-in tariffs, it is
economic to optimize the generation of electricity [6] and the
low temperature heat obtained is used primarily for pool heating
applications [33].
8.1.2. Glazed
PV/T systems consisting of PV modules without thermal insula-
tion of their top surface from the ambient have high heat losses,
which can be reduced by adding an additional transparent cover,
but this result in decreasing the PV module’s electrical output,
because of the additional absorption and reflection of solar
radiation in the glass surface [26,115], reducing the amount of
absorbed energy by about 10% [17]. The increased transmission
losses in a steady state PV/T air collector model, due to the
addition of a second glass cover do not justify the heat loss
reduction. But in terms of the overall energy performance, the
double glass cover is better than the single glass option [64]. Anti-
reflection surfaces increase the glass transmittance with increas-
ing the incidence angle from 01 to 701, and attain the maximum
efficiency increase at 65 ˚ incidence angle [116]. The reflection
losses are 4% for anti-reflective coated glass compared to 9% for
ordinary solar glass [6]. The yearly thermal performance of PV/T
systems, in a low energy house with yearly solar fractions of 12%
and 25% increased by about 10% and 6% respectively, if a glass with
anti-reflective coating was used instead of a normal glass [116].
Glazing of PV/T collectors almost doubled the useful thermal
output, but the electrical efficiency dropped from 10% to 9% [33].
The glazing may also make the PV module more sensitive to hot
spots, the bypass diodes may get overheated, reflection losses may
reduce electrical performance, and the increased temperature
levels may lower the electrical yield [6]. But, the electrical gains
due to the cooling of the PV by the water are of the same order as
the optical loss of the PV/T collector due to the reflection at the
glass cover [13]. In a glazed PV/T collector with a Direct Solar Floor
system, the maximum temperature reached at the PV modules is
above 100 1C, due to the oversize of the collectors during summer.
Hence, amorphous cells or an uncovered PV/T collector are a more
suitable configuration [117]. Glazed hybrid PV/T collectors without
Tedlar, give the best performance of all the configurations com-
pared [53]. A covered PV/T system with a heat pump using an
ambient heat source gives a good performance [118]. Condensa-
tion formation on the front glazing changed the transmissivity of
the glazing, and consequently led to a reduction in thermal and
electrical efficiency [104]. The glazing may cause edge shading,
which reduces the electrical output substantially. Also, the stagna-
tion temperature can reach a maximum of 120 to 140 1C [17]. In
some countries, a subsidy is only available for the nominal power
71
Fig. 9. Solar PV/T air collector [Source: www.grammer-solar.com].
of the PV module, such that the electrical optimization becomes
less important, and the focus will be shifted to the thermal
performance of the system [6].
8.2. Diffuse reflectors
As the electrical efficiency and thermal efficiency of PV/T
systems are lower compared to the individual PV and thermal
systems, additional diffuse or booster reflector mirrors are placed
on adjacent sides, to increase the solar radiation falling on the
system which results in increased energy output, but reduced
efficiency due to optical losses in the reflectors and the PV module
glazing [45,89]. In the concentrators, the uniformity of solar
irradiance is compromised, increasing mismatch losses, and hence,
reduced electrical performance which could be overcome, by using
diffuse reflectors to increase the concentration [6]. Concentrating
the solar radiation using V-trough mirror reflectors, combined
with the optimum cooling design, improves the electrical and
thermal efficiencies [119]. The electrical and thermal outputs of a
low concentrating PV/T system, using Fresnel lens and flat mirrors,
was analyzed and increased electrical and thermal output were
observed [120]. Experimental tests produced thermal efficiency
improvement from 38% to 75% for the PV/T air collectors, and 55%
to 80% for the PV/T water collectors [64]. A pc-Si PV/T system with
booster diffuse reflectors of a concentration ratio of 1.35 achieved
19.2% electrical efficiency, at an additional cost of 4% for the
reflectors [23], which could be increased further, using PV cooling
[99]. Similarly, an unglazed PV/T collector with the maximum
thermal efficiency of 38% can be improved to 60% by glazing the
system, or adding the static reflector of the concentrator ratio of
1.3, which could be increased further to 75% by utilizing both [18].
The horizontal aligned building roofs located at low latitudes are
suitable for implementing the diffuse reflectors [45]. The arrange-
ment of mirror reflectors in the form of V-trough concentrators to
enhance the concentration ratio, thereby, improving the electrical
and thermal efficiencies of the solar PV/T collector is shown in
Fig. 8.
8.3. Cooling methods
Thermal capacity and heat transfer are the most important
parameters of thermal collectors [121]. Heat is transferred within
the PV module by conduction, and then transferred to the PV/T
panel by convection, and finally removed from the PV module and
PV/T panel as long-wave radiation [24]. Changes in the solar
insolation values are immediately reflected in the electrical output,
but the temperature response time is long due to its large thermal
capacity [28,103]. The PV module temperature depends on the
module encapsulating material, its thermal dissipation and
absorption properties, irradiance level, ambient temperature, wind
speed, and the installing conditions [122]. The temperature of the
PV module surface is maximum at the center, and minimum along
the edges [41]. The silicon PV cell has the maximum temperature
in a PV module, due to its high absorption of solar irradiation. Also,
the Tedlar temperature is higher than that of the front glass
because of its closer proximity to the silicon cell, compared to
the front glass, even though the thermal diffusivity of the front
72 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
glass is higher than that of the Tedlar [10]. Normally, solar cells in
field conditions work at temperatures of 60 to 80 1C, correspond-
ing to 9.5% to 10.5% of electrical efficiency, which could be
improved by 10% to 30% if cooled [37], and the power of the
crystalline silicon solar module could be increased by 0.2% to 0.5%
per 1C decrease in temperature [123]. The cooling of thin-film solar
cells prevents bowing, which is due to the different elasticity
modulus and coefficient of thermal expansion between the alu-
minum panel and PV cells [87]. The thermal absorber material
does not significantly affect the electrical or thermal efficiency
[18]. Higher heat transfer increases the thermal and electrical
efficiencies, by reducing the temperature gradient between the
mean fluid and the thermal absorber [14,35]. For optimal elec-
tricity and thermal production, the PV panel should be smaller in
area and should cover the lower portion of the thermal absorber
collector, where the coolant enters [29,99]. Passive cooling tech-
niques of solar cells have high reliability when safety is necessary
[39].
8.3.1. Air based
PV/T air collectors are similar to solar air collectors, except that
the black thermal absorber sheet is replaced by a solar PV module,
under which air as the heat transfer fluid circulates through the
channels, and the thermal efficiency is dependent upon the
channel depth, design of air flow, and its flow rate [51]. The first
photovoltaic thermal collector for hot air application was tested in
1973, at the University of Delaware [124], and the oldest residen-
tial PV/T air installation in operation is in the USA, constructed by
SunWatt in 1987 [125]. The air based PV/T arrangement is the
simplest, low cost and widely used structure, in which air is
allowed to pass behind the PV rear surface, so that the heat is
removed effectively, and utilized for space heating or drying
applications, such as dehumidification of air in cabins, garages,
allotment houses and mobile homes [123]. It is less effective if the
ambient air temperature is over 20 1C [26,115], and hence, an
additional glazing is required [17] and also less efficient than the
liquid collectors due to poor air heat transfer coefficient [23],
lower density, lower heat capacity and lower thermal conductivity.
It requires a flow rate of 163 m3/m2-h corresponding to the
effectiveness of 0.050 m3/m2-h for a covered liquid collector
[33,118], hence FR for air collectors is less than water collectors
[118] and the thermal efficiency is also very less at 10% to 20% for a
well-designed system [6]. PV/T air based systems have no leakage
Fig. 10. Different types of water channels for PV/T collector.
problems, no fluid freezing problems; hence, commercial PV
modules could be used without any modification, but bulky and
wide air channels are required, which create noise if forced air
circulation is used [118]. An optimum number of fans for achieving
maximum electrical efficiency was found, since the increase of
inlet air velocity increased the electrical power consumed [78],
and hence, a natural convective system is most beneficial for PV/T
systems [126], and setting the glass cover on the photovoltaic
panel leads to an increase in thermal efficiency [127]. Also, for a
large PV/T system, an open loop unglazed air collector produced a
solar fraction of 18% of the tap water demand, while for a closed
loop glazed system a solar fraction of 56% could be generated [33].
A mathematical model of a solar PV/T air based collector with
impinging jets to improve the heat transfer coefficient was
developed and validated using experimentally [128]. Similarly, a
PV/T system where air was circulated on the back surface and top
surface of the PV module gave the best compromise between the
electrical and thermal performances [18]. The electrical and
thermal performance of a solar PV/T air based system was
compared with a solar PV module [129]. Around 10% higher
electrical efficiency was obtained, due to the air ventilation of PV
module [130], and double pass PV/T air collectors have produced
better thermal efficiencies compared to single-pass ones [23].
Proper precautions have to be followed for direct heating of
human environments such as living rooms, because if the air
temperature is more than 60 1C it starts to burn the dust particles,
leading to health problems [6]. Energy and exergy efficiencies of
four different air based PV/T collector configurations using bifacial
PV modules were calculated for obtaining the maximum electrical
energy and thermal energy [131]. The air movement underneath
the PV module, as shown in Fig. 9, removes its heat, and provides
hot air for low temperature thermal applications.
8.3.2. Type of fins
Adding low cost improvements like suspended fins made of
aluminum sheets, in the form of a v-groove and porous media
[124] at the back of the PV module, improves the heat transfer and
increases the electrical and thermal efficiencies [132] at small
collector lengths [101], but it is more expensive and also causes
higher pressure drop, and hence, is more suitable for cold climates
[53]. The studies concluded that the surface temperature of the PV
module with fins is lesser, and hence, a higher electrical efficiency
[133] than the one without fins is better, because heat is emitted at
the fins [78]. To reduce the PV module overheating or hot spot
formation, a minimum air gap of 0.12 to 0.15 m is recommended
[64]. A natural flow PV/T air collector, with a suspended metal
sheet inside the air channel, was constructed to improve the heat
transfer [134].
8.3.3. Water based
About 90% of the European solar collector market is residential,
consisting of 80% domestic hot water systems and 10% space
heating systems, which are normally PV/T systems [33]. PV/T
water based systems are more expensive than air systems, due
to the additional cost of the leakage proof and electrical insulated
thermal unit, with pipes for water circulation [51]. Higher flow-
rates with bigger tubes covering the entire rear surface of the PV
module, reduce the PV module temperature effectively, but to
obtain useful thermal energy the flow rate has to be less, and
smaller pipe sizes and natural convection have to be implemented.
So, an optimal flow rate and pipe size for the effective utilization of
the solar energy and increased lifetime of the PV module has to be
found, for optimal electrical and thermal performance [33]. With
the increase in the number of collectors, the cell temperature
increases and electrical efficiency decreases, due to an increase in
 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
the water temperature [16]. Also, a high temperature difference
between the PV cell top heated by solar irradiance, and the PV
cell’s rear side heated by the collector fluid, significantly reduces
the PV performance [103].
8.3.4. Flow rate
The electrical and thermal efficiencies of the PV/T system
increase with an increase in the mass flow rate [10,23], but the
parasitic power consumption reduces the net electricity gain [64].
The speed of the fluid increases with the increase in the tube
diameter, but increasing the fluid velocity reduces the thermal
output quality [37]. The efficiency of a system increased by
increasing the mass flow rate from 0.01 to 0.4 kg/s with an optimal
flow rate of 0.03 kg/s for a 2 m2 PV/T collector [17], but showed no
significant effect on the efficiency at higher flow rates [12,17],
because at higher flow rates, the time of contact with the back
surface reduces, causing less heat removal, and hence, the overall
thermal efficiency gets constant [29]. The maximum exergetic
efficiencies of 13.36% and 11.92% respectively, were obtained for
the glazed and unglazed collectors with corresponding mass flow
rates of 0.0014 kg/s and 0.0049 kg/s [17]. An optimum water flow
rate of 4.9 L/hm2 suggested that the system could be used in the
thermosyphon mode [26], with the flow velocity depending on
air/water channels [80], which decreases the electrical efficiency
and increases the thermal efficiency. However, the electrical
efficiency increases, with an increase in the flow rate until
0.055 kg/s, after which it remains constant [10]. Increasing the
flow rate beyond 30 L/h has little effect on electricity improvement
[135]. The overall heat transfer rate is higher with the fans, the PV
module temperature is kept lower and the exit air temperature is
reduced compared to the thermosyphon mode [133,136]. Laminar
flow is found to perform better than turbulent flow in a solar
collector, due to the larger pressure drop in turbulent flow [39],
which could be reduced by the construction of header tubes [118].
A large reservoir combined with the highest flow velocity, and an
inlet water temperature equivalent to the ambient temperature
except for the smallest flow channel, yield a gain in the PV/T
electrical efficiency [24]. However, high velocities with smaller
flow thickness, or low flow velocity with larger flow thickness,
cool the PV module more effectively [24]. A parametric study
confirmed that the thermal and electrical outputs increase with an
increase in the absorber length, mass flow rate and packing factor,
but decrease with an increased duct depth [64]. A completely
covered hybrid PV/T system, providing electricity and hot water,
can cover 51% and 36% of the electricity and hot water demand, for
a flow rate of 20 L/h [137].
8.4. Type of cooling channel
Different designs were developed for effective cooling of the
photovoltaic module, thereby, to increase the electrical and
thermal efficiencies of the photovoltaic thermal collector.
8.4.1. Sheet and tube absorber
The sheet and tube design is one of the best designs, since it is
cheaper, easier to manufacture, occupies less water capacity, has a
higher pressure bearing capacity [80] and is only 2% less efficient
[23] compared to other designs, suggesting itself as the most
suitable for the hot water market [7,53]. The thermal efficiency
depends on the W/D ratio, in which W is the distance between the
tubes, and D is the tube diameter [33], with a reduction in thermal
efficiency when the ratio is increased from 1 to 10 due to high
temperature losses [17,23,37], while increasing the W/D ratio and
maintaining a constant hydraulic diameter results in a decrease in
both the electrical and thermal efficiency of the BIPV/T [18]. The
73
fin efficiency and the quality of bonding between the PV module
and the sheet underneath the module, are the main factors which
affect the overall efficiency [19,53]. The electrical and thermal
performance of an integrated tube and sheet absorber design,
using galvanized steel in a PV/T collector, was studied theoretically
and validated using an experimental prototype [138]. The elec-
trical and thermal performance of the two types of PV/T collectors
was tested in the tropical climatic conditions of Singapore, and a
higher performance for the sheet and tube type thermal collector
was found, compared to the parallel-plate type thermal collector
[139]. The serpentine type PV/T produced 4% higher thermal
efficiency, than the header and riser arrangement with uniform
fluid flow in the tubes [140]. A 2D steady state energy balance
method for a bi-fluid PV/T solar collector, using a serpentine tube
configuration was developed and validated, for a range of mass
flow rates of water and air [141]. The spiral flow design obtained
the highest total efficiency of 68% and thermal efficiency of 50.12%,
compared to the serpentine flow design with the lowest total
efficiency of 45% and thermal efficiency of 32.35%, among the
several designs considered [19]. A PV/T roofing system with
amorphous silicon solar cells and oscillatory flow arrangement of
tubes beneath the PV module produced an overall efficiency
between 70.53% and 81.5% [142]. Aluminium box type channels
underneath the PV module, provided better performance than fins,
in a sheet and tube thermal absorber, and provided high combined
efficiency [143]. The different designs for the passage of water, to
cool the PV module in a PV/T collector, is shown in Fig. 10.
8.4.2. Channel below the PV module
The back surface of a PV panel has the highest temperature due
to the high thermal conductivity of the silicon cell material [24];
hence, a thin channel below the full width of the PV module
configuration resulting in a uniform temperature distribution [11]
is the best option for the maximum thermal efficiency [33,64],
which is higher than that of the second alternative sheet and tube
design [144], due to the better heat transfer characteristics of the
channel [17,23], in which the mean temperature between the
collector inlet and outlet is taken as the mean fluid temperature
[103], whose thermal efficiency decreased by about 0.1% with
every 0.1 increase in the PV cell covering factor, but provided
higher electrical output [99]. A theoretical and experimental study
on the effects of convection heat transfer and transitional air flow
characteristics inside parallel plate channels of solar PV/T collector
was investigated [145]. An alternative for the single water channel
of fixed thickness of 2 mm, maintained using aluminum spacers
and sealed using a silicone adhesive [146], is to use multiple
channels formed in a plastic sheet suited to withstand water
pressures [9]. A water heat exchanger to easily fit behind the PV
module and cool it, thereby pre-heating the water was developed
[147]. An aluminum honeycomb heat exchanger was installed
under a PV module, and a 60% improvement was observed in
thermal efficiency, with a slight improvement in electrical effi-
ciency at a mass flow rate of 0.11 kg/s [148].
8.4.3. Channel above the PV module
Water is passed above the glass sheet of the PV module,
reducing the infrared component of the solar radiation to the
silicon cells, and gets heated producing low thermal efficiency due
to water evaporation and low electrical efficiency from the
accumulation of the condensate below the top glass cover, causing
additional reflection [17,23,53]. The absorption of the IR radiation
slightly affects the performance of a-Si PV cell. The measurements
proved that the PV module covered with a water layer reduces the
electrical efficiency by 10% [64]. This concept was improved by
another called Thermal Electric Solar Panel Integration (TESPI)
74 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
[100]. The dual flow concept was developed from the same
concept, in which water flows above the semi-transparent PV
module, and then passes back in the opposite direction under-
neath the PV module [146]. A layer of water passed above a bifacial
PV module, with active surfaces on the top and bottom sides
generates twice the electric energy of the conventional PV module
with the same area; however, the electrical efficiency of the top
surface was reduced by 10%, but the combined electrical efficiency
of the bifacial PV module has increased about 40% compared to the
conventional PV/T system [51].
8.5. Insulation
A higher value of optical efficiency and a lower value of U by
improved thermal insulation indicates a more efficient collector
system [6,104]. The coefficient FRUL of the PV/T collector is an
indication of the energy loss, and depends on the collector’s
insulation [149] and the operating temperature of the collector
[33] and the ambient temperature. The electrical efficiency is
reduced at an increased ambient temperature, resulting in an
increase in the temperature of the PV module, which in turn,
decreases the electrical efficiency [12]. In a BIPV/T solar collector,
100 mm of thermal insulation is equivalent to 100 mm of static air
behind the collector [102], similar to the top air insulation, thereby
reducing the construction cost [18]. The most important loss is the
top loss which can be reduced, by using a glass cover above the PV
module and filled with argon or vacuum, but it gives a lower
electrical efficiency [33], because of the higher PV module tem-
perature [26], but makes the collector less sensitive to the heat
resistance between the PV and the collector fluids [6]. The
electrical and thermal performance of a PV/T water based system
with different insulation arrangement was compared [150]. An 8%
increase in thermal efficiency could be obtained by the introduc-
tion of a vacuum between the PV cells and the glass cover,
reducing the thermal losses; thereby, the glass layer above the
PV module could be removed, since the exposed PV cells have
lower emissivities of approximately 0.35, when compared with the
encapsulated glass layer of approximately E0.9 [7].
8.6. Tank
The rise in cell temperature above the ambient temperature is a
function of solar irradiance and storage tank temperature [30].
With increasing collector area, the electrical efficiency decreases
because the storage tank temperatures, and therefore, the solar
cell temperature increases and the thermal efficiency decreases
because higher fluid temperatures result in higher thermal losses
Fig. 11. A PV/T system using mono-crystalline silicon PV cells [Source: www.
solimpeks.com].
[27]. The selection of the optimum water storage capacity deter-
mines the performance and cost of a PV/T system [151]. A stratified
tank has two advantages, namely, the water extracted from the top
side has a relatively high temperature, and the water passed to the
bottom side of collector has a relatively low-temperature, which is
beneficial for higher collector efficiency [27]; however, the differ-
ence in temperature between the inlet and outlet is difficult to
measure with accuracy in small low-efficient systems [11]. With
an increase in the storage tank temperature, the temperature
difference between the PV/T module surface and the coolant water
decreases, thereby decreasing the heat transfer between the PV
module and thermal storage tank [24].
8.7. Heat pump
An uncovered PV/T collector, providing low temperature heat
which is upgraded by a heat pump with ground source heat
exchanger, gave higher thermal efficiency [20], since the output of
the thermal collector is not related to the solar intensity [152]. It
produces 20% more electricity than the equivalent mono-
crystalline PV module, thereby offering a perfect solution for hot
water solution and maximum electrical energy throughout the
year from a given roof area [152]. A hybrid micro PV panel based
heat pump system was tested, which showed that the Coefficient
of Performance (COP) increases with an increase in the solar
radiation, and decreased with an increase in the condenser supply
water temperature and water flow rate; however, the electrical
performance was only slightly affected [112]. Also, the dynamic
characteristics model of a hybrid photovoltaic thermal heat pump
system was developed and the influence of the solar radiation
intensity and evaporation temperature of the heat pump on the
solar photovoltaic efficiency and temperature, and the heat trans-
fer rate of the solar panel were discussed [153]. The dynamic
performance of a solar PV/T with heat pump was analyzed, using
distributed parameters model, and found an improved perfor-
mance, dependent on the evaporator area, tube pitch and tilt angle
of the PV/T evaporator [154]. The performance of an indirect
photovoltaic–thermal solar assisted heat pump system for water
heating, with a steam ejector heat pump and mechanical com-
pression heat pump were compared, and it was concluded that an
increase in the hot water temperature results in a decrease in the
energy, exergy and economic performance; hence, a photovoltaic
thermal system with a steam ejector heat pump is the best
possible solution [155]. A self-sufficient control design model of
a PV/T system with heat pump was developed, simulated and
validated experimentally [156]. An optimal operating mode was
suggested for a photovoltaic solar-assisted heat-pump/heat-pipe
(PV-SAHP/HP) system [157]. A BIPV/T water heating system with
heat pump enhanced the electrical efficiency with waste heat
removal and provided a Coefficient of Performance (COP) of up to
6.7 [158].
8.8. Heat pipe
A heat-pipe photovoltaic–thermal system was able to yield
daily thermal and electrical efficiencies of 41.9% and 9.4% respec-
tively, while the average heat and electrical gains were 276.9 and
62.3 W/m2 respectively, and the second law thermodynamic
efficiency is 6.8% [159]. A thermosyphon based PV/T system was
compared with a system using heat-pipes, and a 27.9% reduction
in thermal efficiency and 6.7% increase in electrical efficiency was
found [94]. A PV/T system with heat pipe technology, to remove
the excess heat from the PV module, has lowered the panel
temperature up to 15 1C, thereby, providing higher electrical and
thermal efficiencies [160]. A photovoltaic thermal system with a
heat pipe was designed and fabricated, and higher photoelectric
 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
efficiency without glass cover and higher photothermal efficiency
with glass cover were observed [161]. A PV/T system using micro
plate heat pipe, was compared experimentally in natural and
forced circulations, with a reference PV module [162]. Two PV/T
systems with heat-pipes of different tube spaces were compared,
and an increased overall performance for smaller dimension heat
pipe was found [163]. The energy and exergy analysis of a
thermoelectric cooling and heating system driven by heat pipe
photovoltaic/thermal panel was evaluated experimentally, and it
was concluded that the energy efficiency of the system is higher in
summer and exergy efficiency of the system was higher in winter
[164]. A flat plate PV/T system using 900 W PV modules and a
heat-pipe, could meet the heating demand of a 15 m2 building
[93].
8.9. Types of cells used
Increasing the PV cells’ area on the absorber surface increases
the electrical efficiency, and increasing the collector length and the
mass flow rate increases the thermal efficiency [17]. The packing
factor of the PV modules is usually between 0.8 and 0.9, which also
determines the overall efficiency [35]. The ratio of thermal over
electrical production was about 2 and 3.5 for the c-Si modules and
a-Si modules respectively [35], with the thermal energy of about
150% to 400% and 800% higher than the electrical energy in the c-
Si modules and a-Si modules [38]. The annual thermal output of
the c-Si and a-Si collectors were 16,764 kWh and 20,615 kWh
respectively, and the corresponding electrical output were 15,131
kWh and 6066 kWh, respectively [17]. Single crystalline silicon
solar cells with homogeneous texturing, have a higher absorption
coefficient of 0.90 and lower reflection losses than the poly-
crystalline silicon solar cells’ absorption coefficient of 0.85, thereby
producing 2% higher electrical efficiency [35]. The energy, exergy
and economic analysis of a hybrid PV/T water collector was
calculated for different types of PV modules in New Delhi [165].
The Tedlar layer reflects the light on the sides of the PV cells,
slightly increasing the electrical efficiency, but leading to high
reflection losses in PV/T collectors [35]; hence, textured PV cells
with a dark colored rear material enhance the thermal perfor-
mance [118].
8.9.1. Monocrystalline/polycrystalline
The commercially available crystalline silicon solar PV modules
are the largest market for PV technologies [6]. PV/T systems using
crystalline Si solar cells have produced 100 to 120 W/m2 of electric
energy at peak illumination, and about 4 times as much thermal
energy stored in water [51]. Black single-crystalline silicon cells
have higher photovoltaic efficiency and thermal absorptivity,
despite higher thermal emissivity, compared to blue crystalline
silicon cells [99]. The decrease in power due to temperature
increase can be reduced, by using a-Si which has a better
temperature coefficient [6]. The thermal performance of c-Si PV
cells in a PV/T collector is comparable to that of a-Si cells, and the
electrical performance of c-Si cells are 1.2 times better [15]. The
increase in solar intensity combined with low Relative Humidity
(RH) increases the output current and efficiency in polycrystalline
solar cells [166]; a 1% increase in RH was equivalent to a 1% rise in
temperature [167]. The use of monocrystalline silicon PV modules
in PV/T water collectors is shown in Fig. 11.
8.9.2. Thin film
The outdoor efficiency of thin film technologies, such as
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Cadmium Telluride (CdTe), Copper
Indium diselenide (CuInSe2) and Titanium dioxide (TiO2) [3] is
less affected by temperature compared to the crystalline silicon
75
technologies [168]. Thin film based hydrogenated amorphous
silicon (a-Si:H) solar PV cells are better than conventional c-Si
cells due to a higher absorption coefficient of about 5% to 10% [27].
It uses less silicon material, but produced greater power output by
using thicker intrinsic layer having 630 nm and 840 nm producing
2% and 0.5% more energy respectively if operated above 90 1C
[169]. It has low manufacturing costs of about 1.5 $/kWp [16], low
embodied energy per watt peak [16], high return on investment
[169] and hence have a better cost/benefit ratio [64]. It is less
expensive, less brittle [6] and could bend around and attach itself
to many surfaces including printable laminate, roof tiles and glass
substrate but produces less electrical efficiency of about 5% to 7%
[3,27] and the use of heavy metals reduces its usage [17,168]. a-Si:
H cells deposited directly on a solar thermal absorber produced a
10.6% stabilized energy gain in annealing, compared to normal
degradation at 50 1C [170]. They also have a temperature coeffi-
cient of  0.01%/1C, thereby reducing the Staebler–Wronski effect
[126,171]. The effects of various dispatch strategies on a hydro-
genated amorphous silicon photovoltaic thermal system were
reported, and an annealing simulation model to investigate the
geographical effects on the dispatch optimization was developed
[172]. A transparent PV module using a-Si thin film solar cells
based on EPV technology, was used as the cover glass of a solar
thermal collector [173]. A PV/T system using a-Si solar PV module
was used to reduce the total energy consumption in Thailand
[174]. A biodiesel distillation process was combined with a-Si PV
module to supply electricity for circulation pumps, and use the
waste heat generated in the PV module as the working fluid [175].
CdTe is a direct band gap II–VI semiconductor with a band gap of
1.44 eV, which is close to the optimum for photovoltaic conversion
[168]. CIGS cells can be produced in any suitable sizes and are less
sensitive to shading [176], since each cell spans the full width of
the PV module, and hence, is affected proportional to the shaded
area [177].
9. Experimental investigation
A new low cost design of a PV/T panel was developed with
simple installation in a building, producing about 100 kWh/m2 of
electricity and 1.0 GJ/m2 of heat in Western Europe [178]. Refrig-
erant R134a was used to cool the PV in a hybrid flat plate PV panel,
and it was found that the electrical efficiency reduced by 0.005%
and thermal efficiency increased by 0.03% for every 100 W/m2
increase of radiation [179]. A trigeneration model consisting of 80%
of micro-turbine, 10% of photovoltaic–thermal, and 10% of fuel-
cells was suggested to be the optimum system composition, in
terms of reducing the operational cost, improving energy saving
and minimizing the environmental impact [180]. The electrical
and thermal performance of a thermosyphonic solar PV/T system
was tested, with and without additional glazing [181]. A hybrid
solar panel with overall efficiency of 71% was fabricated by
attaching a solar PV module on a plastic substrate using a FGM
layer with water tubes cast inside [182]. A liquid based flat plate
solar collector, constructed with mono-crystalline silicon PV cells
on selective aluminium thermal absorber plate produced higher
output density than individual PV module and solar thermal
collector [183]. The electrical and thermal characteristics of a solar
PV/T collector were observed by measuring the temperature,
electrical power and its temperature influence in a period of time
[184]. A glazed photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) tile air collector was
designed and compared with the theoretical design, and good
agreement was found [185]. A new design was developed to
maximize the performance of a solar PV/T collector with minimum
cost compared to other designs [186]. The double duct, single pass
design in a PV/T collector has the highest overall efficiency among
76 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
the four different designs considered [187]. A prototype double-
pass photovoltaic–thermal solar air collector with CPC and fins
proved, that the simultaneous use of the hybrid PV/T, CPC and fins
has a potential to significantly increase the power production and
reduce the cost of photovoltaic electricity [188]. A hybrid thermo-
photovoltaic panel was developed for building integration, and
specific industrial requirements [189]. The performance of a PV/T
system was tested in outdoor conditions of Switzerland [190]. A
plus-energy house, installed in Madrid with PV/T panels, providing
solar fraction of 63%, with the ground acting as the heat source/
sink, and sensible heating and cooling done by embedded pipes in
the floor and ceiling, with phase change materials showed an
energy savings of 30% [191].
10. Theoretical investigation
An extensive investigation of the thermal, electrical, hydraulic
and overall performance, of flat plate photovoltaic thermal (PV/T)
air collectors was studied [90]. The steady state models of single-
pass and double-pass combined photovoltaic thermal collectors
showed, that the double-pass photovoltaic thermal collector has
superior performance [192]. An algorithm based on Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) was developed with input parameters such
as solar radiation and ambient temperature for optimum mass
flow rate [193]. An analytical expression for the overall efficiency
has been derived, using the energy balance equation for each
component and a fair agreement with the experimental observa-
tions has been observed [194]. A performance model using multi-
linear regression analysis of a hybrid photovoltaic and thermal
(PV/T) collector was developed, based on the energy balance and
heat transfer analysis [195]. A PV/T solar collector using vacuum
tube-PV sandwich and u-shaped copper water tubes, was analyzed
mathematically based on energy balance equations. An increase in
performance, with increase in mass flow rate and a decrease in
performance, with increase in inlet water temperature were
observed [196]. The air cooling of a commercial PV module
configured as a PV/T air solar collector by natural flow, having
two low cost modification techniques to enhance the heat transfer
to air stream in the air channel, was studied [197]. A novel
mathematical model was developed using the “low flow” concept,
to determine the optimum thermal absorber plate configuration,
with the least material and improved collector efficiency [198].
The optimum water inlet temperature for maximum exergy
generation in a PV/T water system was presented based on second
law analysis [199]. A mathematical model based on finite differ-
ence method was developed for a PV/T collector, which showed
that the inclination angle and mass flow rate are important
parameters affecting the efficiency of the PV/T collector [200]. A
methodology for sizing a PV/T system, using the Design Space
Approach was developed, based on the electrical demand, thermal
demand and thermal load temperature [201]. The performance of
a PV/T collector partially covered with PV module and a PV/T
collector full covered with PV module were compared with a
conventional flat plate collector based on energy and exergy
analyses for five different cities of India [202]. An analytical
expression for the overall energy efficiency of PV/T air collector
was derived, in terms of the thermal and electrical design, and
climatic parameters [203]. The overall performance of an air PV/T
collector with and without glazing was investigated based on
energy and exergy analysis [204]. Two low cost heat extraction
improvement modifications in the channel of a PV/T air system
were suggested, to achieve high thermal output and PV cooling to
improve the system’s performance [205]. The performances of
several single glazed flat plate PV/T collectors, based on water
circulation using a simple 2D thermal model, were investigated
and it was suggested that a high thermal efficiency was reached at
zero reduced temperature, and the corresponding electrical effi-
ciency is lower than the efficiency of a standard PV panel [35]. A
numerical model of a photovoltaic thermosyphon collector sys-
tem, and its accuracy were verified by comparison with the
measured data [206]. A study comparing a PV/T system with a
heat exchanger and a PV/T system with a storage tank was
presented and energy efficiency solutions were proposed [207].
A new type of PV/T collector was designed through its numerical
modeling and experimental study [208]. A mathematical model to
estimate the electrical and thermal performance of a unglazed PV/
T water based collector was developed and validated experimen-
tally [209]. The mathematical model of a hybrid PV/T solar air
heater system was developed, suggesting that the overall effi-
ciency of the system can be improved by the use of a double pass
collector system and fins [210]. The performances of two different
types of PV/T arrays are compared, based on the annual overall
thermal energy and exergy gain, for four different climatic condi-
tions of India [211]. The overall energy and exergy of a solar PV/T
water heating system were evaluated, with and without hot water
withdrawals, for five different cities in India having different
weather conditions [212]. Similarly, the overall thermal energy
and exergy analysis for different configurations of the hybrid PV/T
array were developed, and it was found that Bangalore has the
highest, in comparison to the other cities of India considered [213].
A model of finite differences, simulating a water heating system
using a PV/T collector manufactured using a copolymer material to
reduce the weight, facilitating the manufacturing, reducing the
cost and running in low flow rate conditions [214]. A transient
model of a solar PV/T collector was developed based on the
EN12975 standard and a backward moving average filtering
procedure, and validated experimentally [215]. The energy and
exergy performance of a PV/T system with a flat plate collector was
found to have 11% electrical efficiency and 15% exergy efficiency
[216]. The performance of a hybrid PV/T collector was evaluated
using dynamic simulation with a refrigerant as the working fluid
for Chinese weather conditions [217]. A simulation program, using
two exergy equations of a solar PV/T air collector, based on the net
output exergy and exergy losses, was validated using the experi-
mental results [218]. A dynamic simulation model based on finite
difference control volume approach was introduced for a building-
integrated photovoltaic and water heating system [219]. A
dynamic simulation model of a photovoltaic and water heating
system, with mathematical equations governing the main compo-
nents of the system, based on the analysis of the energy balance
which includes photovoltaic conversion, thermal conduction, con-
vection, and radiation, was developed [220]. A dynamic simulation
model of a new water type PV/T collector system was developed,
and the numerical results show that a payback period is compar-
able to the side-by-side system, and is much shorter than the plain
PV application [221]. A 2D steady state thermal model of bi-fluid
finned PV/T solar collector predicted lower temperatures up to
20 1C with cooling and 40% overall efficiency [222]. A theoretical
model in terms of the heat transfer process analysis of the PV
module panel, and introducing the heat exchanger design in a heat
pipe PV/T hybrid system showed that the overall thermal, elec-
trical and exergy efficiencies were 63.65%, 8.45% and 10.26%,
respectively [88]. A theoretical analysis of a direct expansion heat
pump system in a PV/T solar collector indicates that the average
monthly COP reaches 5.35 with the average monthly thermal and
electrical efficiencies of 75.2% and 15.5%, respectively [223]. The
energy and economic performance of a commercially available PV/
T system was evaluated in three different climatic and economic
conditions in Europe [224]. A detailed simulation model of the
heat pipe PV/T system used in three typical climatic areas of China,
namely, Hong Kong, Lhasa and Beijing was presented [225]. The
 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88 77

energy and exergy efficiencies of a PV/T air collector were studied under different conditions, such as the water flow rate, PV
evaluated for the climatic condition of Srinagar for a period of cell covering factor, tube space of heat pipes, and different kinds of
four years [226]. The exergy analysis of PV/T water system was solar absorptive coatings of the absorber plate [239]. The theore-
made, and the energy to exergy ratio of electrical and thermal is tical performance of a glazed hybrid micro-channel solar cell
1 and 16.8, respectively [227]. A simulation model of a PV/T thermal (MCSCT) tile was studied, and good conformance with
collector with water heating in buildings was developed, and it the experimental values was proved [240]. A mathematical model
was concluded that less series connected PV/T collectors, lower was developed to evaluate the technical and economical para-
inlet temperature of water, and a higher mass flow rate of water meters of PV/T system, and good opportunity for heating water in
resulted in high photovoltaic efficiency [227]. A multi-objective industry was observed [241]. The design and performance of a
optimization based on the energy and exergy analyses of a PV/T air water cooled PV/T system was studied, using a mathematical
collector was developed for different climatic, operating and model developed, based on the Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic
design parameters [228]. A detailed multi-objective optimization, Algorithm-II method [242]. A solar photovoltaic thermal (PV/T)
using the qualitative and quantitative mathematical model of a water collector was optimized, based on the exergy analysis using
water-cooled photovoltaic/thermal collector integrated into a the genetic algorithm, and a maximum exergy efficiency of 11.36%
building’s domestic hot water system, was developed [229]. An was obtained [243]. A theoretical model of a PV/T air collector was
increase of about 2 to 3% exergy due to thermal energy, in addition developed and optimized, using a non-dominated sorting genetic
to its 12% electrical output from the PV/T system, produces an algorithm, to study the effect of geometric dimensions on the
overall electrical efficiency of about 14% to 15% in a PV/T system outlet air temperature, electrical and thermal performances [244].
[227]. An exergy analysis of different solar flat plate system A dynamic model of a PV/T water heating system was developed
technologies was simulated, and it was proved that PV/T systems based on energy transfer, and a fuzzy logic control scheme was
are better in performance, and hence, suitable for limited roof area proposed, to maximize its performance [245]. A dynamic linear
applications [230]. The energy and exergy analysis of a hybrid mathematical model of a PV/T water heating system was devel-
micro-channel photovoltaic–thermal (MCPV/T) module, based on oped based on energy transfer and validated experimentally under
micro-channel solar cell thermal (MCSCT) module, under constant different water mass flow rates [246]. A multi-linear regression
mass flow rate of air, in terms of design and climatic parameters model, to determine the PV cell temperature in a PV/T air collector,
was made, and it was observed that the overall annual thermal was developed from measureable variables [247]. A model to
and exergy gains had increased by 70.62% and 60.19% respectively, calculate the energy and exergy of a solar PV/T air system based
for the MCPV/T module for Srinagar climatic conditions [14]. The on the fin number & height and packing factor was developed and
energy and exergy analysis of a semi-transparent hybrid PV/T validated [248].
double pass air collector was compared with single pass air
collector for four different weather conditions in India [231]. A
PV system and a PV/T system are analyzed, based on the exergy 10.1. TRNSYS
method using electrical and thermal models, which could be used
The performance of a PV/T collector compared with a conven-
to compare different PV technologies [232]. A simulation design of
tional solar thermal collector and a PV module by TRNSYS
a hybrid PV/T assisted desiccant integrated HA-IR drying (HPIRD)
simulation, was found to be more advantageous from the energy,
system, consisting of a photovoltaic air collector (PVAC) and a
desiccant silica gel bed (DB) was developed and a reduction in exergy and primary energy saving point of view [249]. The
application aspects in the industry of PV/T systems with water
drying time, drying rate and energy consumption was observed
[233]. A computer model to determine the thermal absorption heat extraction were analyzed, using the TRNSYS program. The
results proved that although amorphous silicon solar modules are
factor of crystalline silicon solar cells was developed, which
increased the total absorption factor to 87% [234]. An electrical less efficient than polycrystalline cells, they have a better cost/
benefit ratio [250]. A hybrid PV/T system using TRNSYS was
and thermal model of a solar photovoltaic thermal PV/T air
collector was developed, using the temperature values of the solar modeled, consisting of pc-Si and a-Si PV modules, combined with
water heat extraction units. The results show that the electrical
cell, back surface, outlet air and electrical parameters, like short
circuit current, current at the maximum power point, open circuit
voltage, and voltage at the maximum power point, and it was
found that the thermal, electrical and overall energy efficiencies
were about 17.18%, 10.01% and 45%, respectively [235]. Based on
the temperature distribution of the PV module in a PV/T collector,
an optimal thermal analysis for the maximum photovoltaic per-
formance was simulated, using computation fluid dynamics (CFD)
software [236]. The simulated total PV electrical energy output
over a day, for the plain PV module was 306.9 Wh, for the PV/T
without glass cover 339.3 Wh, and for the PV/T with glass cover
296.2 Wh [23]. The overall performance of a polycrystalline based
PV/T hybrid solar panel along with a heat exchanger, was theore-
tically investigated [237]. A dynamic thermal model of a hybrid
PV/T system was developed, and it was suggested that the
electrical and thermal efficiency can be improved by placing the
PV cells on the lower portion of the collector, because of the large
temperature gradient between the water entering the thermosy-
phon tubes and the PV cells in this region [18]. A sketched scheme
of the 2D abacus as a guide for the investigation of PV/T materials,
like amorphous and hydrogenated amorphous silicon, zinc-doped
binary compounds and metal oxides, was proposed [238]. A heat- Fig. 12. A PV/T based water heating system partially covered with a PV module
pipe based PV/T system was developed, and its performance was [206].
78 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
production was 38% less than that of the non-hybrid system;
however, the system using polycrystalline solar cells produced
more electrical power than that using the amorphous solar cells,
but the solar thermal contribution is slightly lower [26]. A system
consisting of 25 m2 of PV/T panels, and ground coupled heat pump
was simulated, using TRNSYS, and proved to cover 100% of the
total heat demand of a Dutch one-family house, and a majority of
its electricity requirement, keeping the average ground tempera-
ture constant [251]. The simulation results showed that the
electrical output of a PV/T water collector is significantly higher
than that of the thermoelectric collector [64]. A numerical model
of a PV/T water based collector system, modeled using TRNSYS,
showed good accordance with the experimental results [252]. A
TRNSYS simulation and an economic analysis of a BIPV/T air
system with a PV module and solar thermal collector were done
for Canadian climatic conditions [253]. The electrical and thermal
performances of the air type BIPV/T system, applied as a building
envelope, were compared with those of the BIPV and BIPV/T
models, using TRNSYS simulation software [254]. A solar trigen-
eration system capable of producing electrical, thermal and cool-
ing energy was dynamically simulated, by means of a zero-
dimensional transient simulation model in TRNSYS software
[255]. The benefits of using a heat pump with an unglazed PV/T
collector were determined, using TRNSYS software, by which an
additional PV yearly yield of 4% was obtained [256]. The optimal
value of solar fraction, using the energy and economic analysis for
a liquid PV/T system, to determine the optimal thermal output
obtained with good PV performance, was simulated using TRNSYS
software [257]. A solar combi-system with thermal storage was
simulated using TRNSYS software, and it was concluded that the
system can provide all the heating requirements of a house with
significant energy savings [258].
10.2. MATLAB
A thermodynamic model of a hybrid solar PV/T system was
designed, and the parametric studies and annual transient simula-
tions carried out using Simulink/MATLAB proved, that the most
important variable to improve thermal performance is the photo-
voltaic module emittance [7]. An thermo-electrical model was
derived in terms of design and operating conditions of a single
pass hybrid PV/T air collector and solved using MATLAB for two
cities of Iraq [259]. A mathematical model and Matlab/Simulink
simulation of a PV/T system, was carried out to study the electrical
and thermal performance in a freezing factory [260]. A coupled
multiphysics model to analyse the thermal, structural and elec-
trical response to different operating conditions of a PV module
with and without cooling was developed using ANSYS CFX, ANSYS
Mechanical and MATLAB, respectively [261].
Fig. 13. A solar PV/T air system with space heating [Source: www.solarwall.com].
11. Applications of PV/T collector
Among solar thermal technologies, tap water heating and solar
air heating consume 39% and 45% respectively, followed by solar
cooling (7%), industrial heating (6%), drying (3%) and pool heating
(0.2%) [6], mainly in the residential sector with low energy high
solar fraction houses, where PV/T can be combined with a heat
pump and multi-family buildings, with a limited available roof
area [262].
11.1. Water heating
Water heating systems for the residential market, which
require at least 60 1C hot water to prevent Legionellosis [123] are
more economical, as the demand is constant over the year [118],
followed by public pool systems and large hot water systems such
as hospitals, and homes for the elderly, which are considered
important markets for glazed PV/T systems [33]. The conventional
flat plate collector (glazed and unglazed) used to produce hot
water, makes up over 75% of the solar thermal collectors installed
worldwide [6]. Flat plate PV/T systems of about 3 to 5 m2 using
thermosyphonic operation, and a water storage tank of 150 to
300 L, can be installed in one family houses; as the mean annual
PV efficiency has increased, residential consumers will use the
waste heat for domestic hot water [126], and systems of about 30
to 50 m2 and 1000 to 3000 L water storage, can be used for multi-
flat residential buildings, hotels, hospitals, industries, etc. [26]. The
performance of the water based PV/T system, coupled with a solar
water heating system, was tested, and it showed good perfor-
mance [263]. The performance of a hybrid photovoltaic thermal
water heating system of 100 L capacity was tested, and a 4%
increase in electrical efficiency and an annual solar fraction of
0.7621 were observed [264]. The a-Si gives more thermal useful
energy, and hence, a higher solar contribution in water heating
compared to pc-Si modules [26]. Performance tests conducted, in
an aluminum alloy made rectangular flat box type PV/T collector,
using a thermosyphon with its fin efficiency approaching unity,
showed good output temperature, and the numerical results
developed using the finite-difference control volume method were
found to be very encouraging [206]. A centralized photovoltaic and
hot water collector wall system in Hong Kong, reduced the space
thermal loads, and served as a water pre-heating system which
produced a thermal efficiency of 38.9% at zero reduced tempera-
ture, and the corresponding electricity efficiency of 8.56% [265].
Combining PV/T and solar-assisted heat pump technology pro-
duced a higher hot water supply temperature, and better PV
cooling [64]. The hot water temperature increases with increasing
length of the PV/T collector with marginal increase beyond 4 m
length [266], with optimum length of 2 m i.e. collector area of
1 m2 for 45 L storage water capacity [267]. A hybrid photovoltaic
thermal water heater, fabricated and tested in parallel configura-
tion, produced higher output water temperature and higher
exergy efficiency, than a series configuration [268]. The photo-
voltaic efficiency of the hybrid system will reduce towards the end
of the day, when the storage tank water temperature will be
higher [72]. The performance of a liquid PV/T collector for
domestic hot water application, was compared with that of a
photovoltaic panel and photothermal panel of the same area [269].
A normal domestic solar water heater, using forced circulation
about 2 m2 area generates sufficient electrical energy to run 2 tube
lights of 20 W each for 5 h, and 1 television of 30 W for 4 h
[270,271]. A photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) solar water heater,
partially covered with PV modules, of capacity 200 L in composite
climate of New Delhi gives better thermal and average electrical
efficiency [272], with the overall exergy and thermal efficiency
reaching the maximum at the hot water withdrawal flow rate of
 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
0.006 kg/s [16]. A dual heat extraction system with water has
aesthetic and energy advantages, and could be used instead of
separate installation of PV modules and thermal collectors [45], for
which 40% additional area is required, to obtain the same thermal
yield [20]. A solar PV/T water heating system, with the thermal
absorber partially covered with a PV module, is shown in Fig. 12.
11.2. Solar desalination
The daily average energy efficiency of a double slope PV/T solar
still was 17.4%; it produced 7.54 kg/day in the forced mode, which
is an increase of 1.4 times that of the single slope PV/T solar still
[273]. The productivity of a solar active still fitted with two
reflectors was higher during the winter, compared to spring and
summer weather conditions. Also, higher productivity was
obtained, when coupled with a photovoltaic/thermal storage tank
[274]. A mathematical model with formulated analytical expres-
sions for daily yield, water and condensing cover temperature was
developed and validated using a fabricated hybrid photovoltaic
thermal double slope active solar still, and good agreement was
found [275]. The thermal and economic analysis of an active PV/T
solar distillation system was presented for New Delhi climatic
conditions with a cost payback estimation period of 4.2 years
[276]. A reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plant powered by a PV/
T collector helped to increase the recovery ratio [277]. A DC/DC
converter was added to a PV/T desalination system using solar still,
thereby providing longer operating time and higher output [278].
11.3. Space heating
The PV/T concept must be applied to increase the electrical
efficiency of the PV system; e.g., space heating of a building [16],
which may in the future be practicable for preheating air using
semi-transparent PV/T double pass façade, which could heat the
room air temperature by 5–6 1C above the ambient [279], and
delivers more useful energy per unit collector area, than the
separate PV and thermal systems [280]. Heat pumps combined
with PV/T technology could provide space heating and cooling,
replacing large solar thermal space heating systems in office
applications [6]. Solar air heating technology using PV/T collectors
could be used for various Industrial and agricultural processes,
such as drying, curing, regeneration of dehumidifying agents,
timber seasoning, leather tanning etc. [1]. The hot air generated
in PV/T air collectors, is transported using air ducts for space
heating in buildings as shown in Fig. 13.
11.4. Solar heating and cooling system
A novel poly-generation system producing electricity, hot water
and space heating and cooling was developed, and the overall
energy and economic results obtained were comparable to similar
systems [281]. The PV/T system reduced the percentage of domes-
tic heating and cooling load covered by the conventional system,
by 11.9% and 21.4% respectively, with the difference between the
two systems of only 6.65% [149]. The mean photovoltaic efficiency
of the PV/T solar heat pump air-conditioning system [44] reaches
10.4% and can improve 23.8% in comparison with that of the
conventional solar PV module; the mean COP of heat pump may
attain 2.88 and the water temperature can increase to 42 1C [282];
however, the heat pump will generally have zero or negative
electrical output due to its own consumption [6]. Compared to the
vapor compression and absorption systems, adsorption systems
combined with solar PV/T have benefits of energy saving, low
vibration, lower operating cost, and can operate from 50 1C up to
500 1C [283]. A single effect sorption system can give a COP
(Coefficient of Performance) of around 0.7 at around 70 to 90 1C,
79
Fig. 14. A BIPV/T system on a sloped-roof [Source: www.solimpeks.com].
double effect sorption chillers can give a COP of around 1.3 at
temperatures of around 130 to 150 1C, with additional booster
systems in the form of conventional air collectors [6]. The ratio of
cooling energy to electrical energy required for pumping water
through the PV/T collector in Stuttgart at night, using radiative
heat exchange with the sky was excellent, with values between 17
and 30 [284]. The thermal energy generated by a condenser heat
recovery system with a PV/T air heating collector, to regenerate the
desiccant for reducing the energy use of an air-conditioning room,
produced warm dry air at 53 1C and 23% relative humidity, and the
extra 6% electricity required was obtained from the PV/T collector
[285]. Solar Air Cooling (SAC) technologies using desiccant cooling
systems (DEC) equipped with single glazed PV/T collectors have
shown better performance in terms of primary energy saving, than
conventional systems using vapor compression chillers, coupled
with PV cells [286].
11.5. Thermoelectric generators
Thermoelectric generators (TEG) used in PV/T systems have a
linear dependence on the temperature difference ΔT between its
plates, producing 4% efficiency at ΔT ¼155 1C with 3 W of power
generated over the matched load [287]. The COP, electrical and
thermal efficiency of a thermoelectric cooling and heating system
with heat pipe PV/T technology were 1.7%, 16.7% and 23.5%,
respectively [164]. Simulation studies on a thermoelectric collector
and a PV-hybrid water collector in domestic hot water systems
shows higher electrical output in PV-hybrid system [288].
11.6. Building integrated photovoltaic thermal (BIPV/T)
Solar irradiance and PV module temperature are the most
important factors affecting the electrical efficiency of the BIPV
system and the energy performance of buildings [16]; hence the
efficiency can be increased by 17% to 20% by water cooling [17].
‘Building Integrated’ refers to PV systems that constitute part of
the limited building envelope with suitable orientation [34]. These
are low cost systems [72] which are simply mounted on the
rooftop of buildings [16], or reduce the cost by replacing materials
having aesthetic and energy advantages [51] such as rain screen
and sun shading device [123]. The thermal need of a residential or
commercial building defines the area of PV/T, and the remaining
area could be used for PV modules only [42], which produce less
electrical output, because they are aligned with the building [17];
the horizontal and inclined inclinations are suited for low latitude
countries and façade integration is effective for medium and high
latitude countries [6,26], with roof slopes between 301 and 451
that give good overall efficiency [289]. The effect of the packing
factor was analyzed for a semitransparent photovoltaic module
integrated to the roof of the building, and it was observed that the
decrease in the temperature of the PV module due to a decrease in
80 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
the packing factor, increases its electrical efficiency [290]. A roof-
ing system which provides electricity, hot water and roof-material
constructed by using a PV module integrated between a transpar-
ent protective glazing and thermal conductive functionally graded
material (FGM) layer with embedded water tubes achieved sig-
nificant advantage over conventional roofing and roof-top PV
system [291]. A mathematic model of a BIPV/T air system with
glazing and wire mesh was developed and found 8.5% higher
efficiency than conventional BIPV/T sir system without wire mesh
[292]. A building integrated photovoltaic–thermal water heating
(BIPVW) system reduces the cooling requirement of the building
[33], by limiting the thermal losses [6], and is able to generate high
energy output per unit collector area, because it operates at high
temperature [122] and has much enhanced durability [79], eco-
nomic advantages over the conventional solar systems [293] like
photovoltaic modules, which tend to overheat thereby reducing
efficiency and annual output [294]. The performance of a building
heating system coupled with a BIPV/T collector showed a 16%
improvement in electrical performance, with a 40 1C increase in
hot water temperature [295]. Experimental, energy, exergy and
techno-economic analysis of a BIPV/T roof collector, using poly-
ethylene heat exchanger under the PV module, were developed
and a 16 1C temperature difference with 20.25% thermal efficiency
was observed in UK [296]. A building-integrated photovoltaic
thermal system was fabricated, and higher electrical energy and
thermal energy suitable for industrial applications compared to
conventional building integrated photovoltaic systems was
observed [297]. The BIPV/T system coupled with a heat pump
system gives higher electrical and thermal efficiencies, as a lower
inlet temperature typically below the ambient would be advanta-
geous [102]. The energy, exergy and cost analysis of a BIPV/T
system was compared with a BIPV system using mono-crystalline
silicon cells and amorphous silicon cells [298]. The performance
analysis of a BIPV/T system based on the energy and exergy
analyses, proved that the PV/T energy efficiency is higher than
the PV/T exergy efficiency [299]. Theoretical investigations of a
BIPV/T collector was done using a heat transfer model, producing
an overall efficiency of 34%. It concluded that the BIPV/T perfor-
mance is dependent on the thermal resistance between PV cells &
thermal absorber and convection heat transfer coefficients [300].
Using a modified Hottel–Whillier model, the design parameters
such as fin efficiency, the thermal conductivity, and the lamination
method were found to have a significant effect on the overall
efficiency of the BIPV/T [301]. The electrical, thermal and overall
PV/T efficiencies using c-Si are 11.6%, 51% and 63% for a water
based BIPV/T system [92]. The BIPV/T system thermally coupled
with a ventilated concrete slab (VCS) in a pre-fabricated two-
storey detached low energy solar house in Canada, has a typical
efficiency of about 20% for thermal energy collection [302]. A
thermal analysis model of a BIPV/T system with an unglazed
transpired solar collector (UTC) was developed, using several
energy models to predict the energy output for different weather
and system design conditions, and good agreement with the
experimental results was found [303]. A numerical control volume
simulation model of an open-loop air based building integrated
photovoltaic thermal BIPV/T system with a single inlet was
developed, and different design options were validated, using
the experimental results [304]. Several energy models were used
to design the optimal geometric parameters, like the slope length
and corrugation wavelength of a BIPV/T system, with unglazed
transpired solar collector (UTC) [305]. The flow distribution in a
BIPV/T collector has a significant effect on the photovoltaic
performance, which was improved by over 9% in comparison to
a traditional PV collector operating under the same conditions
[306]. Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) cells are the most
suitable from the Energy Payback Time (EPBT) and Energy
Production Factor (EPF) point of view; however, c-Si are the most
suitable for the Life Cycle Conversion Efficiency (LCCE) in the BIPV/
T system. Also, the annualized cost of BIPV/T systems is 2% to 7%
higher, and it reduces the unit power generation cost by 12% to
25% than that of similar BIPV systems [16]. The convective heat
transfer correlations based on Nusselt number and Reynolds
number were developed based on an experimental study on a
BIPV/T system [307]. A 2D computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
model, of a BIPV/T system using realizable k–ε model and particle
image velocimetry (PIV) was developed, to simulate the fluid flow
and convective heat transfer studies [308]. The solar BIPV/T system
as shown in Fig. 14, uses less space compared to individual solar
PV and solar thermal systems, offers thermal insulation and
compensates for the conventional roofing material required.
11.7. Solar drying
The electricity produced by the PV module is used to run a DC
fan, that circulates the air through the collector and drying
chamber. The heat generated in the collector is used for drying
the agricultural products [133]. A hybrid photovoltaic thermal
with UV stabilized polyethylene greenhouse dryer was fabricated,
to reduce the moisture content in mint leaves from 80% to 11% for
preservation [309]. The annual thermal and exergy performance of
photovoltaic–thermal greenhouse dryer, using various silicon and
non-silicon PV modules for different weather conditions of New
Delhi was studied, and it was found that the c-Si PV module was
the best [310]. A hybrid photovoltaic–thermal solar dryer with an
energy efficient heat pump system for saffron drying was studied,
with different air mass flow rates, dry air temperature and heat
pump configuration modes. The results show that the thermal
efficiency increased with increasing mass flow rate and tempera-
ture, and the electrical efficiency increased with heat pump
operation, with the maximum dryer efficiency of 72% [311].
12. Limitations of PV/T
Few hindrances are present in the manufacture and commer-
cialization of the PV/T collector. Since, the solar electrical and solar
thermal components are joined together, careful design for the
electrical insulation and effective heat dissipation were required.
12.1. Adhesive requirement
The PV module has to be attached mechanically or glued to the
thermal absorber, by a thermal conductive adhesive such as metal
filled epoxy, like aluminum oxide filled two-component epoxy
glue, or a silicone based adhesive [33,34] acting as a gap filler
material to transfer the heat, and having good elongation property
to compensate the differential expansion of the different layers of
the PV module and the metal thermal absorber. Poor thermal
contact between the PV module and the coolant fluid underneath
leads to a temperature difference of about 15 1C for an unglazed
PV/T collector, due to reduced solar energy absorption and
increased heat transfer resistance introduced in the cell to absor-
ber interface, which leads to poor collector heat removal factor
[11].
12.2. Stagnation temperature
The temperature of the solar thermal collector with the state-
of-the-art spectrally selective coating may reach 220 1C. But, the
stagnation temperature of the PV/T absorber may reach 150 1C,
which is higher than the normal operating temperature of a PV
module [312], because of its high solar reflectance and high
 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
infrared emission, which is higher than 135 1C, at which EVA
oxidizes rapidly [64] and the electrical interconnections become
brittle. The highest temperature occurs at the silicon cells, which
could withstand even 220 1C without any problem [6] because of
their high absorptivity [32]. The typical stagnation temperature for
the unglazed PV/T is 80 1C, and for the glazed PV/T it may be
130 1C [6]. A stagnation temperature of 126 1C was measured in
The Netherlands [20]. To avoid high stagnation temperatures,
passive cooling or fail-proof active cooling is required, as large
thermal stresses called “internal thermal shock” [20] can occur
with a temperature difference of over 100 1C between the PV
module and coolant water, if the hot collector is suddenly injected
with cold water on a sunny day [9], or if the solar cells are
connected directly to a thermal absorber [6].
13. Advantages of PV/T
Aesthetics, uniformity, functionality, life duration, roof protec-
tion, water tightness, ethics, autonomy, and prestige, are some of
the non-economical topics, to take a decision to invest in solar
energy [6]. Solar PV/T systems would have the advantages of
providing efficient solar technology, single warranty, space reduc-
tion, cost reduction, and a reduction of project management and
planning required, in comparison to installing a solar PV and a
solar thermal separately [6].
13.1. Renewable targets
As per EU 2020, cutting emissions of greenhouse gases by 20%,
reducing energy consumption by 20% through energy efficiency,
and meeting 20% of the energy needs from renewable sources
have to be achieved by the year 2020 [44]. To achieve this goal, PV/
T systems with less material, less man power and a lower budget
are most suitable [9], to meet the entire PV quota, while also
providing 30% of the solar thermal target [18], thereby reaching
the renewable energy target more efficiently, and at an earlier date
[262]. To meet this requirement, substantial increase in production
volume is necessary for cost reduction, and the involvement of the
solar heating system manufacturers is important [125], which
depends on whether subsidies for PV/T systems will be based on
the PV output and/or solar thermal output [125]; therefore,
different renewable energy subsidies are needed to recognize the
value of the energy produced [171]; and hence, a mature product
with certifications and a proven track record are the prime
requirements [125].
13.2. Aesthetics
A full solar energy roof, meeting the architectural requirements
such as water tightness, uniform structure and uniform color
[312], one which is modular, simple to mount, building integrated
[125] etc., and fits the other energy systems of the house, is
important for a successful system [313].
13.3. Payback period
Solar energy is the only sector where one invests once and
reaps the benefits for decades. It offers enormous potential in
India, since 45% of the rural households do not have access to
electricity [4]. The manufacturing cost, installation cost [15] and
space requirement [14] of a PV/T system in multi-family houses
[33] are less than the combined cost of a conventional solar water
heater and a PV module [123,221]. Replacing the roofing material
with a PV/T system [19] is very profitable, in terms of cash savings
from feed in tariffs in industrial facilities [101]. The benefits of
81
electrical, thermal and daylight production, can appear both
economically and environmentally more attractive [126], since
the production costs of PV/T air collectors and PV/T water
collectors are around 5% and 8% respectively higher than those
of the PV modules [64]. The ratio of the additional cost of a
thermal absorber per cost of the PV module, is almost double,
when using a-Si compared to c-Si, but the total energy output is
almost equal [26,115]. A 25 m2 PV/T system cost and payback
period was two-thirds that of the separate PV and thermal systems
of the same size [20,314], and the payback period of the PV
module is between one third and one half, if incorporated with a
thermal component [38], such as hot water tubes and thermo-
electric modules [315], which can be further reduced by improving
the absorption and emission values [6]. The energy payback period
of a PV/T system in Italian climate would be 2 years, compared
with 4.3 years for a solar thermal collector, and 3.4 years for a PV
system [9]. The energy payback time (EPBT), life cycle conversion
efficiency (LCCE), electricity production factor (EPF) and inflation,
based on the annual overall thermal energy and exergy gain of a
glazed photovoltaic thermal air collector, were evaluated in New
Delhi, for Indian climatic conditions [316]. The Hetero-junction
with Intrinsic Thin Layer (HIT) type PV module, showed a better
electricity production factor (EPF), energy payback time (EPBT)
and life cycle conversion efficiency (LCCE), among different silicon
and non-silicon PV modules [317].
13.4. Compact
A 60% additional area is required for a separate solar thermal
collector and the PV module, to produce the same yield as a PV/T
system [7], which is an important issue facing installers and
customers, in deciding which solar technology should get priority
in the limited roof space [38].
13.5. Environment friendly
Solar PV/T applications are one of the potential solutions for the
present energy needs, and to combat greenhouse gas emissions
[29], because emissions from the solar PV system are less than
one-fourth those of the oil-fired steam turbine plant, and one-half
those of the gas-fired combined cycle plant [3]. Installing a BIPV/T
collector in at least 10% of the homes built in the US each year, to
reach net-zero energy use, would result in total energy savings
amounting to 1232 GWh and 8.4 trillion BTUs, or 1.17 million
metric tons of CO2 per year [294].
14. Research areas
Research in thermal absorber design and fabrication, material
and coating selection, energy conversion and effectiveness, per-
formance testing, system optimization, control and reliability, are
very important [44].
14.1. Simulation software
The outdoor testing of silicon solar cells under natural sunlight,
is simpler, cheaper and more accurate than careful simulation
results [3]. The energy, economic and environmental assessment
of a solar hybrid PV/T water system were studied using a SimaPro
5.1 simulation software [318]. The performance, environmental
impact and economic analysis of a building integrated PV/T air
system were studied using a SimaPro 5.1 simulation software
[319]. A few simulation software are available for modeling PV/T
based systems such as TRNSYS, Polysun, TSol, PVSol; however, a
more advanced software specially dealing with PV/T design, and
82 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
optimization of electrical and thermal requirements for a given
area, combined with its meteorological data, would prove useful.
14.2. Suitable adhesive
The thermal characteristics of the adhesive with high thermal
conductivity, low electrical conductivity, extreme operating tem-
perature range, good elongation properties [35] and the coolant
flow regime, impact the overall efficiency of the hybrid solar PV/T
system [7]. The thermal resistance between the PV and the
thermal absorber may become too large, if air bubbles are formed
in the glue layer [20].
14.3. Standard for testing
Performance certification standards are defined for solar ther-
mal systems (EN 12975) and solar PV power systems (IEC 61215)
[6]; so, a new standard exclusively for solar PV/T systems will
bring this technology inside the competitive solar market. Barriers
for the diffusion of solar PV/T collectors and the suggested changes
required in standards, regulations and certification procedures, are
proposed for market acceptance [320]. A new test was developed
to assess the performance and energy production of a low cost PV/
T heating system [321]. A standard was developed for the PV/T
collector, which was compiled from the EN12975 standard, by
evaluating the thermal and electrical performance of the PV/T
collector individually [86]. The available standards applicable to
PV/T technology were evaluated, and appropriate tests to guaran-
tee long time performance of photovoltaic thermal systems, were
suggested [322]. An overview of thermal measurement of the
semiconductor silicon solar cell similar to the semiconductor
diode was presented [323].
14.4. Introduction to nanotechnology
Nanofluids are fluids, in which nano-sized particles having high
thermal conductivity are mixed, to enhance the effective thermal
conductivity of the solution. These fluids, if used with varying
volume concentration from 0% to 10%, increase the heat transfer
rate by 27% [91], compared to the low thermal conductivity water
from the PV module, thereby producing higher thermal and
electrical yields. MgO–water nanofluids were passed over the PV
module to remove heat, thereby attaining an overall efficiency of
more than 60% [324]. The performance of silica/water nanofluid of
1% and 3% weight fraction, was compared with that of pure water,
and an increase in the total exergy of 22.61%, 24.31% and 19.36%
respectively was observed [325]. Nanofluid as fluid optical filter to
separate the photovoltaic and thermal components in a PV/T
collector achieved 4% higher thermal efficiency but a slightly
lower overall efficiency compared to thin film fluid filter [326].
The potential of nanofluids in various solar thermal collectors
especially solar PV/T collectors to increase their performance were
presented [327].
14.5. Advanced materials
The normal operating temperature of 75 1C in a stand-alone PV
module, experiences higher temperatures in the glazed condition,
which causes the PV module layers like EVA and Tedlar to
deteriorate. Hence, higher temperature and higher thermal shock
withstanding materials are required [312]. The EVA layer, on
prolonged UV exposure and high temperature above 70 1C
becomes brown, reduces absorption, and loses its mechanical
properties above 130 1C [6]; hence, silicone resin having high
temperature resistance between  55 1C and 200 1C, and good
electrical insulation [328] is preferred as the encapsulation
material over EVA [33], but due to its low thermal conductivity,
the bonding layer has to be very thin [6]. Semi-transparent solar
cells combined with a second absorber offer scope for a more
efficient PV/T system [329]. Reflective coatings like TiO2, Si3N4,
Al2O3, SiO2, Ta2O5, a-Si:C:H, a-Si:N:H with optimum thickness, can
also be used to improve the efficiency of the solar cell by 30% in
PV/T systems [330].
14.6. Reliability studies
Any new solar system has to be tested in outdoor conditions as
per standards, before being commercialized for market accep-
tance, like a conventional PV module which undergoes an average
power loss of 0.3% per year, during the course of 14 years [167].
Also, large scale projects provide experience to manufacturers,
give awareness to the public, show the best practices, and result in
installers and solar suppliers familiar with PV/T. The stagnation
temperature of at least 150 1C [43], electrical insulation, electrical
hazard protection, leakage current protection, capacitive coupling
to the ground, and corrosion from moisture [6], are the most
important issues, which determine PV/T reliability [328]. Also the
lifetime of the silicon PV modules is guaranteed only for operating
temperatures below 85 1C. More research on system studies,
economical aspects, reliability aspects and optical optimization,
are important in PV/T technology [6].
14.7. Single package lamination
Regression lines for a silicon cell confirmed that the efficiency
is almost static, and could be improved only by manipulating the
design configuration of the thermal absorber [19]. Two manufac-
turing defects are, imperfect adhesion between the PV module and
thermal absorber, and imperfect bonding between the thermal
absorber and tubes [9,23,102]. These causes high thermal resis-
tance between the PV module and the coolant fluid, leading to
increased thermal losses and reduced PV performance [20]. The
electrical efficiency is increased by 2% for 10,000 W/m2 K plate to
bond heat transfer coefficient [29] and increased thermal con-
ductivity between the PV cells and the thermal absorber [18]. The
aim of the single package lamination is to minimize the thermal
resistance by reducing the layer thickness between the PV cells
and the metal thermal absorber, by directly packing the thermal
absorber, PV cells, and the glass cover, to form a glazed collector
[6,72], with sufficient electrical insulation [20], thereby increasing
the electrical efficiency and thermal efficiency [104]. The black-
ened surface absorber plate in a glass–glass PV/T air collector
instead of the Tedlar, helps to trap more solar radiation trans-
mitted from the glass, and increase the thermal efficiency [29],
also increasing the cell temperature, thus producing a lower
electrical efficiency than the glass-to-Tedlar PV/T collector [133].
15. Conclusions
In this present work, a comprehensive review on the flat-plate
solar PV/T technology is carried out. The electrical and thermal
efficiencies of the PV/T collector using different designs and heat
transfer fluids, their applications, limitations, advantages and
scope for future research are discussed to enable the reader to
have a complete understanding of solar PV/T concept. From the
literature review, it is observed that the PV/T system is a promising
device with maximum solar energy utilization and a few inherent
drawbacks. Several researches are being carried out presently to
improve the efficiency of the solar PV/T collector and make it
competitive with the solar PV module and solar thermal collector.
 J.J. Michael et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 62–88
In order to increase the electrical efficiency of the PV module in
hot and humid climate zones, cooling of PV cells is necessary,
thereby also producing hot water/air for low temperature applica-
tions. High stagnation temperature due to high thermal resistance
between the PV cells and the heat transfer fluid can be minimized
by the choice of high thermal conductivity, high electrical resis-
tivity materials between the PV cells and the thermal absorber.
Several designs involving air/water based arrangements, together
with diffuse reflectors have increased the electrical and thermal
efficiencies comparable to their individual systems. A thermal
efficiency of more than 80% and an electrical efficiency enhance-
ment of more than 20% can be obtained through the use of diffuse
reflectors together with water cooling. More than 50% increase in
thermal efficiency can be achieved by laminating the PV cells
directly on the thermal absorber, with simultaneous enhancement
of electrical efficiency due to reduced thermal resistance and
improved heat transfer.
Further, proper standards, regulations and continuous field
testing are required to promote solar PV/T technology among
different manufacturers, installers and consumers. The integration
of this system on the buildings, offers several additional benefits
combined with faster payback period. The combined production of
electrical and thermal energy in a limited area, provides the
utmost usage of solar energy, and provides a path towards near
zero energy consumption buildings.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to Anna
University for providing the necessary funds through the Anna
Centenary Research Fellowship 2011 - 2013.
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