MESB 333 Lab

Temperature Measurement
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1 Experiment I
Time Constant

1.1 Objective

Design your experiment in order:

1. To compare the time constant of different type of temperature measuring devices with
reference to mercury filled thermometer (smallest time constant).
2. To understand the relationship between resistance and temperature.

1.3 Theory

Temperature is a measure of hotness. Together with a measure of ‘thermal mass’ of a body it

gives an indication of the total thermodynamics energy that body contains. There are many scales
for the comparison of temperatures, the most important is with their corresponding values for
melting ice and boiling water (which are common reference temperatures) being given in the
table below.

Scale Melting Ice Boiling Water

Celsius (or Centigrade) 0 0C 100 0C

Fahrenheit 32 0F 212 0F

Kelvin (Absolute Scale) 273 K 373 K

In this experiment you will be familiarized with the following temperature measurement devices:

a) Resistance thermometer (TYPE K)

b) Thermistor (NTC)

1.4 The Liquid Filled Thermometer

This type of thermometer depends on the expansion of a liquid associated with an increase in
temperature. The most common type is the mercury-in-glass thermo meter. This thermometer
consists of a capillary tube with a bulbous end . clean , dry mercury is introduced and the
 thermometer heated to drive off the air. The end is then scaled leaving mercury and mercury
vapour only.

On heating, the mercury expands relative to the glass container and a column is pushed along the
bore of the tube. A scale along the tube, calibrated in units of temperature, gives a direct reading
of temperature. The mercury-in-glass thermometer is an accurate device but is very fragile and
care should be exercised in use. This type of thermometer should not be used in applications such
as the food industry where mercury poisoning could occur in the event of breakage.

The mercury may be replaced by other fluids according to the application. For example, alcohol
is cheaper and may be used at lower temperatures than mercury. A mercury-in-glass thermometer
is supplied with the Temperature Measurement Bench due to its stable and accurate performance.

For accurate measurement of temperature using a liquid filled thermo meter, it is important that
the thermometer is immersed into the medium being measured by the correct amount. The depth
of immersion is usually stated on the stem of the thermo meter and defines the condition under
which calibration is maintained. The immersion depth may be partial or total and is independent
of filling or range

1.5 The Vapor Pressure Manometer

For industrial applications, the liquid-in-glass thermometer is far from suitable due to its fragility
and the difficulty in reading. In these applications the glass is replaced by a metal container and
mechanical indication is substituted. One example of this type of thermo meter is the vapor
pressure thermo meter.
This consists of a metal bulb partially filled with fluid, which is connected to the sensing element
of a Bourdon gauge. The space above the fluid is filled with vapor of the fluid, the pressure of
which is display on the Bourdon gauge. The gauge is calibrated directly in units of temperature
corresponding to the equivalent, pressure of the vapor but calibration is far from linear due to the
pressure increasing more and more rapidly as the temperature increases. For this reason, the vapor
pressure thermometer is suitable only for operation over short ranges of temperature and suffers
from lack of sensitivity at low readings. In service, the range should be selected so that the gauge
remains within operational limits with the normal operating point at approximately two thirds of
fullscale reading.
Vapor pressure thermometers offer the advantage of remote reading. The thermometer may be
ordered with a metal capillary tube connecting the bulb to the gauge, permitting remote operation
over distances up to sixty meters. Correct orientation of the bulb and gauge should be preserved
f or ac- curate results. The vapor pressure thermometer supplied with the bench has the Bourdon
gauge connected directly to the stem f or case of operation

1.6 The Bi-Metal Thermometer

Expansion of solids may be used to measure temperature but direct measurement is

impractical due to the very small movements involved. However, if two thin met al strips, having
d if f erent coeff icients of linear expression, are mechanically fastened together, the result is a
strip which bends significantly when heated. This combination is called a Bi-metal strip and the
sensitivity may be increased by coiling the strip into a spiral. One end of the strip is f ixed to the
case and a pointer is attached to the other end. L inear scale may be obtain ed by suitable cho ice
 of metals.
This type of thermometer is very robust and has many applications throughout industry where
accuracy of measurement is not imp ortant.

The bi- metal thermometer supplied w ith the bench is mounted on th e back-board and gives a
direct reading of ambient air temperature.

1.7 Resistance Thermometer

The resistance of a material changes with temperature. Resistance thermometer uses this
relationship in measuring the temperature. If high accuracy is required, the material used in
resistance thermometer is platinum. Nickel is used in general operation and monitoring. Copper
is also suitable but only in a restricted temperature range of approximately 250oC, because copper
tends to corrode more severely when subjected to oxidation.

Figure 3.1 shows the resistance change of the metals as a function of the temperature T. They
have a positive temperature coefficient . For the purpose of comparison a resistance
characteristics of a thermistor (NTC) was added, which runs much more non-linearly, and in
contrast to the metals, demonstrates a negative coefficient .

For small temperature ranges we may assume that linear relationships exist between resistance
and temperature. From figure 3.2 one can deduce the temperature-dependent resistance ratio
R(T) caused by the resistance change R is:

R(T) = Ro + R (1)

The rise of this function is m = R/T.

R = mT (2)

Knowing that, R(T) = Ro + R, thus:

R(T) = Ro + mT

= Ro (1 + m/Ro T)

R / R o
= Ro (1 + T) (3)
T

R / R o
= Ro (1 + 1T) where, 1 =
T
 450

400

350

300

250
Ni 100 Pt100

R/W
200

150

100 Cu100
50

0
-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000
T/0C

Figure 3.1

1 is the linear temperature coefficient of the resistive material. It provides the relative change in

resistance (R/ Ro) for a certain temperature change (T), for example 0.4% change in resistance

R(T)

R Ro = R(To)

per degree.

Figure 3.2

From Figure 3.1 we can see that for large measurement ranges no linear relationship between
resistance R and temperature T can be assumed. In this case we must take into consideration,
apart from the linear temperature coefficient 1 , also the square temperature coefficients 2, and
for very large temperature changes T also the cubic temperature coefficients 3, and if
necessary the biquadratic value 4.


R (T)  R o 1  1T  2T2  ... n Tn  (4)

where, T  T  To
1.8 Thermal Response

The thermal response of a thermo meter to changes in te mperature is probably the most important
characteristic to consider when selecting instrumentat ion f or a particular application.
A thermo meter may be extremely accurate and stable in performance but totally unsuitab le f or
use in a dynamic situation, due to a time lag between system temperature and thermometer
reading.

The d iagra m below shows typical response curves f or a thermo meter when step changes in
temperature are applied .

The response of the thermo meter is def ined by the t ime ta ken f or the te mperature reading to
change by 63.2% of the step change. For any thermometer, this time will be a constant value
irrespective of step change and is def ined as the "t ime constant" f or the thermometer. Th e time
constant and response profile f or a thermometer will change if the system is modif ied. For
example, t he speed of response of a thermometer will be slowed down if it is protected from the
system being measured by a ther mo meter. The response will also be af fected by the thermal
contact between the thermometer and pocket, f luid f illing of the pocket resulting in a reduction in
time constant.

The response of the thermometer is def ined by the t ime taken f or the te mperature reading to change by
63.2% of the step change. For any thermometer, this time will be a constant value irrespective of step
change and is def ined as the "time constant" f or the thermo meter. Th e time constant and re- sponse
prof ile for a thermometer will change if the system is modified. For example, the speed of response
of a thermometer will be slowed down if it is protected from the system being measured by a thermometer.
The response will also be af f ected by the thermal contact between the thermometer and pocket, f luid f
illing of the pocket resulting in a reduction in time constant.
Figure 3.3 Experiment apparatus
setup
1.9 Apparatus Setup

Note: To discharge the hot water from the pot, request assistant from lab technician.

Base on Figure 3.3, construct the experiment procedure in order to achieve the objective.
2 Experiment II

Type K thermocouple

2.1 Objective

Design the experiment in order:

- To investigate the working principle of Type K Thermocouple

- To find the sensitivity of the type K thermocouple
- To investigate the relation between voltage output and temperature

2.2 Thermistor

Thermistors consist of semi-conducting polycrystalline material. In the production of

temperature sensors copper dioxide (CuO2) is preferred. It demonstrates a sever (non-linear)
drop in resistance for an increase in temperature. It possesses a negative temperature coefficient,
which is the reason why these sensors are called NTC resistors.

If the CuO2 is mixed with the ingredients of a ferroelectric material (e.g. BaTi), the
temperature coefficient is initially negative only for low temperatures. After reaching a threshold
temperature the temperature coefficient becomes very strongly positive in a narrow temperature
range. For even higher temperatures the temperature coefficient reverts back to negative.
Because of the clearly delineated positive temperature coefficient range, these sensors are called
PTC resistors. They are mainly used for trigger purposes.

2.3 Features of NTC and PTC thermistors

NTC sensors possess a high sensitivity, which is easily 10 times higher than that of metal
resistance thermometers. The non-linearity of NTCs and their broad manufacturers' tolerances
exclude them from use for precision instruments. In the temperature range between -60oC and
+150oC they are frequently used in the area of household appliances and medical technology
because of their high sensitivity and corresponding simple circuitry.

The effect of NTCs, whereby the resistance lowers as the temperature increases, is
explained by the semiconductor mechanism. In semi-conductors (as opposed to metal
conductors) the valency electrons have relatively strong bonds to the atomic nuclei of the crystal
lattice. A rise in temperature loosens this bond and more and more electrons enter into the
conduction band, where they are available for charge transport (i.e. for increased current), thus
reducing the ohmic resistance.

PTCs behave in the same manner below the threshold temperature. The resistance
lies only somewhat higher than for NTCs, because, due to the mixture of a ferroelectric
material to the semiconductor material an additional resistance of both components
results (series connection). However, with increasing temperature a strong increase in
resistance is observed within a narrow temperature range, which is caused so rapidly by
the sudden cancelling of a uniform orientation of all magnetic forces in the ferroelectric
 material. Through thermal motion an amorphous crystal structure is produced, which
results in a considerable prolongation of the current paths, on which the electrons move
through the PTC. If this transition is completed, the resistance then drops again as the
rise in temperature continues. Thus the function R(T) of the PTC follows the
characteristic of its semiconductor components, supplemented by the characteristics of
its ferroelectric components.

They are generally intended for applications where a considerable change of

esistance is required as a function of themperature, or of dissipated power, for example:
heating elements, temperature indication, control or alarm, time-delay of relays, circuit
protection etc.

2.4 Temperature function and temperature coefficient of NTC thermometers

The resistance R(T) = RT of NTC materials can be described as a function of the

temperature using the following equation:

RT = AeB/T (5)

The material constant B is given in Kelvin, e.g. B = 3800 K. The constant A gives the
resistance for infinitely high temperature. As the sensor cannot register this temperature,
the constant A cannot be used as a practical parameter. The requirements for practical
application can be better satisfied with the following dependency RT. For this the
reference temperature To = 20oC is used, for which the resistance has its nominal value
Ro. Due to the fact that in the above equation only A is unknown, the equation is then
solved for A, which is inserted into RT:

R(To) = Ro = AeB/To

A = Roe-B/To (6)

Subsitute (6)into equation (5)

RT = RoeB(1/T - 1/To) (7)

Construct the experiment procedure in order to achieve the objective.