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HAR DAYAL
■ M .A., Ph.D.
By arrangement with
Routledge« &■ KegaîrPâul Ltd., London.
F ir s t ’ P u b lish e d1932
R e p r in t 1970
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To
SJN K TA AGDJ
HAR D A Y A L.
L ondon,
October, 1931.
CONTENTS
CHAP. PA G E
I. T he B odhisattva D octrine . . . . i
V. T he Pä r a m i t ä s ............................................. 165
A p p e n d i x .................................... 382
I n d e x .......................................................................387
ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Avança.— Avadàna-çataka, edited by J. S. Speyer (St. Petersburg
1906, 1909). 2 vols. Bibliotheca Buddhica.
Atiguttara.— Anguttara-Nikäya, edited by R. Morris and E. Hardy
(London 1885-1910).
Anguttara trsln.— “ Die Reden des Buddha,” übers, von Nyänatiloka
(München 1922-4).
Abhidharma-koça.— UAbhidharma-koça, traduit par L. de la Vallée
Poussin (Paris 1924-6).
Atharva-veda, edited by R. Roth and W. D. Whitney (2nd edition,
Berlin 1924).
Attha-sälim, edited by E. Müller (London 1897).
“ Album Kern.” — (Leyden 1903).
Aristotle (“ Ethics ” ).— “ The Nicomachean Ethics,” translated by
R. W. Browne (London 1914).
A ristotle (“ Politics ” ).— “ The Politics and Economics of Aristotle,”
translated by E. Walford (London 1881).
T ’oung-Pao (Leyden).
Thera-gäthä) edited by H. Oldenberg and R. Pischel (London 1883).
Translation by C. A. F. Rhys Davids.
"Psalms of the Brethren” (London 1913).
Triglotte.— Buddhistische Triglotte, edited by A. Schiefner (St.
Petersburg 1859)/
S. T achibana (“ Ethics” ).— “ The Ethics of Buddhism” (London
1926).
E. J. T homas (“ Buddha” ).— The Life of Buddha as Legend and
History” (London 1927).
A Tibetan-English Dictionary.— By S. C. Das (Calcutta 1902).
A Tibetan-English Dictionary.— By H. A. Jäschke (London 1881).
Täranätha— “ Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien,” übers, von
A. Schiefner (St. Petersburg 1869).
T ie Upanisads.— Anandâçrama Series, Poona.
Uttarädhyayana-s&tra, edited by J. Charpentier (Upsala 1922).
N.B.— The abbreviations p. and pp. have generally been omitted after
the titles of Sanskrit and Pâli works.
Chapter I
TH E B O D K IS A T T V A D O C T R IN E
I. T he B ackground
II. “ B o d h is a t t v a ”
T h e Sanskrit word bodhisattva has been explained in
different ways. Bodhi means “ Enlightenment ” . But several
interpretations o f the word sattva have been offered by
ancient and modern scholars.
(i) Sattva may mean “ Wesen, Charakter” 5 “ essence,
nature, true essence” (Skt. Dicy* Pbg. & Skt. Dicy. M .W .).
T h e Pàli word satta may also mean “ substance ” (Pali Dicy.
s.v.). T h e great modern lexicographers seem to interpret
sattva in this sense. Thus, according to Böhtlingk and Roth,
bodhisattva means : “ (adj.) dessen Wesen Erkenntniss ist $
(mas.) der im Besitz des Wesens der Bodhi Seiende.” Monier
THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE 5
Williams translates ; 44one who has bodhi or perfect wisdom as his
essence ” (p. 688b). E. Bumouf seems to interpret the word in the
same way as Böhtlingk and Roth : 44celui qui possède l’essence
de la bodhi” 8 P. Oîtramare follows Monier Williams and
translates: “ un être dont l’essence consiste dans l’éveil” .
(“ Bouddhique,” p. 250). C . F . Koeppen : 44 Derjenige, dessen
Wesenheit die höchste Weisheit (bodhi) geworden ” (“ Buddha ” ,
ii, 18).
C . E liot : 44One whose essence is knowledge ” (Eliot, ii, 7).
i f . Hackmann : 44 He whose essence is becoming Enlighten
ment ” (“ Buddhism,” p. 52). It may be added that the modern
Hindi word 44s a t” which is derived from Skt. 44saitva ” , means
“ essence, extract ” .
(2) 44Sattva ” (masculine) may mean 44any living or sentient,
being ” (Skt. Dicy. M .W .), 44ein lebendes Wesen ” (Skt. Dicy.
Pbg.). T h e Pali word satta may mean “ a living being,
creature, a sentient and rational being, person” (Pâli Dicy.
s.v.). Most modern scholars adopt this interpretation.
M . W intcrnitz. : 44Ein Erleuchtungswesen ” (<c L it.” ii, 183).
X. de la Vallèe Poussin : “ On peut le traduire * creature’ ou
4 être vivant ’ ” (“ Opinions ” , p. 169, line 8).
M . W alleser : “ Weisheitswesen ” (Pr. P â . tr., p. 5).
H. Kern : 44A sentient or reasonable being, possessing bodhi ”
(“ Manual,” p. 65, line 1 1).
T . fV . Rhys D avids and W . Stede : 44a bodhi-being, i.e. a
being destined to attain fullest Enlightenment ” (Pali Dicy.
s.v.).
X. D . Barnett : 44 Creature o f Enlightenment ” (44 Path ” ,
p. 20).
S. Lefmann : 44Bodhisattva bedeutet einen, dessen Wesen
Erweckung oder Erleuchtung ist ” (Lai. V\ tr., p. 50).
M . JnesaH : 44A being seeking for bodhi ” (ERE., v, 450).
E . J . Thomas : 44a being o f (or destined *br) Enlightenment ”
(44Buddha ” , p. 2, note I).
P . M asson-Oursel : 44un être d’illumination ” (44Esquisse ” ,
p. 127).
R. Pischel : 44Ein Wesen, das bestimmt ist, einst ein Buddha zu
werden ” (4t Buddha p. 50).
D . T Suzuki : 44Intelligence-Being ” (44Outlines ” , p. 277).
Csoma de Korbs : 44 Purified, mighty soul ” (Csoma, p. 6).
T h e author of the Samädhi-räja-sütra interprets sattva as
6 THE BODH1SATTVA DOCTRINE
‘ ‘ b e in g , c re a tu re ” , but th in k s th a t th e w o rd bodhisattva
m eans “ o n e w h o a d m o n is h e s or e x h o r ts a ll b e i n g s ” (bodheti
sativän. . . Sam. R â . fo l. 25*7, 4 ) . P . G h o s a se e m s to in te r p r e t
sattva as “ liv in g b e in g ” , b u t a n a ly se s th e w h o le w o r d in a p e c u lia r
w a y : “ bodhih sa cäsau mahä-krp-ägayena sattv-älambanät sattvag
ceti b o d h is a t t v a h T h i s w o u ld m e a n th a t th e p e r s o n is b o th
bodhi a n d sattva ! 2
(3 ) u Sattva ” m a y m e a n “ s p ir it, m in d , sen se , c o n sc io u s n e ss ” 5
“ G e i s t ” (S k t. D i c y . M .W . a n d P b g .) . T h e P a li w o r d satta
m a y also m e a n “ s ó u l ” ( P â li D i c y . s .v .) . A c c o r d i n g to L . de
la V a llé e P o u s s in , th e I n d ia n le x ic o g r a p h e r s a lso e x p la in sattva as a
s y n o n y m fo r citta (th o u g h t) o r vyavasäya (d e c isio n , d e te r m in a tio n ).10
P r a jM k a r a m a t i, c o m m e n t in g on th e B.C. A v a y says: “ taira
(1hodhau) sattvam abhipräyo>syeti b o d h is a ttv a h 11 P. G h o sa
c ite s o ld c o m m e n t a t o r , w h o a ls o in te r p r e ts sattva as
an
abhipräya ( in te n tio n , p u rp o s e ) : “ hodhau sattvam
m e a n in g
abhiprâyo yesâm te bodhisattväh ” (P r. P ä . Ç a t a p . 2 , n o t e 2 ).
T h u s th e w o r d w o u ld m e a n : “ o n e w h o s e m in d , in te n tio n s ,
th o u g h ts o r w is h e s a r e fix e d o n bodhi P . O lt r a m a r e r e je c ts th is
in te r p r e ta tio n as fa r - fe tc h e d and in a c c u r a te ; 12 b u t L. d e la
V a llé e P o u s s in see m s to b e in c lin e d to a c c e p t i t , w h i l e h e a t th e
s a m e tim e a d m its th a t th e o r ig in a l m e a n in g o f th e w o rd m a y
h a v e b e e n d e riv e d fr o m th e id e a o f “ e sse n ce , o w n n a tu r e ” . 13
(4) Sattva m a y m e a n “ e m b r y o ” ( S k t . D i c y . M . W . ) . H . S,
G our tra n sla te s : “ In w hom k n o w le d g e is la t e n t and
u n d e v e lo p e d ” (“ B u d d h is m ,” p . X I ) .
(5 ) Sattva m a y h a v e th e s a m e m e a n in g a s i t h a s in t h e
Yoga-sütrasy w h e r e i t is o p p o se d t o purusa a n d m e a n s “ m in d ,
in te llig e n c e ” . T h i s in te r p r e ta tio n is o ffe r e d b y E . S e n a r t, w h o
b e lie v e s t h a t B u d d h is m w a s p r o fo u n d ly in flu e n c e d b y th e Toga
sy ste m . H e says : “ Sattva n e d é s ig n e p as s e u le m e n t le p r e m ie r
des tro is gunasy s o it s e u l, s o it c o m p lé té p a r huddhi o u citta; il d é sig n e
l ’ e sp rit, m a is e n ta n t q u e l ’ e s p r it ré su m e e t e x p r im e la prakrti e t le s
gunas q u i la c o n s titu e n t . . . l ’ e s p r it a c t if , c o n s c ie n t, q u i r e lè v e n t
d e la prakrti. E x p liq u é p a r c e tt e a c c e p tio n d e sattva e t c o m m e
bahuvrïhiy bodhisattva d é s ig n e r a it le f u t u r B u d d h a , p r o v is o ir e
m e n t r e te n u dans le s lie n s d e l ’ e x is te n c e , c o m m e * p o ssé d a n t le
sattva d e la bodhi % c ’ e s t-à -d ir e u n e illu m in a tio n e n c o r e lié e a u x
c o n d itio n s in fé r ie u r e s àesguçasy p a r ta n t im p a r fa ite .” 14
I t is tr u e th a t sattva o c c u r s f r e q u e n d y in t h e Yoga»$ütraSy
and G. J h a tra n sla te s i t a s “ t h in k in g p r in c ip le o r m in d ” : (To.
THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE 7
Sü. I I , 4 1 , p . 1 0 9 , u Sattva-çuddhî-saumanasy-aikâgry-endriya-
jay-âtma~darçana~yogyatvâni c a ” ).u E . S e n a r t p o in ts o u t th a t
sattva is d e cla re d to b e d is tin c t fr o m purusa in th e Yoga-Sütras
( I I I , 5 5 , “ Sattva~puru$ayoh çuddhi-sâmye kaivalyam ” p . 1 7 4 ) .
H e th u s p re fe rs th e in te r p r e ta tio n cite d a b o v e , b u t I m u s t confess
th a t I d o n o t r e a lly u n d e rsta n d w h a t h e m ea n s b y “ le sattva d e la
bodhi” .
H . K e r n is o f o p in io n th a t th e first w o r d bodhi m a y b e
related to th e buddhi o f th e Yoga sy ste m , e sp e c ia lly as th e
w o r d buddhisattva is fo u n d in th e lite r a tu r e o f Yoga. A
bodhisattva w o u ld th u s b e a p e r so n ific a tio n o f p o te n tia l
in te llig e n c e .16
(6 ) Sattva m a y b e a w r o n g ly S a n s k ritiz e d fo r m o f th e P â li
w o r d satta, w h ic h m a y co rre sp o n d to S k t . sakta. Thus
P â li bodhisatta, fr o m w h ic h th e S a n sk r it w o r d is d e riv e d ,
w o u ld m e a n bodhi-sakta^ “ o n e w h o is d e v o te d o r a tta c h e d to
bodhi” .11 Sakta ( fr o m th e r o o t sanj) m ea n s “ c lu n g , s tu c k o r
a tta ch e d to , jo in e d o r c o n n e c te d w it h , a d d icte d o r d e v o te d to ,
fo n d o f , in te n t o n ” (S k t. D i c y . M .W .J*. A c c o r d in g to th e P a li
D ic t io n a r y , th e P â li w o r d satta m a y co rre sp o n d to se v e ra l
S a n sk rit w o rd s : sattva , sapta>
saktay a n d çapta. It
h a s been su g g e ste d th a t th e P a li w o r d sutta is also re la ted to
S k t. sükta^ an d n o t to S k t. sütra^ as th e la tte r w o r d is a v e r y
in a p p ro p ria te d e sig n a tio n fo r th e le n g th y a n d p r o lix B u d d h is t
d iscourses. The B u d d h ists a tta ch e d g r e a t im p o r ta n c e to
subhäsita (g o o d sa y in g s), an d th e P à li w o rd suiti does
co rresp o n d to S k t. sükti (P â li D i c y . s.v .). H o w e v e r th a t m a y
b e , it m a y be p la u sib ly a r g u e d th a t S k t. bodhi-sakta is a p ossib le
e q u iv a le n t o f P â li bodhisatta. T h e o p in io n o f th e B u d d h is t
w r ite r s , w h o a d o p te d th e re n d e r in g sattva , n e e d n o t b e c o n
sid ered a b s o lu te ly d e c isiv e in th is q u e stio n , as th e y h a v e c e r ta in ly
g iv e n u s o th e r w r o n g ly S a n sk r itiz e d fo rm s, e .g . smrty-upasthäna
(for P â li sati-patthâna ), samyak-prahäna (fo r P â li sammappadhâna),
e tc . Bodhisattva m a y a lso b e lo n g to th is class of w r o n g ly
S a n s k ritiz e d te rm s. P . O lt r a m a r e r e je c ts th is in te rp re ta tio n ,' as th e
v e r b sanj is n o t u sed to d e n o te a tta c h m e n t to m o ra l and
sp iritu a l id eals, a n d th e la te r w r ite r s c o u ld n o t m a k e su c h “ a
stra n g e m ista k e ” in tr a n s la tin g P â li in to S a n s k r it.18
(7 ) a Sattva ” m a y m e a n “ stre n g th , e n e r g y , v ig o u r , p o w e r ,
co u rage” ( S k t. D i c y . M . W . p . 1 0 5 2 ) . T h e w o r d bodhisattva
w o u ld th e n m e a n , “ o n e w h o s e e n e r g y a n d p o w e r is d ire c te d
8 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
to w a r d s bodhi. ” Sattva in th is se n se o c c u r s fr e q u e n t ly in
K s e m e n d r a ’s Avadäna-kalpa-latä : 44sattv-äbdhih ” ( I I , p . 7 1 3 ,
v e r s e 4 2 ) 5 44 sattv-ojjvalam bhagavaiaç caritam niçamya ” ( I I , p .
8 5 , v e r s e 7 4 ) ; 44 kumärah sattva-sägarah ” ( I I , p . 7 2 3 , v e r s e 2 ï ) 5
sattva-nidhir ( I I , p . 9 4 5 , v e r s e 2 1 ) 5 “ bodhhattvah sattva -
vibhüsitah ( I I , p . 1 1 3 , v e r s e 8 ). T h e w o r d a ls o s e e m s t o h a v e t h e
s a m e s ig n ific a tio n in t h e B. C t . ( I X , 3 0 — 44 bodhisattvah paripürna -
sattvah ” ). E. B . C o w e l l tr a n s la te s , 44 w h o s e p e r f e c t io n w a s
a b s o lu te ” 5 b u t th is r e n d e r in g d o e s n o t e x p k i n t h e p r e c is e m e a n in g
o f sattva.
T h e T i b e t a n le x ic o g r a p h e r s tr a n s la te bodhisattva a s byan-
chub sems-dpah ” . 19 I n th is c o m p o u n d , hyan-chub m e a n s bodhi,
sems m e a n s 44 m i n d ” o r 44 h e a r t ” , a n d dpah s ig n ifie s 44 h e r o , s tr o n g
m a n ” ( = S k t . çüray vira). ( T ib . D ic y . J a x h k e , 3 7 4 b an d 3 2 5 b 5
T ib . D ic y . D as, 8 8 3 b , 787b and 12 7 6 b ). T h is in te r p r e ta
tio n se e m s to c o m b in e W o m e a n in g s o f sattva , v i z . 44 m in d ”
a n d 44 c o u r a g e ” (N o s* 3 a n d 7 a b o v e ) . B u t i t d o es n o t m a k e t h e
e t y m o lo g y o f th e c o m p o u n d w o r d bodhUaitva in a n y w a y c le a r e r
or m o re in te llig ib le . It m ay be in fe r r e d th a t th e T ib e ta n
tr a n s la to rs a sso cia ted th e id eas o f 44 m in d ” a n d 44 c o u r a g e ” w i t h
th e w o r d sattva . A c c o r d i n g t o E . J . E i t e l , t h e C h in e s e in te r p r e t
bodhisattva as 44 h e w h ose e sse n c e has b ecom e b od hi99
(p. 3 4 a ) .
T h e p r in c ip a l B u d d h is t w r it e r s h a v e n o t t a k e n t h e t r o u b le o f
d is cu s s in g th e e x a c t m e a n in g o f sattva , th o u g h th e y m e n tio n
m a n y e p ith e ts in p r a is e o f a bodhisattva. V e r y lit t le g u id a n c e is to
b e o b ta in e d fr o m th a t q u a r te r .
I may suggest that sattva cannot be accurately rendered by
44essence ” , or 44mind ” , or 44intention ” , or 44courage ” , or
44 embryo ” o r 44the sattva o f the Yoga-sütras ” (Nos. 1, 3, 4, 5, 7,
above). I f we interpret sattva as 44essence ” , the word seems
to be too lofty a title for a mere aspirant for wisdom. It would be a
more suitable appellation for a perfect Buddha, who has realized the
supreme bodhi. Sattva , interpreted as 44intention ” , or 44mind ” ,
or 44embryo ” , does not yield a simple and natural sense :
these renderings appear to be too scholastic and far-fetched. W e
need not wander into the distant fairyland o f the Yoga system in
order to explain an old Pali word, H. Kern attempted to identify
bodhi with the buddhi o f the Sänkhya-Yoga 5 but buddhi,
in Buddhist metaphysics, belongs to the lower phenomena! plane o f
existence, while bodhi is the supreme Wisdom. T h e B .C . A v a .
THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE 9
says : 44 buddhih samvrtir ucyate ” 2—
buddht is c a lle d
(JJT,
samvrti, i.e . 44 o b s tr u c tio n , c o v e r in g ” ) . buddhi-sattva
T h e w o rd
o c c u r s in V y â s a ’s c o m m e n t a r y o n To. Sü. 1, 4 7 (p. 5 1 ) : 44 aguddhy-
ävarana-mal-äpetasya prakâç-âtmano buddhi-sattvasya. ” J . H .
W o o d s tra n sla te s th e w o r d as 44 th e sattva o f t h e t h in k in g
s u b s ta n c e ” , b u t th is d o e s n o t s e e m to r e fe r t o a p e r s o n l i k e a
bodhisattva. I t is n o t fo u n d in th e t e x t o f th e sütras. T h e Toga-
sütras w e r e c o m p o se d b e t w e e n a . d . 3 0 0 a n d 5 0 0 , a n d V y â s a ’s c o m
m e n ta r y w a s w r it t e n in th e p e r io d a . d . 6 5 0 - 8 5 0 . 20 T h e w o rd
bodhisatta^ h o w e v e r , is as o ld as t h e Nikäyas, w h i c h d a te
P â li
fr o m th e fifth a n d fo u r t h c e n tu r ie s b . c . 21 (e .g . 44 mayham-pi kho
. . . . anabhisambuddhassa bodhisattass’ eva ” , Majjh. I , 1 7 , 6 5
44 Vtpassissa bhikkhave . . . . bodhisattassa sato. ” Samyutta I I , 5 ,
8 ). I t is n o t n e c e s s a r y to a d o p t th e u n s o u n d m e th o d o f a p p e a lin g t o
c o m p a r a tiv e ly m o d e r n tr e a tise s in o r d e r t o e x p la in a v e r y a n c ie n t
P â li te r m .
O n e is te m p te d to b e lie v e t h a t P à li satta m a y r e a lly b e r e n d e r e d
b y S k t. sakta, as th is in te r p r e ta tio n se e m s t o d e fin e t h e c h i e f
q u a lity o f a n a s p ira n t f o r bodhu B u t t h e s a fe s t w a y is a lw a y s
to g o b a c k to th e P a li w it h o u t a t t a c h in g m u c h im p o r ta n c e to t h e
la te r le x ic o g r a p h e r s a n d p h ilo s o p h e rs. N ow bodhisatta in t h e
P a li te x ts seem s to m ean 44a bodht-b e i n g ” . B u t satta h e r e
d o es n o t d e n o te a m e r e o r d in a r y c r e a tu r e . I t is a lm o s t c e r t a i n ly
re la te d to th e V e d ic w o rd $atvan> w h ic h m eans 44K r i e g e r ” ,
44a s tr o n g o r v a lia n t m a n , h e r o , w a r r io r .” I n th is w a y , w e c a n a lso
u n d e rs ta n d th e fin a l dpah in th e T ib e ta n e q u iv a le n t . Satta
in P a li bodhisatta s h o u ld be in te r p r e te d as 44 h e r o ic b e in g ,
s p ir itu a l w a r r io r T h e w o r d s u g g e s ts th e t w o id e a s o f e x is te n c e
a n d s tr u g g le , a n d n o t m e r e ly th e n o t io n o f s im p le e x is te n c e .
The w o rd bodhisattva is o ft e n c o u p le d w it h mahä-sattva
( g r e a t B e in g ) .
T h e e x p o n e n ts a n d c h a m p io n s o f t h e bodhisattva id e a l carry on a
v ig o r o u s c o n tr o v e r s y w i t h th e a d h e r e n ts o f th e t w o o t h e r id e a ls o f
th e çrâvaka a n d th e pratyeka-buddha. A bodhisattva is r e g a r d e d as
s u p e r io r to a çrâvaka a n d a pratyeka-buddha, a n d th e n e w id e a l is s e t
u p as t h e summum bonum o f t h e r e lig io u s lif e . I t a p p ea rs t h a t th e
IO THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
r e fo r m e r s o r in n o v a to r s o b je c t e d to t h e o ld g o s p e l o n t w o c h i e f
g r o u n d s :—
( i) A bodhisattva a im s a t t h e a c q u is itio n o f bodhi a n d buddha-
jnâna ( B u d d h a - k n o w le d g e ) , w h i le a çrâvaka a n d a pratyeka-
buddha a re c o n te n t w i t h t h e nirvana t h a t is a tta in e d b y t h e
d e s tr u c tio n o f th e âsravas. T h e t w o la t t e r s ta g e s a r e a lso m a r k e d
b y th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c e r t a in k in d s o f bodhiyb u t t h e y a r e in fe r io r to
th e s u p re m e E n lig h t e n m e n t o f a B u d d h a * T h u s th r e e ty p e s o f
bodhi a r e r e c o g n ise d : çrâvaka-bodhiy pratyeka-bodhi a n d anuttarâ
samyak-sambodhi ( th e s u p r e m e a n d p e r f e c t bodhi). T h e la s t is
d e c la r e d t o - b e th e h ig h e s t. T h i s c la s s ific a tio n m u s t h a v e b e e n
d e v ise d a t a c o m p a r a t iv e ly e a r ly p e r io d , as it is fo u n d in t h e A v a .
Ça, a n d th e D ivy, I t is m e n tio n e d in a lm o s t a ll t h e la t e r tre a tise s.
“ Çrâvaka-bodhim pratyeka-bodhim . . . mahâ-bodhîm (M .S . A L
1 6 9 , 1 5 ). 44 H e w is h e s to * r e v e a l o r p r e d ic t * th e th r e e k in d s o f
bodhi ” (A v . Ça, I , 5 , 1 7 ff.) . “ S o m e p ro d u ced in th e m s e lv e s
th e t h o u g h t o f , o r th e a s p ir a tio n fo r , th e bodhi o f th e çrâvakasy e t c .”
(D ivy. 2 0 9 , 5 0 ). 44 T h e y f u lf i l th e W a y o f th e çrâvakas . . . th e
W a y o f t h e pratyeka-buddhas. . . a n d t h e n f o r th e p u r if ic a t io n o f th e
s ta g e o f bodhisattvas ” (D a. B hü . 2 5 . 2 3 - 2 6 . 3 - 2 6 . 7 ) . 44 H e a c ts as a
fa t h e r to w a r d s a ll çrâvakasy pratyeka-buddhasy a n d th o s e w h o h a v e
s ta rte d o n t h e W a y o f t h e bodhisattvas99 (Sad. P u . 4 1 6 , 14 ).
44 B y g iv in g s u c h a g i f t , t h e p o s itio n o f a n arhat is o b ta in e d 5 by
g iv in g s u c h a g i f t , pratyeka-bodhi is o b ta in e d 5 b y g iv in g s u c h a
g i f t , th e s u p r e m e a n d p e r f e c t bodhi is o b ta in e d ” ( P r . P â . Çata.
9 1, 19 -2 1). A rhatvay pratyeka-bodhi a n d O m n i s c ie n c e are
a ls o m e n tio n e d as sta g e s in t h e P r . P â . Çata.
s u c c e s s iv e
(p . 1 3 7 3 , lin e s 1-6 ). Çrâvaka-bhüm i a n d pratyeka-bhümi a r e
c o n tr a s te d w i t h O m n is c ie n c e (sarv-âkâra-jnâna. P r . P â . Çata.y
p. 9 6 4 , 19 -2 0 ).
I n th e e a r lie r b o o k s l i k e t h e Sad. P u .y w e fin d t h a t th e w o r d
44arhat ” is m o r e c o m m o n th a n çrâvakay b u t t h e la t t e r g r a d u a lly
g a in e d g ro u n d at th e exp en se of th e fo r m e r . Çrâvaka
is e m p lo y e d e x c lu s iv e ly in c o n n e c t io n w it h bodhi. W e re ad o f
çrâvaka-bbdkiy n o t of arhad-bodhi. The Sad. Pu. o ft e n
d escrib e s B u d d h a 9$ f o llo w e r s as arhatsy w h i l e i t a ls o sp e a k s o f
çrâvakas in t h e s a m e s e n s e . I n t h e la t e r lit e r a t u r e , w e re ad
o n ly o f çrâvaka-bodhi a n d çrâvaka-yânay a n d t h e t e r m arhat
s e e m s to h a v e d isa p p e a re d a lto g e t h e r . T h u s th e e m in e n t d iscip le s
o f B uddha are çrâvakas in t h e M .V y . ( x lv i i, p . 7 9 ) .
c a lle d
P e r h a p s t h e w o r d çrâvaka h a d a d e r o g a t o r y c o n n o t a t io n , l i k e
THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE u
hïna-yâna, as th e a u th o r o f th e D a . Bhü. sp eak s d is p a r a g in g ly o f th e
grdvakas a n d e x p la in s t h a t t h e y a r e so c a lle d o n a c c o u n t o f th e ir
p r a c t ic e o f s im p ly h e a r in g th e p re a c h e rs a n d f o llo w in g th e ir
w o r d (D a. Bhü. 2 5 , 2 3 ) . B u t th e a u th o r o f t h e Sad. P u . th in k s
t h a t a grdvaka is 44a p r e a c h e r ” (o n e w h o m a k e s o th e r s h e a r).
Çrâvaka-hodhi is e m p lo y e d as a s y n o n y m o f nirvana as th e id e al
o f t h e arhats.
C o r r e s p o n d in g t o th e s e th r e e k in d s o f bodhi, th e r e a r e th r e e
yänas o r “ W a y s ” , w h ic h le a d a n a sp ira n t t o th e g o a l. The
t h ir d yäna w a s a t fir s t c a lle d th e bodhisattva-yäna, b u t it w as
s u b s e q u e n t ly r e -n a m e dmahä-yäna. T h e o th e r tw o yänas w ere
s p o k e n o f as th e hina-yäna. %2 I n th e la te r tr e a tise s, th e te r m
bodhisaitva-yäna is very mahä-yäna h a s ta k e n its
rare, as
p la c e . T h i s is s o m e tim e s c a lle d th e T athägata-yäna.
44 Trini yänani grävaka-yänam pratyeka-huddha-yänam tnahä-
yänam ca ” (Dh. S . I I ) . 44 Yäna~kramah. . . . mahäyänam
pratyeka-buddha-yänam grdvaka-yänam htna-yänam ” (M. Vy.
L IX , p. 9 5 ) . 44 L o r d , in th is m a n n e r , th is M a h ä y ä n a b e lo n g s to
bodhisattvas” ( Pr. Pâ. Çata., p . 1 5 3 0 , 6 ).
t h e g r e a t B e in g s , t h e
44 Mahä-yän-ädhimuktänäm arthe . . . . grävaia-pratyeka~buddha~
yän-ädhimuitänäm” (M .S. A L , p . 1 8 3 , 2 4 - 2 5 ) . 44Çrâvaka-
yänam . . . pratyeka-buddha-yänam . . . mahd-yânam ” (M.S.
A I.1 p . 1 6 8 , lin e 1 4 ) . 44 Arhad-dharmâ . . pratyeka-buddha*
dharmä. . . bodhisattva-dharmä ” ( P r . Pâ. Çata., p . 5 5 2 ) .
N ow a bodhisattva s tr iv e s t o b e c o m e a B u d d h a b y a tta in in g
p e r f e c t bodhi, w h i le a n arhat is c o n t e n t w it h m e r e nirvana, th e
c e s s a tio n o f th e dsravas. T h e pratyeka-buddhas a r e n o t m e n tio n e d
v e r y fr e q u e n t ly in th e p r in c ip a l tre a tise s, p r o b a b ly b e ca u se t h e y a re
so ra re. T h e d iscu ssio n c e n tr e s o n th e c o m p a r a tiv e m e r its o f th e
t w o c h i e f W a y s , th e W a y o f t h e grdvakas a n d th e W a y o f th e
bodhisattvas. T h e S a n s k r it w r it e r s fr e q u e n tly c o m p a r e a n d c o n tr a s t
t h e t w o id e a ls o f nirvana a n d anuttarä-samyak-sambodhi (su p re m e
a n d p e r f e c t E n lig h t e n m e n t ) . 44 T o th e grdvakas, h e p r e a c h e d th e
d o c t r in e w h i c h is a sso cia te d w it h th e f o u r N o b l e T r u t h s a n d lead s
t o t h e ( fo r m u la ) o f D e p e n d e n t O r ig in a t io n . I t a im s a t tr a n s c e n d in g
b ir t h , o ld a g e , d isease, d e a th , s o r r o w , la m e n ta tio n , p a in , distress o f
m in d a n d w e a r in e s s ; a n d i t e n d s in nirväna. B u t , t o th e g r e a t
B e in g s , th e bodhisattvas, h e p r e a c h e d th e d o c t r in e , w h i c h is
a s s o c ia te d w i t h t h e s ix P e r fe c tio n s a n d w h ic h e n d s in th e Knowledge
o f the Omniscient One a f t e r t h e a t t a in m e n t o f th e s u p r e m e a n d
p e r f e c t bodhi ” (Sad. P u . 1 7 , 1 3 E - 3 7 6 , 5 E ) . 44 E a c h o f
12 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
th e se , th e Sütra (D isc o u r se s ), th e Finaya (th e R u le s o f D is c ip lin e ),
a n d th e Abhidharma ( T h e o r y o f t h e D o c t r in e ; P h ilo s o p h y a n d
P s y c h o lo g y ) h a v e b r ie fly a fo u r fo ld m e a n in g . B y k n o w in g
th e m , th e bodhisattva a c q u ir e s Omniscience. B u t th e çrâvaka
a tta in s to th e destruction o f the äsravas b y k n o w in g t h e sen se o f e v e n
o n e v e rs e ” (M .S . A L 5 4 , 1 1 ff.) . I n th e Sad. P u ., th e d iscip les
s a y to G a u t a m a B u d d h a :—
44 L o r d , w e w e r e a fflic te d b y th r e e p a in fu l states. B y w h ic h
th r e e ? T h e p a in fu l se n sa tio n ca u se d b y b o d ily p a in 5 t h e p a in ,
w h ic h h as its o r ig in in th e samskäras (v o litio n s ), a n d th e p a in
ca u sed b y c h a n g e . B e in g in th is tr a n s ie n t w o r ld , w e w e r e in te n t
u p o n th e lesser th in g s. H e n c e w e h a v e b e e n ta u g h t b y th e L o r d
to r e fle c t o n th e n u m e ro u s lo w e r dharmas (ru le s o r d o ctrin e s),
w h ic h a re li k e a re c e p ta c le o f f ilt h .23 H a v in g a p p lie d o u rselv es
to th e m , w e h a v e s tr iv e n an d s tr u g g le d , O L o r d , b u t w e h a v e
b e g g e d and s o u g h t fo r o n ly nirvana, as i f it w e r e o u r w a g e .24 W e
have been c o n te n t, O L o rd , w it h th a t nirvana , w h ic h w as
o b ta in e d . W e th o u g h t th a t w e , h a v in g s tr iv e n a n d s tr u g g le d
in d ilig e n tly f o llo w in g th o s e ru le s, h a v e o b ta in e d m u c h fr o m
th e Tathägata , 25 T h e L o r d k n o w s t h a t w e a r e in te n t o n th e
lesser th in g s , a n d th e r e fo r e h e n e g le c ts u s a n d d o es n o t asso cia te
w it h us. H e d oes n o t s a y to u s : 4 T h i s tr e a s u re o f K n o w le d g e ,
w h ic h is th e Tathägata'>, v e r i l y th is , e v e n th is s a m e , sh a ll b e
y o u r s / T h e L o r d , b y h is w is d o m in th e c h o ic e o f m ea n s (fo r
o u r sa lv a tio n ), a p p o in ts u s h e irs t o th a t tr e a su re o f K n o w le d g e ,
w h ic h is th e Tathägata's . B u t w e o u rs e lv e s h a v e n o d esire fo r it.
W e k n o w th a t e v e n th is is m u c h f o r u s, t h a t w e g e t nirvana
fr o m th e L o rd as our w ages ( i.e . as a la b o u r e r g e ts h is
re m u n e ra tio n ) ” ................. 44 I f th e L o r d p e r c e iv e s th e s tr e n g th o f o u r
fa ith an d u tte rs th e w o r d bodhisattva w i t h r e fe r e n c e t o u s, th e n
th e L o r d m a k e s us d o t w o th in g s : w e a r e said to b e p erson s o f
litt le fa ith in th e p r e se n c e o f th e bodhisattvas, a n d th e s e la tte r a re
roused to (th e p u r s u it) o f th e n o b le E n lig h t e n m e n t o f th e B u d d h a .
T h e L o r d , n o w k n o w in g th e s tr e n g th o f o u r fa ith , d e c la re d th is to
us. I n th is m a n n e r , O L o rd , w e say : 4W e h a v e s u d d e n ly
o b ta in e d th is p e a rl o f Omniscience as i f w e jv e r e th e son s o f th e
Tathägata , th o u g h i t w a s n o t d esire d o r s o lic ite d b y u s, n e ith e r
w a s it s o u g h t a n d s tr iv e n a ft e r , n o r w a s i t th o u g h t o f o r a sk e d fo r
b y u s ’ ” (Sad. P u ., p p . 1 0 8 - 1 0 ) , E v e n th e h ig h e s t fo rm o f
nirvana is c le a r ly d istin g u ish e d fr o m bodhi in su ch a passage as t h e
fo llo w in g :—
THE BO DH ISA TT VA DOCTRINE 13
44 T h e g r e a t B e in g , th e bodhisattva, w h ile g ir d in g o n h is a r m o u r ,
d o es n o t d is c rim in a te a m o n g th e cre a tu re s, (sa y in g ) : 4S o m a n y
c r e a tu r e s sh a ll I h e lp t o o b ta in co m p le te nirväna , in w h ic h n o
m a te r ia l su b s tra tu m r e m a in s ; 26 a n d so m a n y cre a tu re s sh a ll I n o t
h e lp in th is w a y . S o m a n y cre a tu re s sh a ll I establish in bodhi ; an d
so m a n y (o th ers) s h a ll I n o t so establish. B u t th e bodhisattva,, th e
g r e a t B e in g , v e r ily d o n s h is a r m o u r fo r th e s a k e o f a ll c re a tu re s ”
{P r. P ä . Çata., p . 1 2 9 9 , lin e s 1 3 - 1 7 ) .
I n a n in te r e s tin g p a ssa g e , th e a u th o r o r a u th o rs o f th e P r . Pä.
Çata. e n u m e r a te s e v e ra l d o c trin e s an d p ra ctice s, w h ic h le a d to th e
grävaka-bhämi (th e S ta g e o f a grava ka). T h e y add th a t h e , w h o
tr ie s to p ersu a d e a m a n to re m a in c o n te n t w it h th a t lo w e r sta te,
is 44 a b ad fr ie n d ” [papa-mitra) a n d re a lly d o es th e w o r k o f th e
44 E v i l O n e ” (mära-karmänt). T h e g o a l s h o u ld b e th e a tta in
m e n t o f th e anuitarä-samyak-samlodhi (.P r . P ä . Çata ., p p .
119 0 -1). T h e bodhisattva, a g a in , m a y le a d o th e r b e in g s to
ntrväna , b u t h e h i m s e lf m u s t s tr iv e f o r th e p e r fe c t bodhi (P r.
P ä . Çata., p. 1 2 6 4 , lin e s 1 8 - 2 0 ) . G a u ta m a B u d d h a h im s e lf is
re p resen ted in th e Sad. P u . as first te a c h in g o n ly th e w a y to
ntrväna, w h ic h e n a b le s a p e rso n to tra n sce n d b ir t h , o ld a g e , d isease,
d ea th an d s o r r o w 5 b u t h e fu r t h e r in cite s th e bodhisattvas to th e
p u r s u it o f th e 44 s u p re m e a n d p e r fe c t bodhi99 {Sad. P u . 7 1 , 1 - 9 ) .
I n fa c t , th e e n tir e s ix th c h a p te r o f th e Sad. Pu. e lab o ra tes th e n o v e l
a n d s ta r tlin g idea th a t th e m o s t e m in e n t o f G a u ta m a B u d d h a ’s
d iscip les, w h o a re d e scrib e d as lib e ra te d arhats in th e o ld scrip tu re s,
sh o u ld c o n tin u e th e ir s p ir itu a l d e v e lo p m e n t t ill th e y a tta in to th e
r a n k o f B u d d h a h o o d . T h e c o n d itio n o f nirväna , w h ic h th e y h ad
a c q u ire d , b e lo n g e d to a lo w e r sta g e . N o n e o f th e g r e a t arhats
o f th e e a rlie s t p e r io d o f B u d d h is t h is to r y a re spared. K açyap a,
M a h ä k ä ty ä y a n a a n d M a u d g a ly ä y a n a a re m e n tio n e d , a n d th e ir
fu tu r e B u d d h a h o o d is p re d ic te d {Sad. P u ., p p . 1 4 4 , 1 5 0 , 1 5 3 ) .
I n th e 8 th a n d 9 th c h a p te r s , th e sa m e p r e d ic tio n is m a d e w it h
re g a rd to K a u n d in y a , Ä n a n d a , R ä h u la an d 2 ,5 0 0 arhats (pp. 2 0 7 .7 -
2 0 9 - 2 1 6 . 3 - 2 1 9 . 1 2 - 2 2 1 .4 ff.). T h e in a d e q u a c y o f th e o ld ideal
o f nirväna is v iv id ly s e t fo r th in th e w o r d s , w h ic h a re p u t in to th e
m o u th s o f th e 5 0 0 arhats. T h e y sa y to G a u ta m a B u d d h a :—
44 W e co n fess o u r tran sg ressio n s, L o r d . W e h a v e a lw a y s and
a t a ll tim e s th o u g h t th u s ( lite r a lly 4 c o n c e iv e d th e id ea *) : 4 T h i s
is o u r fin a l nirväna ; w e a r e fin a lly re lea sed .’ W e h a v e b e e n
fo o lish a n d u n w is e ; w e h a v e n o t k n o w n th e r ig h t w a y . A n d w h y ?
B e c a u s e w e h a v e b e e n c o n te n t (lite r a lly 4 g o n e to c o n te n tm e n t ’)
14 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
w i t h th is s o r t o f in fe r io r ( o r in s ig n ific a n t) k n o w le d g e , w h e r e a s
we sh o u ld have a c q u ir e d p e r fe c t E r li g h t e n m e n t th ro u g h th e
K n o w l e d g e o f t h e Tathägata ” (Sad, P u . 210, 1-4 ).
A t th is p o in t a p a ra b le is in tr o d u c e d . A m a n v is its a fr ie n d ’s
h o u s e a n d fa lls a sle e p o r lie s d r u n k th e r e . T h a t fr ie n d p u ts a
p ric e le s s g e m in h is g a r m e n t a n d tie s a k n o t . T h e m a n d o es n o t
k n o w a b o u t it. H e w a n d e r s to a fa r c o u n t r y a n d fa lls o n e v il
d a y s. H e o b ta in s fo o d a n d r a im e n t w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t d iff ic u lt y .
T h e n h e h a p p e n s t o m e e t t h a t o ld fr ie n d , w h o te lls h im o f th e
p r e c io u s g i f t th a t h a s a lw a y s b e e n w i t h h i m , t h o u g h u n b e k n o w n
to h im . T h e 5 0 0 arhats t h e n p r o c e e d :—
“ E v e n th u s, O L o r d , y o u p r o d u c e d in u s t h e t h o u g h ts o f
O m n is c ie n c e , w h i le y o u f o r m e r ly liv e d th e li f e ( o r fo llo w e d th e
s p ir itu a l c a r e e r ) o f a bodhisattva. B u t w e d o n o t k n o w o r u n d er
sta n d th e m . W e im a g in e d t h a t w e h a d b e e n lib e r a te d th r o u g h
( r e a c h in g ) th e s ta g e o f th e arhat. W e c a n h a r d ly b e sa id t o liv e ,
in a s m u c h as w e a r e sa tisfie d w it h s u c h t r if li n g ( o r in s ig n ific a n t ,
in fe r io r ) k n o w le d g e . B u t o u r a s p ira tio n f o r th e K n o w l e d g e o f
t h e O m n is c ie n t O n e h a s n e v e r w h o l l y p e r is h e d . A n d t h e Tathä -
gata , O L o r d , te a c h e s u s : 4 O M o n k s , d o n o t t h i n k t h a t th is is
nirväna. I n y o u r c o n sc io u s n e ss , th e r e a r e ro o ts o f M e r i t , 87 w h ic h
I h a v e fo r m e r ly r ip e n e d (o r m a tu r e d ) . T h i s is n o w m y w is d o m
in th e c h o ic e o f m e a n s ( fo r c o n v e r s io n ) . I u t t e r m y w o r d s in
p r e a c h in g th e r e lig io n a n d t h e r e b y y o u t h i n k t h a t t h is n o w is
nirvana? H a v i n g b e e n t a u g h t th u s , w e h a v e t o - d a y r e c e iv e d th e
p r e d ic tio n about ou r su p rem e and p e r fe c t E n li g h t e n m e n t ”
(Sad. P u . 2 1 1 , 8 ff.).
T h e a u th o r o f t h e Sad. P u . e x p re sse s t h e d e f in it e o p in io n t h a t
a ll arhats, w h o h a v e d e s tr o y e d th e äsravas, m u s t g o f u r t h e r a n d
seek th e sambodhi (Sad P u . 4 3 . 1 1 f f .— 1 3 7 , 5 f f . -
su p rem e
1 4 2 . 3 fir.). T h e Bo. Bhü. e x p lic i t ly d e c la r e s t h a t a bodhisattva
s h o u ld n o t ta k e d e lig h t in th e id e a o f nirväna 5 h e s h o u ld b e
a v e r s e to nirväna (nirväna-vimukhena vihartavyam. Bo. B hü.
f o l . 6 9 a , I , 2).
T h e id e a l o f arhatship is th u s d e c la r e d to b e v e r y in fe r io r t o
t h a t o f B u d d h a h o o d , w h i c h is t h e g o a l o f a bodhisattva. It m ay
b e a d d e d th a t th e S a n s k r it B u d d h is t w r it e r s h a v e a ls o d e sc rib e d
a n arhat w it h r e fe r e n c e to th e f o r m u la o f t h e te n F e t t e r s (samyor
janäni) , w h ic h is e la b o r a te d in t h e P â li w r it in g s . T h e f o u r sta te s
o f çrota-âpanna (o n e w h o h a s e n te r e d t h e s tr e a m ), sak?d-3 gämin
(th e o n c e - r e tu r n e r ) , anägämin ( o n e w h o d o e s n o t r e tu r n to e a r th )
THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE 15
and the arhat are recognized by some Mahäyänist authors as the
preliminary stages o f a bodhisattva's career. T h ey are mentioned
in the Lankävatära , the Avadäna~kalpalatä, the Daça-bhümika-
$ütray the Prajnä-päram itä and the Käranda-vyüka.28 T h e
P r . P â . Çata. indeed incorporates the entire scheme in its own
metaphysics, but adds that all the Fetters can be destroyed only by
prajnâ-pâramitâ (the Perfection o f Wisdom). It thus seems to
teach that even the old ideal o f the arhat is unattainable without
the practices enjoined by the new school. It mentions all the
Fetters in this order : sat~käya-dr$ti (belief in substantial Indi
viduality), vicikitsä (doubt), çïla-vrata-parâmarça (the perverted
belief in good works and ceremonies), käma-räga (love o f sense-
pleasure), vyapäda (malice, ill-will), rüpa-räga (love o f existence
in the material worlds), ärüpya-räga (love o f existence in the
non-material worlds), avidyä (ignorance), móna (pride) arid
auddhatya29 (self-righteousness, exaltation, excitement). It defines
an arhat as one who has destroyed all these Fetters. A t the same
time, it declares that the acquisition o f the prajnä-päram itä or
bodhi is necessary for the eradication o f these Fetters (page 478,
line 12). Thus even arhatship is regarded as almost impossible o f
attainment without the bodhi o f a bodhisativa .
In this connection, it is interesting to compare the stereotyped
formulae, which are found in the A v a . Ç a.y the D ivy. and other
Sanskrit treatises. A n arhat and a bodhisativa are described in two
different sets o f words, which indicate that the new ideal was
radically divergent from the old. In the A v a . Ça.) the following
passage recurs frequently :—
44 He exerted himself and strove and struggled, and thus he
realized that this circle (or wheel) o f Life (or the Universe), with its
five constituents, is in constant flux. He rejected all the conditions
o f existence which are caused by the samskäras (material
compounds), as their nature is such that they decay and fall away,
they change and are destroyed. He abandoned all the kleças 88
(sins, passions) and realized the state o f an arhat. When he became
an arhat) he lost all attachment to the three worlds $81 gold and a
clod o f earth were the same to him 5 the sky and the palm o f his
hand were the same to his mind 5 he was like fragrant sandal
wood 5 32 he had tom the egg-shell (of ignorance) by his Know
ledge (i.e. as a bird is hatched) ; he obtained Knowledge, the
abhijnäs (Super-knowledges) and the pratisantvids (analytical
Powers) 5 he became averse to gain, avarice and honour in the
i6 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
world (or to existence, gain, etc.) ; he became worthy o f being
respected, honoured and saluted by the devas, including Indra and
his younger brother,83 Visnu or Krsna ” {A va. Ça. II, 348,
i~6 and passim).
In the D ivy-ävadäna , we find the old Pali formula o f arhatship :
“ M y rebirth is destroyed ; the excellent (spiritual) life has been
lived 5 what had to be done (‘ duty ’) has been done 5 I shall
not know a birth (or existence) after this life ” {D ivy. 37, 14-16).
T h e epithets which are applied to the arhats in the Sad. P u .
and the P r . P â . Çata. are also very characteristic. T h e arhats
are declared to be free from the äsravas and the kleças (passions) ;
they are self-restrained 5 they are perfectly free in their hearts and
minds (or in their thought and wisdom) ; they are o f good birth and
comparable to great elephants in nobility, strength and endurance ;
they have done their duty, accomplished all that was to be done,
laid down their burden, and achieved their aim (or their highest
Good) 5 they have destroyed the fetters o f existence $ their minds
are perfectly liberated through right knowledge 5 they have
attained to the highest perfection in all forms o f mind-control and
are conversant with the abhijnas (Super-knowledges. Sad. P u .y
6 - 9 )*
I f we compare these epithets with those which are applied to the
bodhisattvas in the same books, we shall understand the
second point o f difference between the ideals o f the bodhisattva and
the arhat.
T h e arhats are represented as very austere, saintly, self-
restrained, meditative ascetics, but also as rather frigid and self-
centred. T h e bodhisattvas are described as more compassionate
and active. T h ey will u roll the wheel o f the Doctrine that will
never turn back.” T h ey serve and worship hundreds o f Buddhas.
T h eir bodies and minds are suffused and penetrated with friendli
ness for all creatures (m aitri). T h ey are fit for imparting the
Buddha’s Knowledge to others. T h ey have attained the full
perfection o f Wisdom, T h ey help many living beings to secure
liberation and happiness {santârakaïh. Sad. P u . 2, 11 ff.).
It is to be noted that the words “ friendliness ” (maitri) and
“ saviour, liberator ” {santäraka) do not occur in the passage that
describes the arhats.
(2) T h e Mahäyänists accuse the arhat o f selfishness and
egotism, because he strives and struggles only for his own liberation
from sorrow instead o f working for the liberation and happiness o f
THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE 17
all beings. A bodhisattvay who follows the ideal o f the Mahäyäna,
aims at the highest Good for himself and also for others. A n
arhat is rightly or wrongly represented by the Mahäyänist authors as
a self-complacent, self-regarding and unsocial recluse, who is
intent only on solving his own personal problem and does not think
o f others. A bodhisattva, on die contrary, thinks both o f himself
and others. T h e Sad. P u . condemns the arhats and the pratyeka -
buddhasy because they exert themselves only for their complete
nirvana (âtma-parinirvâna-hetoh)y but the bodhisattvas aspire to
the attainment o f bodhi for the welfare and happiness o f many
beings, both men and dev a s . T h ey wish to help all creatures
to obtain Liberation Çsarva~sattva-parinirvâna-hetoh)y because they
love and pity the whole world. T h eir wisdom serves to .liberate
all beings \ 36 but such is not the case with the wisdom o f the
çrâvakas and the pratyeka-buddhasy who never say to themselves 2
“ Having acquired supreme and perfect Enlightenment, we shall
help all beings to attain the complete and final nbrvänay devoid o f
any material substratum.” 36 T h e thoughts o f these two classes
o f saints are narrow and mean, as they promote only their own
personal interests \ but the thoughts o f the bodhisattvas are noble
and generous, as they deal with the interests o f others.37 Great
Merit is obtained by the bodhisattvasy who devote themselves to
the good o f others ( par-ârtha ) 5 but the çrâvakas think only of
their own good (sv-ârtha).9* A bodhisattva may be compared to
a charitable man who gives food to other people ; but a çrSvaka is
like a person who consumes it himself.39 T h e Mahäyänists thus
attribute altruistic motives to the bodhisattvasy who are there
fore declared to be infinitely superior to the çrâvakas in many
passages o f Buddhist Sanskrit literature.40
Here we find two remarkable ideas : (a) A bodhisattva helps all
beings not only to attain the spiritual goal o f nirvânay but also to
obtain the more material advantages o f happiness and welfare in
the world (sukha). T h e austere unworldiness o f the old ideal is
abandoned in favour o f a more humane aim.
(b) A bodhisattva wishes to help all beings to attain nirvâna .
He must therefore refuse to enter nirvâna himself, as he cannot
apparently render any services to the living beings o f the worlds
after his own nirvâna . He thus finds himself in the rather illogical
position o f pointing the way to nirvâna for other beings, while he
himself stays in this world o f suffering in order to do good to
all creatures. T h is is his great sacrifice for others. He has
i8 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
taken the great Vow : 44 I shall not enter
into final
nirvana before all beings have been liberated.” 41 He has girt
on his spiritual armour and wishes to continue his work as a
bodhisattva in all worlds and universes.42 He does not realise
the highest Liberation for himself, as he cannot abandon other
beings to their fate.43 He has said : 44I must lead all beings to
Liberation. I will stay here till the end, even for the sake of one
living soul.” 44
T h e Mahäyäna thus preached the ideal o f compassionate
Buddhahood for all as opposed to cold arhatship . T h e Sad . P u .
clearly teaches this new gospel : 44 A ll shall become Buddhas.” 45
Çântideva declares that even worms and insects have finally
risen to the supreme position o f a Buddha.46
A bodhisattva will thus attain bodhi and become a Buddha.
These two conceptions o f bodhi and Buddhahood are integral
elements of the bodhisattva doctrine.
IV . B odhi
V . T he B uddh a
I
T h e bodhisattva doctrine may be regarded as the final outcome
of the tendencies that were at work in India during several
centuries after Gautama Buddha’s death. These may be grouped
and classified as follows :—
(1) T h e natural tendencies of development within the
Buddhist Church.
(2) T h e influence o f other Indian religious sects like the
Bhâgavatas and the Çaivas .
(3) T h e influence of Persian religion and culture.
(4) T h e influence of Greek art.
(5) T h e necessities o f propaganda among new semi-
barbarous tribes.
(6) T h e influence o f Christianity.
These different factors, that contributed to the rise and growth
o f the new doctrine, may be considered in detail.
**
(1) N atural D evelopm ent of B u d d h is m
(2) T he I nflu en ce of H in d u is m
(6) C h r is t ia n it y
II
III.
M a n ju çr î an d A v a l o k it e ç v a r a
44 T h e L o r d , w h o sees, o r lo o k s d o w n .”
44 T h e L o rd , w h o is s e e n o r m a n ife s te d , o r is e v e r y w h e r e
v is ib le .”
44 T h e L o r d o f w h a t is s e e n , o f th e v is ib le w o r ld .”
44 T h e L o r d , w h o is s e e n fr o m o n h ig h ” (i.e . b y Amitäbha
B u d d h a , as a s m a ll B u d d h a - fig u r e is o fte n p la c e d in th e
h e a d o f th e sta tu e s o f A v a lo k it e ç v a r a ) .
44 T h e L o r d , w h o lo o k s fr o m o n h ig h ” (i.e . fr o m th e m o u n ta in s,
w h e i e h e liv e s , l i k e Çiva).
44 T h e L o r d o f V i e w . ” 44 L o r d o f co m p a ssio n a te g la n c e s .”
44 T h e L o r d o f th e d ea d a n d th e d y in g .”
T h e P â li v e r b oloketi m e a n s 44 to lo o k a t, to lo o k d o w n o r o v e r ,
to e x a m in e , in sp e c t, c o n s i d e r ” . T h e w o rd avalotita m ay have
a n a c t iv e s ig n ific a tio n , a n d th e n a m e w o u ld m e a n , 44 th e lo r d w h o
sees (th e w o r ld w i t h p it y ) ” . spyan-
T h e T i b e t a n e q u iv a le n t is
ras-gzigs (th e lo r d , w h o lo o k s, w i t h e y e s ). The Kâranda-vyüha
e x p la in s th a t h e is so c a lle d , b e c a u s e h e re g a rd s w it h co m p a ssio n
a ll b e in g s s u ffe r in g fr o m th e e v ils o f e x is te n c e . A c c o r d in g to N . D .
M i r o n o v , th e o r ig in a l f o r m o f th e n a m e w a s avalokita-svara,
w h i c h h a s b e e n fo u n d in th e fr a g m e n ts o f th e m a n u sc r ip t o f th e
Sad, Pu. b ro u gh t b y Count K. O t a n i ’s e x p e d itio n fr o m E.
T u r k e s t a n . 69 I t is a r e m a r k a b le fa c t th a t S a n g h a v a r m a n (th ir d
C e n tu ry ), D h a r m a r a k s a a n d o t h e r e a r ly tra n sla to rs tra n sla te d th e
n a m e in to C h in e s e as kuang-shih-yin (illu m in a tin g th e so u n d s o f
th e w o r ld ). J . E d k in s sa ys : 44 Kuan (lo o k s o n ), shih (th e 4 r e g io n ’
o f s u ffe re rs ), yin (w h o s e v o ic e s o f m a n y to n e s, a ll a c k n o w le d g in g
m is e r y a n d a s k in g s a lv a tio n , to u c h th e h e a r t o f th e p itifu l Bodhi-
sattva) . ” 70 T h e C h in e s e e q u iv a le n t o f th e fo r m avalokiteçvara
(iuan-tzu~tsai) a p p e a re d fir s t in Y uan C h w a n g ’s w r it in g s
in th e s e v e n th c e n tu r y . I t h a s b e e n o b je c te d th a t avalokita-svara
is a q u e e r s o r t o f c o m p o u n d , w h ic h w o u ld c o n v e y n o c le a r m e a n in g
to a n I n d ia n .71 B u t th e p r e s e n t fo r m is a lso a p u z z li n g c o m p o u n d
+8 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
w h ic h c a n n o t b e in te r p r e te d w it h a n y d e g r e e o f c e r t a in t y . It
m a y b e in fe r r e d t h a t th e C h in e s e k n e w th e fo r m avalokita-svara ,
b u t i t w a s s u b s e q u e n tly c h a n g e d to avalokiteçvara o n a c c o u n t o f
th e c o n fu s io n b e t w e e n lok-egvara a n d avalokita-svara. T h ere
w a s p r o b a b ly s o m e Ç iv a i t e in flu e n c e . A te n t a t iv e s u g g e s tio n
m a y b e o ffe r e d : th e w o r d avalokita m a y m e a n “ w is d o m ” ,
a s i t is e m p lo y e d in th e M tu . t o d e n o te t h e e sse n ce o f B u d d h a ’s
E n lig h t e n m e n t ( M tu .y ii, 2 9 4 , 2 ). T h e r e is a lso a samädhi, c a lle d
avalokita-mudrâ (P r . P â . Çata , p . 4 8 3 ) . I n t h a t c a s e , t h e n a m e
w o u ld m e a n “ L o r d o f W is d o m ” . T h i s in te r p r e ta tio n is n e ith e r
b e t t e r n o r w o r s e th a n th o s e m e n tio n e d a b o v e , a ll o f w h i c h a r e
u n s a tis fa c to r y . T h ere is a ls o no v a lid re a so n fo r a s so c ia tin g
th is bodhisattva w it h th e d e a d a n d th e d y in g : s u c h a n id e a is
n o t fo u n d in th e te x ts t h a t d e s c r ib e h is a c tiv itie s .
A v a lo k it e c v a r a is th e c h i e f m in is te r in th e B u d d h a Jm itäbha's
p a ra d ise {Sad. P u ., c h a p t e r x x i v ) . H e is a lso r e g a rd e d as a n e m a n a
t io n o f t h a t B u d d h a . H e is n o t m e n tio n e d b y n a m e in th e e a r ly
tr e a tis e s li k e th e M tu . a n d t h e L a i. F . B u t h e is p r o m in e n t in
th e s u p p le m e n ta r y p o r t io n o f th e Sad. P u . a n d in t h e Su. Fy. a n d
th e K ä. Fy. I n t h e M . Fy. ( S e c tio n 2 3 ) , h e sta n d s a t th e h e a d o f a
lis t o f n in e t y - o n e bodhisattvas. H is o r ig in is o b s c u r e . K . J.
S a u n d e r s th in k s t h a t h e is a s u n - g o d o f C e n t r a l A s i a . 72 M .
W i n t e r n i t z r e fe r s t o th e s t o r y o f K i n g V i p a ç c i t in th e Märkandeya -
purSna a n d sa y s : “ T h i s k i n g is a c o u n t e r p a r t , p e r h a p s a fo r e r u n n e r ,
o f th e bodhisattva A v a lo k i t e ç y a r a in M a h â y â n a B u d d h is m ” . 78 H e
c a n h a r d ly b e a “ fo r e r u n n e r ” , a s t h e B u d d h is t t e x t s m e n tio n in g
A v a lo k it e ç v a r a are c e r t a i n ly o ld e r th a n t h is puräna.
A v a lo k it e ç v a r a ’s n a m e , h is a s s o c ia tio n w i t h Aimtäbha , h is lo r d ly
a n d le is u r e ly m o v e m e n ts t h r o u g h o u t t h e U n iv e r s e , t h e stress la id
o n h is “ e y e s ” {Sad. P # . , 4 5 2 , 2 ) , h is c a p a c it y o f illu m in a tin g
th e w o r ld {Su. Fy.> 5 6 , 5 ) , a n d h is e p it h e t o f samanta-mukha
p o in t to a s o la r d e ity . The c u lt of A v a lo k it e ç v a r a se e m s
t o b e a B u d d h is t a d a p ta tio n o f t h e s u n - w o r s h ip o f t h e Sauras a n d
t h e M agi.
As a bodhisattva, A v a lo k it e ç v a r a is th e p e r s o n ific a tio n of
M ercy. H e a b r o g a te s a n d n u llifie s t h e o ld la w o f karma , a s h e
v is its th e p u r g a t o r y o f a vid a n d m a k e s i t a c o o l a n d p le a s a n t p la c e
{Kä. Fy , , p . 6 ). H e g o e s to th e r e a lm o f th e prêtas a n d g iv e s th e m
p le n t y o f fo o d a n d d r in k 5 t h e y th u s r e g a in a n o r m a l fig u r e . The
b e in g s , w h o a r e lib e r a te d fr o m th e s e re a lm s , a r e r e b o r n in th e
p a ra d ise o ( Suihävatu In t h e p u r g a to r ie s , h e c r e a te s a la k e o f
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 49
h o n e y a n d w o n d e r f u l lo tu se s , w h i c h a r e as la r g e a s c h a r io t - w h e e ls .
H e v is its th e d e m o n e sse s (râisasïs) in C e y l o n a n d t h e y f a ll in lo v e
w ith h im 5 but he co n v e rts th e m to th e tru e r e lig io n ( Kä.
Vy., p. 4 3 ). I n th e c o u n t r y o f M a g a d h a , h e fin d s t h a t th e p e o p le
h a v e b e c o m e c a n n ib a ls o n a c c o u n t o f a fa m in e : h e h e lp s t h e m
by r a in in g d o w n w a t e r , r ic e , c e r e a ls , c lo th e s a n d o t h e r th in g s
(Kä. Vy., p. 4 7). I n B e n a r e s , h e a ssu m e s th e sh a p e o f a b e e a n d
p r e a c h e s to th e w o r m s a n d in s e c ts i n th eir* fo u l a n d h u m b le a b o d e .
T h e y s e e m to h e a r th is b u z z i n g s o u n d (ghuna-ghunäyamänam
çabdam) : “ S a lu ta tio n t o B u d d h a .” T h e y a r e r e b o r n as bodhi-
sattvas in Sukhavatu S u c h a r e A v a lo k i t e ç v a r a ’s d eed s o f m e r c y .
I t is d is tin c tly s ta te d in t h e K ä . Vy. th a t A v a lo k it e ç v a r a
is m u c h g r e a t e r th a n th e B u d d h a s in M e r i t , in te llig e n c e a n d s p h e re
o f in flu e n c e (Kd. Vy.yp p . 1 4 , 1 9 , 2 3 ) . H is M e r i t is in c a lc u la b le , li k e
d ro p s o f ra in f a llin g c o n t in u a lly f o r a y e a r (p. 1 9 ) . H e is th e f a t h e r
a n d m o t h e r o f a ll (pp. 4 8 , 6 6 ) . T h e d e v o te e , w h o r e c ite s h is n a m e ,
is fr e e d fr o m p a in $ a n d th e m a n o r w o m a n , w h o w o r s h ip s h im
w i t h o n e f lo w e r , is r e b o r n as a deva (p p . 4 8 , 4 9 ) .
The a p o th e o sis o f A v a lo k it e ç v a r a c u lm in a te s in id e n t if y in g
h im w it h th e S p ir it o f th e U n iv e r s e a n d b e s t o w in g o n h im a ll th e
a ttr ib u te s o f Brahman a n d Içvara . H e h a s a h u n d r e d th o u sa n d
a rm s a n d s e v e r a l m illio n s o f e y e s . T h e su n and m o o n h a v e sp ru n g
fr o m h is e y e s , Brahmä a n d o t h e r g o d s f r o m h is s h o u ld e r s , Nârâyana
fr o m h is h e a r t, a n d Sarasvatt f r o m h is te e th . H e h a s in n u m e r a b le
p o r e s (roma~vivara\ w h i c h a r e in t a n g ib le , li k e sp a c e (p. 6 2 ) .
I n e a c h p o r e th e r e a r e m a n y B u d d h a s , g o d s , m o u n ta in s o f g o ld
a n d s ilv e r , e tc . P io u s w o r s h ip p e r s c a n b e r e b o r n in th e s e p o re s a n d
a tta in f e lic it y (p. 6 7 ) . A b o v e a ll, t h e y s h o u ld le a r n a n d r e c ite
th e m y s te r io u s fo r m u la , 44 Om manipadme h u m ” w h ic h is c a lle d 44t h e
lo r e o f s ix le tte r s o r s y lla b le s ” . It is A v a lo k it e ç v a r a ’ s s p e c ia l
g i f t to th e w o r ld a n d le a d s t o m oha ( L ib e r a t io n ) . T h i s se e m s
t o b e a n in v o c a tio n o f a fe m a le d e it y , 46 th e d e ity 0 / t h e j e w e l -
lo t u s .” F . W . T h o m a s and A . H . F ra n ck e h ave sh ow n th a t
t h e p o p u la r in te r p r e ta tio n is in c o r r e c t {Omy 64 th e J e w e l in th e
L o t u s ” ) . 74 W ith th is f o r m u la , we e n te r th e d ark r e a lm of
Ç a k t i- w o r s h ip a n d M a n t r a - y ä n a , w h i c h s h o u ld b e c le a r ly dis
tin g u is h e d fr o m th e h is to r ic a l M a h ä y ä n a .
Chapter III
TH E T H O U G H T O F E N L IG H T E N M E N T
A bodhisattvd*s c a r e e r is sa id to c o m m e n c e w i t h th e “ p r o d u c tio n
o f th e Thought of bodhi ” (bodhi-citt-otpäda). He th m k s o f
b e c o m in g a B u d d h a f o r th e w e lf a r e a n d lib e r a tio n o f a ll c r e a tu r e s ,
m a k e s c e r ta in great v o w s, and h is f u t u r e g r e a tn e s s is p r e d ic te d
b y a liv in g B u d d h a . T h e s e t h r e e e v e n t s m a r k t h e c o n v e r s io n
o f a n o r d in a r y p e r so n in t o a bodhisattva . B u t th e la t e r B u d d h is t
p h ilo s o p h e r s h a v e a ls o in tr o d u c e d a k in d o f n o v it ia t e , w h i c h m u s t
b e g o n e t h r o u g h b e fo r e a n o r d in a r y p e r s o n c a n a r r iv e a t t h e s ta g e
o f th e ciit-otpäda. W e fin d t h a t th e s e v e r a l fa c t o r s o f th is p e r io d
o f p r e lim in a r y p r e p a r a tio n w e r e g r a d u a lly d e v is e d a n d e la b o r a te d .
T h e D a . B hü . d o es n o t s p e a k o f a n y s u c h c o n d itio n s j i t m e n tio n s
t h e citt-otpäda as th e fir s t ste p in a bodhisattva1$ c a r e e r .1 It
re p re s e n ts th e e a r lie s t tr a d it io n w ith regard to th is q u e s tio n .
B u t th e a u th o r s o f t h e M .S . A L a n d t h e Bo. B h ü .y w h o b e lo n g to
th e fo u rth c e n tu r y a . d . , a d d t h e c o n c e p t io n o f gotra ( “ f a m i l y ” ,
“ p r e d is p o s itio n ” ) , w h i c h m u s t p r e c e d e t h e citt~otpäda.z I n th e
c h a p te r s o n th e vihäras a n d t h e bhümis in t h e Bo. B hü , adhimukti
( A s p ir a t io n ) is a ls o p u t f o r w a r d f o r t h e fir s t t im e a s a n e le m e n t in
t h e n o v it ia t e .8 T h e s e c h a p t e r s a r e c e r t a i n ly la t e r in d a te t h a n th e
o t h e r p a r ts o f t h e tr e a tis e , as t h e fir s t c h a p t e r d iscu sse s o n ly
gotra a n d th e s e c o n d c h a p t e r d e a ls w i t h t h e citt-otpsda w it h o u t
m e n t io n in g adhimukti a t a ll. T h e M . Vy . s h o w s t h e th e o r ie s
o f gotra a n d adhimukti in t h e i r c o m p le t e ly d e v e lo p e d f o r m .4
T h e w o r k s o f Ç â n t id e v a ( s e v e n th c e n t u r y ) e x h ib it t h e la t e s t p h a s e
o f th is te n d e n c y t o w a r d s t h e in c r e a s e d e la b o r a t io n o f t h e fa c to r s
a n d c o n d itio n s a p p e r t a in in g t o t h e p r e lim in a r y p e r io d . H e does
n o t a tta c h g r e a t im p o r ta n c e t o gotra o r adhimukti, b u t la y s m u c h
s tre ss on fa it h , w o r s h ip , p r a y e r , c o n fe s s io n o f s in s a n d o th e r
p r a c t ic e s o f p ie t y a n d d e v o t io n a s t h e n e c e s s a r y a n te c e d e n ts t h a t
s h o u ld le a d u p t o th e citt-otpäda . 5 T h e D h . 8 . m e n t io n s o n ly s u c h
p r a c t ic e s , a n d i t ig n o r e s gotra a n d adhimukti a l t o g e t h e r .6 Thus
t h r e e s u b s id ia r y p r o b le m s m u s t b e d iscu sse d b e f o r e w e c a n t a k e
u p t h e c r u c ia l q u e s tio n o f th e citt-otpäda, w i t h t h e V o w a n d th e
P r e d ic t io n th a t fo llo w it.
So
THE THOUGHT OF ENLIGHTENMENT 51
I
Gotra.— It is p r o b a b le t h a t th e M a h â y â n is t s b orrow ed th e
gotra fr o m t h e H ïn a y â n is t s , as th e la t t e r in se r te d
c o n c e p t io n o f
gotrabhü b e t w e e n th e o r d in a r y u n c o n v e r t e d p e r so n
th e s ta g e o f a
( puihujjano) a n d th e sotSpanno (S tr e a m - a tta in e r ), w h o r e p r e s e n te d
d i e lo w e s t o r d e r o f B u d d h is t la y m e n in th e e a r lie s t te x ts . I n tw o
p a ssa g e s o f t h e Anguttara-NikSya, n in e o r te n w o r t h y ty p e s o f
p e r so n s, w h o are “ fie ld s o f M e r i t ” , a r e m e n tio n e d , a n d th e
gotrabhü is o f t h e lo w e s t r a n k .7 H e h a s n o t e n te r e d d i e S tr e a m
o r a c q u ir e d F a it h . I n a p a ssa g e o f t h e Majjhima-Nikäya^ th e
gotrabhü is s p o k e n o f c o n te m p tu o u s ly as a n o m in a l “ m e m b e r o f
th e s p ir itu a l c la n ” . 8 The Puggala-pannatti d e fin e s a n “ o r d in a r y
p e r s o n ” a s o n e w h o is n o t e v e n in c lin e d t o a b a n d o n t h e t h r e e
“ fe tt e r s ” 5 a n d i t p r o c e e d s to d e sc rib e a gotrabhü a s o n e w h o is
endow ed w ith th e c o n d itio n s th a t im m e d ia te ly p reced e th e
advent o r ‘a p p e a r a n c e of th e n o b le n a tu re (ariya-dhammassa
avakkanti 5 i.e . h e is rip e f o r c o n v e r s io n as a sotSpanno, b u t h a s
n o t y e t b e e n c o n v e r t e d ) .9 T . W . R h y s D a v id s a n d W . S te d e
d e r iv e th is w o r d gotra fr o m S a n s k r it goptr gup, a n d e x p la in th u s :
“ a te c h n ic a l t e r m u se d fro m NikSya p e r io d
th e fend o f t h e
to d e s ig n a te o n e , w h e t h e r la y m a n o r bhtkkhu, w h o , a s c o n v e r t e d ,
w a s n o lo n g e r o f th e W o r ld lin g s , b u t o f th e ariyas, h a v in g nibbana
as h is a im .” T h e M . Fy. m e n tio n s gotra-hhümi a s o n e o f th e
seven bhümis (S ta g e s) o f th e H ïn a y â n is ts (S e c tio n 5 0 ) . I t m ay be
in fe r r e d t h a t t h e id e a o f p la c in g a n in te r m e d ia te S ta g e b e t w e e n
t h e u n c o n v e r t e d w o r ld lin g a n d th e f u l l y c o n v e r t e d a d e p t o f t h e
fir s t S t a g e w a s b o r r o w e d f r o m th e H ïn a y â n is ts a n d a p p lie d t o t h e
d e v e lo p m e n t of th e bodhisattva d o c tr in e . The H ïn a y â n is ts
s e e m to h a v e a d o p te d th e te r m gotrabhü in o r d e r t o e n d o w th e
n u m e r o u s n e w c o n v e r t s o f t h e lo w e r ca ste s a n d classes w it h a gotra.
T h i s w o r d o r ig in a lly m e a n t “ f a m i l y ” , a n d w a s t h e n u s e d t o
d e n o te th e g r o u p o f p e r so n s d e sc e n d e d in t h e m a le li n e fr o m
a c o m m o n a n c e s to r , w h o w a s o f t e n a ssu m e d to h a v e b e e n a h o l y
s a g e o f a n c ie n t tim e s l i k e K â ç y a p a , G a u t a m a , B h a r a d v â ja , e t c .
T h u s t h e t h r e e h ig h e r ca s te s a r e d iv id e d i n t o s e v e r a l gotras, but
th e çüdras d o n o t b e lo n g t o a n y gotra. 10 T h is has b een th e th e o ry
o f H in d u is m . B u t e a r ly B u d d h is m u sed a n o ld te r m in a n e w
s e n se , a n d d e c la r e d th a t a ll B u d d h is ts b e lo n g e d to t h e f a m i ly
o r d a n o f G a u t a m a B u d d h a , a s t h e y w e r e h is s p ir itu a l so n s a n d
h e ir s .11 S u c h a n o t io n o f d e m o c r a t ic e q u a lit y a n d s p ir itu a l k in s h ip
52 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
p r o b a b ly le d to th e a d o p tio n o f t h e B r a h m a n ic w o r d gotra b y th e
B u d d h is ts , w h o p r e se r v e d th e o r ig in a l S a n s k r it f o r m in gotrabhü
in s te a d o f e m p lo y in g th e P a li e q u iv a le n t , gotta. The S a n s k r it
f o r m a ls o b e tr a y s its o r ig in .
Gotra, as a p p lie d to a bodhisattva's p r e lim in a r y p r e p a r a t io n ,
has been tr a n sla te d as “ F a m ily ” and “ B r e e d i n g ” . 12 The
T i b e t a n e q u iv a le n t rigs s h o w s t h a t th e q u a litie s o f a cla ss o r c la n
a r e m e a n t , as th a t w o r d a lso d e n o te s “ c a s te ” S . C . D a s tr a n s
la te s : “ b r e e d , C u ltu r e , a lso s p ir itu a l d e s c e n t ” ( T i b . D i c y . , 1 1 8 0 ) .
The Da. Bhû.y w h i c h d o e s n o t s p e a k o f gotra a s p r e c e d in g
th e citt-otpäda, c o n ta in s r e fe r e n c e s t o buddha-gotra \ 13 a n d a
bodhisattva is said to “ f o l lo w th e gotra o f t h e B u d d h a ” . T h e
id e a w a s s u b s e q u e n tly d e v e lo p e d a n d e la b o r a te d t i ll gotra b e c a m e
m e r e ly a te c h n ic a l t e r m , m e a n in g “ t e n d e n c y , p r e -d is p o s itio n ,
d ia th e s is ”
Thus d iffe r e n t p e r so n s a r e q u a lifie d b y t h e ir gotra t o
b ecom e çrSvakaSj o r pratyeka-buddhas, o r p e r fe c t B u d d h a s , w h i l e
th e gotra o f s o m e in d iv id u a ls c a n n o t b e d e te r m in e d a n d 'o t h e r s
h a v e n o gotra a t a ll. T h e r e a r e th u s f iv e s p e c ie s o f gotray as
e n u m e r a te d in th e M . Vy. ( S e c t io n 6 1 ) . T h e p e r s o n , w h o is
fir s t to b e c o m e a bodhisattva a n d t h e n t o d e v e lo p in t o a B u d d h a ,
m u s t h a v e th e p r o p e r a n d r e q u is ite gotra f o r h is m is s io n , o t h e r w is e
h e c a n n o t e n te r o n th e fir s t s ta g e o f h is c a r e e r b y “ p r o d u c in g t h e
T h o u g h t o f E n li g h t e n m e n t ” and t a k in g t h e V ow s. Gotra is
e it h e r in n a te or a c q u ir e d . In n a te gotra depends on som e
s u p e r io r it y in th e f a c u lt ie s a n d is d u e t o a p e r s o n ’s d e e d s in th e
p r e v io u s e x is te n c e s 5 w h i l e a c q u ir e d gotra is o b ta in e d in t h is p r e s e n t
l i f e b y d e v e lo p in g t h e “ R o o t s o f M e r i t ” . 14 A bodhisattva's gotra
is d is tin g u is h e d b y c e r t a in s ig n s o r m a r k s , w h i c h in d ic a te h is
fitn e s s f o r th e p r a c t ic e o f t h e s ix päramitäs ( P e r f e c t io n s ) . He
a tta c h e s th e g r e a te s t im p o r ta n c e to th e c u lt iv a t io n o f V ir tu e
a n d t h in k s o f th e f u t u r e l i f e . 16 H e is a s e v e r e c r i t i c o f h is o w n
a c t io n s , a n d h e fe a r s a n d a v o id s th e s lig h te s t s in .16 H e h e lp s o th e r s
a n d e s c h e w s s tr ife a n d d is c o r d .17 H e e x h o r ts o th e r s t o a b s ta in
fr o m im p r o p e r a c t io n s .18 H e is a lw a y s m e r c if u l a n d v ir tu o u s
a n d lo v e s th e t r u t h .19 H e s p e a k s p le a s a n tly e v e n to d u m b s e r v a n ts
a n d a p p re c ia te s th e m e r its o f o t h e r s .20 H e is fo r b e a r in g a n d p a tie n t
e v e n to w a r d s th o se w h o i n ju r e h i m .81 H e is b y n a tu r e e n e r g e t ic
a n d c o u r a g e o u s , a n d d o e s h is d u t y w i t h o u t s u c c u m b in g to in d o le n c e
a n d in a c t i v i t y .28 H e is s t r o n g - w ille d in a ll p r e p a r a tio n s f o r s u c c e s s,
a n d a id s o t h e r p e o p le e v e n in t h e ir w o r ld ly p u r s u its .28 H e is n o t
THE THOUGHT OF ENLIGHTENMENT 53
o v e r - d iffid e n t, b u t b e lie v e s th a t h e c a n a c h ie v e h is a im s , e v e n i f th e
ta s k b e d if f ic u lt .24 H e fin d s h a p p in ess in t h e t h o u g h t o f r e n u n c ia
tio n ; h e lo v e s th e s o litu d e a n d s ile n c e o f t h e w o o d s .25 H e is
b y n a tu r e n o t v e r y p r o n e to p a ssio n o r v i c e . 26 H i s m in d is n o t
d is tu rb e d b y e v il th o u g h t s .27 H e is p u r e a n d b e a r s w i t h i n h im
s e l f th e see d o f a ll th e p r in c ip le s a n d a ttr ib u te s o f p e r f e c t E n li g h t e n
m e n t .22 H e c a n n o t c o m m it a h e in o u s m o r ta l s in .29 H e p ossesses
g r e a t p o w e r s o f e n d u r a n c e .80 In f a c t , h is c o n d itio n is c a lle d
gotra<y b e c a u s e g o o d q u a litie s a ris e f r o m i t . 31 I t m a y b e co m p ared
t o g o ld a n d p r e c io u s g e m s .
A bodhisattva m u s t b e o n h is g u a r d a g a in s t c e r ta in d a n g e r s
a n d o b s ta c le s in th is p r e p a r a to r y s ta g e . H e s h o u ld b e w a r e o f
p assio n s a n d v ic e s o f a ll k in d s .82 H e m u s t s h u n b a d fr ie n d s a n d
c o m p a n io n s .88 H e m u s t a c q u ir e a n in d e p e n d e n t p o s itio n in lif e .
He m ust n o t be dependent on m a ste rs and k in g s , and he
m u s t n o t b e e x p o se d t o t h e a tta c k s o f th ie v e s and e n e m ie s .34
H e m u s t n o t b e a lt o g e t h e r in d ig e n t , a s h e m u s t b e fr e e fr o m
a n x ie ty f o r th e n e ce ssa rie s o f l i f e . 86 H e m u s t p r o p e r ly u n d e r s ta n d
th e te a c h in g o r a d v ic e o f h is g o o d fr ie n d s , a n d e v in c e z e a l a n d
e n e r g y in f o llo w in g i t . 86
A bodhisattva*$ e x c e lle n t gotra p r o te c ts h im a g a in s t th e w o r s t
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f h is e v il d ee d s, e v e n i f h e s h o u ld la p se in t o s in .
H e m a y b e r e b o r n in a sta te o f w o e , b u t h e is s o o n re le a se d f r o m i t 87 ;
a n d h e d o e s n o t e n d u r e t e r r ib le a n g u is h li k e a n o r d in a r y w o r ld ly
m a n .38 H e a ls o le a r n s t o fe e l p it y f o r o t h e r s u t fe r in g c r e a tu r e s .89
S u c h a r e t h e c h a r a c te r is tic s , d a n g e r s a n d p r iv ile g e s o f t h e gotra
s ta g e o f a bodhisattva . A s . i t is b y n a tu r e a s so c ia te d w i t h b r ig h t
v i r t u e a n d is th u s a u s p ic io u s a n d su b lim e ,, i t m u s t b e r e g a r d e d a s a
n e c e s s a r y a n d in d isp e n sa b le c o n d itio n f o r t h e a tt a in m e n t o f t h e
s u p r e m e p o s itio n o f a B u d d h a .40
The B u d d h is t p h ilo s o p h e r s d e v e lo p e d th e t h e o r y o f gotra in
o r d e r to e x p la in w h y a ll p e rso n s d o n o t t r y o r d e s ir e to b e c o m e
bodhisattvas.
II
I ll
Anuttara-püjä (S u p re m e W o r s h ip ) .— A s th e id e a l o f F a it h
a n d W o r s h ip g r a d u a lly b e c a m e p r e d o m in a n t in th e M a h ä y ä n a
d u r in g th e fifth a n d s ix th c e n tu r ie s , th e B u d d h is t te a c h e r s w e r e n o t
c o n te n t w it h p re sc rib in g o n ly gotra a n d adhimukti a s th e
n e c e s s a ry p re lim in a rie s to th e citt-otpäda. They in tr o d u c e d
m o r e d e v o tio n an d r itu a l, a n d a lso p r o o o u n d e d th e n e w a n d s ta r tlin g
id e as o f S in an d C o n fe s s io n .
T h is d e v e lo p m e n t is r e fle c te d in th e DA. 5 ., th e Çiksâ
a n d th e B .C . A v a . 47 A bodhisattva m u s t p e r fo r m th e f o llo w in g
r e lig io u s e x e rcise s b e fo r e h e can a tta in to th e “ Thought of
E n lig h t e n m e n t ” :—
(a) Vandana a n d P ü jä ( W o r s h ip an d a d o ra tio n o f th e B u d d h a s ,
th e bodhisattvas an d th e D o c tr in e ) .
Ç a n tid e v a is th e c h ie f re p re s e n ta tiv e of th is d e v o tio n a l
ty p e o f B u d d h ism . In th e se c o n d c a n to o f th e B .C .
A v a ., h e sin g s a h y m n o f lo v e a n d a d o r a tio n f o r th e B u d d h a s
a n d th e g r e a t bodhisattvas. H e w is h e s to w o r s h ip th e m in a
fitt in g m a n n e r in o r d e r to a tta in to th e cut-otpäda. H e la v is h ly
o ffe rs th e m e v e r y th in g th a t is b e a u tifu l a n d g o r g e o u s ,— a ll flo w e r s ,
fr u its , je w e ls , lim p id w a te r s , g e m - p r o d u c in g m o u n ta in s , w o o d s
a n d fo rests, flo w e r in g c re e p e r s a n d fr u it- la d e n tr e e s, c e le s tia l
p e r fu m e s a n d in c e n se , th e w is h - f u lf illin g tr e e o f h e a v e n , la k e s
a d o rn e d w it h lo tu se s a n d s w a n s , w ild a n d c u ltiv a te d p la n ts , a n d
a ll o t h e r v a lu a b le th in g s in th e e n tir e u n iv e r s e th a t m a y b e o ffe re d
in w o r s h ip .
A t th is p o in t in th e rh a p so d y , th e p o e t see m s to fe e l th a t h e
THE THOUGHT OF ENLIGHTENMENT 55
is g iv in g a w a y w h a t does n o t b e lo n g to h im a n d th a t th is s o r t
o f püjâ re a lly co sts h im n o th in g . H e s u d d e n ly p u lls h im s e lf u p
an d adds th ese to u c h in g lin e s , w h ic h b re a th e th e tr u e sp irit o f
d e v o tio n :—
44 I g iv e m y s e lf to th e Jinas (th e co n q u ero rs). I g iv e m y s e lf
e n tir e ly an d u tte r ly to th e ir sons (i.e. th e bodhisattvas). O n o b le
B e in g s , ta k e possession o f m e. I h a v e b eco m e y o u r sla v e th r o u g h
L o v e . ” (B .C . A v a ii, 8 .)
Ç â n tid e v a th e n d eclares th a t h e w o u ld re n d e r h u m b le s e r v ic e
to th e B u d d h a s an d th e bodhisattvas. H e w o u ld g la d ly p re p a re
th e ir b a th , m assage th e ir b o d ies, spread p e rfu m e s o v e r d ie m , e tc .
H e yield s a g a in fo r a m o m e n t to th e te m p ta tio n o f b e s to w in g o n
th e m c o stly la m p s, sp acio us p a la ces, lu stro u s g e m s a n d lo v e ly
flo w e rs. B u t h e en ds in a h a p p ie r v e in , a n d p raises a n d w o r s h ip s
th e B u d d h a s an d th e bodhisattvas in th e se w o rd s :—
44 I b o w to th e B u d d h a s o f th e past, p re se n t a n d fu t u r e , to th e
D o c tr in e , an d to th e n o b le b an d ( o f bodhisattvas) w it h as m a n y
ob eisan ces (as m a n y tim es) as th e r e a re a to m s in a ll th e b u d d h a -
field s.” 48
(b) Çarana-gamana.— Ç â n tid e v a th e n rep eats th e fo r m u la
o f “ ta k in g r e fu g e ” in th e B u d d h a , th e D o c tr in e an d th e bodhi
sattvas, The th r e e fo ld fo r m u la dates fr o m a very
a n c ie n t p e r io d .49 T h e M a h ä y ä n is ts su b se q u e n tly su b stitu te d
44 th e g ro u p o f th e bodhisattvas ” fo r th e o ld th ir d te r m , Sangha.
T h e tria d is also k n o w n as t h e 44 th re e je w e ls ” (tri-ratna). N o v ic e s
a r e a lw a y s d escrib ed as t a k in g th is first step o f co n fe ssin g th e ir
fa ith in th ese th r e e 44j e w e l s ” b e fo re th e y p ro c e e d to th e h ig h e r
d u tie s o f p ra ctis in g th e e th ic a l p re ce p ts.50
(c) C o n fe s s io n o f S in s (pâpa-deçanâ).— T h e p o e t co n fesses
h is sin s, d eclares th a t h e is a m isera b le s in n e r, p ro m ise s n o t to
s in a g a in , a n d ta k e s r e fu g e in th e bodhisattvas fo r p r o te c tio n an d
s u c c o u r . T h e s e verses in tr o d u c e a n e w n o te in B u d d h is t lite r a tu r e ,
w h ic h w a s n o t h e a rd b e fo r e in th e H ln a y ä n a o r th e M a h â y â n a .
Ç â n tid e v a e x cla im s :—
441 a m a b r u te : 51 w h a t e v e r sins I h a v e c o m m itte d , o r ca u se d
o th e r s to c o m m it, e ith e r in th is lif e o r in th e en dless series of p r e
v io u s e x iste n ce s, a n d w h a ts o e v e r sins I h a v e a p p ro v e d , a ll th o se
sin s I co n fess. I a m c o n su m e d w it h re m o rse , an d I h a v e e a rn e d
d e a th th r o u g h m y fo lly (h a v e sla in m y s e lf).
44 O L e a d e r s ! W h a t e v e r g r ie v o u s sins I h a v e c o m m itte d w it h
m y b o d y , sp eech a n d m in d a g a in st th e 4 th r e e je w e ls or m y
56 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
p a re n ts , o r m y te a c h e r s , o r o t h e r s , I c o n fe s s t h e m a l l n o w . I am
a s in n e r s o ile d w it h m a n y tr a n s g r e ss io n s ( v ic e s , fa u lts ) .
“ H o w sh a ll I e sc a p e f r o m is ? la m a lw a y s b e s e t b y fe a r a n d
a n x ie t y le s t I s h o u ld d ie s o o n b e fo r e th e b u r d e n ( a c c u m u la tio n )
o f m y s in s is d im in is h e d .” ( B .C .
Ava . , i i , 2 8 - 3 2 . )
Ç â n tid e v a c a lls o n t h e bodfusattvas to s a v e h im . H e r e fle c ts
t h a t d e a th s u d d e n ly s m ite s liv in g b e in g s lik e a th u n d e r b o lt.
He has s in n e d th ro u g h lu s t , h a tre d and d e lu s io n . He has
s in n e d th r o u g h th e lo v e o f k in s m e n a n d fr ie n d s , w h o c a n n o t
p r o t e c t h im in t h e h o u r o f d e a t h , a s e v e r y m a n m u s t re a p a s ‘ h e
has sow n . H e h a s s in n e d t h r o u g h t h e p u r s u it o f p le a s u r e , fo r
g e t t i n g t h a t a ll e x t e r n a l o b je c t s m u s t h e l e f t b e h in d b y M a n ,
w h o is o n ly a s tr a n g e r a n d a p ilg r im o n e a r th . H e t h in k s o f
t h e t e r r ib le p u n is h m e n t t h a t a w a it s h i m a f t e r d e a t h , a n d a s k s ;
“ W h o ca n save m e ? ” H e r e p e n ts o f h is f o l l y in n e g le c t i n g th e
c u lt iv a t io n o f v ir t u e . He has fa ile d t o a m a ss s p ir itu a l M e r i t .
H e p ro m ise s to f o l l o w th e B u d d h a ’s p r e c e p ts , a s a s i c k m a n m u s t
o b e y th e p h y s ic ia n . H e is m o r t a lly a fr a id o f th e p a in o f r e b ir th
in p u r g a to r y , a n d a g a in c o n fe sse s a ll h is tr a n s g r e s s io n s a g a in s t
n a tu r a l la w a n d a g a in s t t h e r u le s a n d p r e c e p ts o f t h e B u d d h is t
C o m m u n it y .52 H e e n d s b y d e c la r in g t h a t h e w i l l s in n o m o r e .
(B.C. Ava., ii, 3 3 ff .)
T h i s r e m a r k a b le C o n fe s s io n , t h e “ D e P r o f u n d is ” o f t h e p io u s
B u d d h is t p o e t, b e a rs w it n e s s t o th e in f lu e n c e o f t h e - c o m p le t e ly
d e v e lo p e d H in d u d o c tr in e o f bhakti ( d e v o tio n ) o n B u d d h is t t h o u g h t .
T h e id eas o f s e lf - r e lia n c e a n d p e r s o n a l r e tr ib u tio n a r e d isca rd e d ,
a n d th e bodhisattvas a r e in v o k e d t o s a v e - a s in n e r f r o m th e e v il
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f h is d e e d s. I t is a ssu m e d t h a t f r a n k c o n fe s s io n
is m e r ito r io u s a n d c a n in d u c e t h e bodhisattvas t o h e lp h im . T h is
tr e n d o f th o u g h t re m in d s u s o f th e a n c ie n t V e d i c h y m n s t o Farttna
a n d t h e la t e r d e v o tio n a l lit e r a t u r e o f t h e H in d u s e c ts l i k e th e
Faisnavas a n d th e Çaivas. 53 T h e id e a s o f sin a s a n o f f e n c e a g a in s t
h ig h e r d e itie s , a n d of c o n fe s s io n , re p e n ta n ce and e x tr a n e o u s
p r o t e c t io n w e r e a lie n t o t h e s p ir it o f B u d d h is m d u r i n g s e v e r a l
c e n tu r ie s . I t is t r u e t h a t K i n g A jä t a s a t t u c o n fe s s e d h is s in b e fo r e
G a u t a m a B u d d h a , w h o d e c la r e d t h a t h e “ a c c e p t e d t h e c o n fe s s io n ” ,
w h a t e v e r t h a t m a y m e a n .* 4 B u t t h e ir o n l a w o f karma w a s n o t
e f f e c t i v e ly r e la x e d in f a v o u r o f e r r in g h u m a n it y b e f o r e bhakti
c a m e to b e r e g a r d e d as a n e a s y a n d a lt e r n a t iv e d e v ic e t o e sc a p e
p a in a n d a tt a in f e lic it y . I n la t e r B u d d h is t li t e r a t u r e , r e p e n ta n c e
a n d c o n fe s s io n a r e h e ld to a b s o lv e t h e s in n e r f r o m t h e s in a n d its
THE THOUGHT OF ENLIGHTENMENT 57
p u n is h m e n t. T h e y c a n a t le a s t m itig a te th e d isa stro u s c o n se q u e n c e s
o f s in . A s m a n y as t h ir t y - f iv e B u d d h a s a re su p p o sed to h e a r C o n
fe s s io n .55
(d) Puny-änumodanä ( R e jo i c i n g in th e G o o d ). Ç â n t id e v a
d e c la re s th a t he r e jo ic e s in th in k in g oY th e good d eed s of
a ll b e in g s , of th e L ib e r a t io n o b ta in e d by arhats,
th e
a n d o f th e s p ir itu a l h e ig h ts a tta in e d b y th e bodhisattva^ a n d
th e B u d d h a s .56
(e) Adh *esan3 a n d Täcanä ( P r a y e r a n d S u p p lic a tio n ). Ç â n ti
d e v a p r a y s a n d im p lo re s a ll th e B u d d h a s to p r e a c h t h e tr u e D o c t r in e
a n d n o t to d isa p p ea r in fin a l nirvana. T h e p e o p le w i l l r e m a in
b lin d , i f t h e y d o n o t r e c e iv e in s tr u c tio n fr o m th e B u d d h a s .57
( f) Declaration o f A ltruhm and Self-D enial.
The la s t s ta g e , w h i c h im m e d ia te ly p re c e d e s th e ciit-otpäda ,
h a s b e e n d e s crib e d a s parinämanä (th e a p p lic a tio n o f o n e ’s M e r i t
to th e w e lf a r e o f o th e rs) a n d ätma-bhävädi-parityägah (r e n u n c ia
tio n o f o n e ’s b o d y , o r o f o n e s e lf, e tc .) . T h e s e d e s c r ip tiv e te r m s
h a v e b e e n in v e n te d b y t h e la te r c o m m e n ta to r s , a n d th e D h . S .
e v e n p u ts parinämanä a f t e r th e p r o d u c tio n o f th e T h o u g h t o f
E n lig h t e n m e n t .58 Ç â n t id e v a r e a lly g iv e s us a m a g n if ic e n t
C a n t i c le o f lo v e a n d c h a r ity . I t d eserv es to b e q u o te d in f u ll,
as it re v e a ls th e s p ir it t h a t sh o u ld a n im a te and in sp ire th e
n o v ic e , w h o w o u ld b e c o m e a bodhisattva. A s Ç â n t id e v a sp e a k s
in t h e fir s t p e r so n , h e b r in g s u s in to to u c h w it h th e li v in g so u l
o f t h e bodhisattva id e a l a s d istin g u ish e d fr o m th e d r y b o n e s o f th e
tir e s o m e n u m e r ic a l lists o f a bodhisattva's q u a litie s a n d p o w e r s .
H e sa ys : “ W h a t e v e r G o o d I h a v e a c q u ir e d b y d o in g a ll
th is , m a y I f b y t h a t M e r i t ) a p p ea se a n d a ssu a g e a ll th e p a in s a n d
s o r r o w s o f a ll li v in g b e in g s .59
M a y I b e l i k e u n to a h e a lin g d r u g f o r th e s ic k ! M a y I b e th e
p h y s ic ia n f o r th e m , a n d a lso te n d th e m t i ll t h e y a r e w h o le a g a in !
( lit e r a lly , ‘ t i ll t h e d isease d oes n o t a rise a g a in ’) . 60
M a y I a lla y ( lit e r a lly , k ill) th e p a in o f h u n g e r a n d th ir s t b y
s h o w e r s o f fo o d a n d d r in k ( b y r a in in g d o w n fo o d a n d d r in k ).
A n d m a y I m y s e lf b e fo o d a n d d r in k ( fo r th e h u n g r y a n d th e th ir s ty )
d u r in g à i e in te r m e d ia te aeon o f fa m in e ! 61
M a y I b e a n in e x h a u s tib le tr e a s u r e f o r p o o r c r e a tu r e s ! M a y
I b e fo r e m o s t in r e n d e r in g s e r v ic e t o -th e m w it h m a n ifo ld a n d
v a r io u s a r tic le s a n d re q u isite s !
I r e n o u n c e m y b o d ie s , m y p le a su re s a n d a ll m y M e r i t in th e
p a s t, p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e , so t h a t a ll b e in g s m a y a tta in th e G o o d
58 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
(accomplish their welfare) : I have no desire (for all those
things).
T o give up everything, that is nirväna : and my mind seeks
nirvana . I f I must give up everything, then it is best to bestow
it upon the living beings.
I have devoted this body to the welfare o f all creatures. T h ey
may revile me all the time or bespatter me with mud 5 they may
play with my body and mock me and make sport o f me 5 yea, they
may even slay me. I have given my body to them : why should
I think o f all that ?
T h e y may make me do such things (actions) as bring happiness
to them. M ay no one ever suffer any evil through me ! (literally,
4having had relations with me ’).
I f they have thoughts o f anger or o f friendliness towards me,
may those very thoughts be the means o f accomplishing all that
they desire !
Those persons who revile me, or do me harm, or scoff at me,
may they all attain Enlightenment ! 62
M ay I be the protector o f the helpless ! M ay I be the guide
o f wayfarers I M ay I be like upon a boat, a bridge and a causeway
for all who wish to cross (a stream) ! M ay I be a lamp for all
who.need a lamp ! M ay I be a bed for all who lack a bed ! M ay I
be a slave to all who want a slave ! M ay I be for all creatures a
cintämani (the philosopher’s stone) and a bhadraghata (a vessel
from which a lottery is drawn, a pot o f fortune), even like unto
an efficacious rite o f worship and a potent medicinal herb ! M ay
I be for them a kalpa-vrksa (the wish-fulfilling tree) and a
käma-dhenu (the cow yielding all that one desires)!” 63 (B .C .
A v a ., iii, 6 -19.)
IV
VI
V II
V III
THE THIRTY-SEVEN “ D H A R M A S”
I
It is a curious circumstance that the thirty-seven items,of the
formula are enumerated in several passages of Buddhist Sanskrit
G
82 t h e b o d h i s a t t v a d o c t r i n e
T o t a l .................................................... 37
These principles and practices are regarded as highly beneficial
in this life and also for the purposes of a happy rebirth. T h ey
are supposed to embody the last precepts and ^injunctions of
Gautama Buddha himself.4 T h ey also lead to the attainment
o f the spiritual stage o f a pratyeka-buddha. T h ey are common to
the Hlnayana and the Mahäyäna. T h e latter starts with these
dharmas, but adds the päramitäs and the bhümis, which constitute
its special contribution to the development o f Buddhism.
II
T he Sm r ty -upasth änas
( 1 ) W h a t is r e a lly im p e r m a n e n t (anitya) is p e r m a n e n t.
( 2 ) T h e th in g s , w h i c h h a v e r e a lly n o s u b s ta n tia l p e r m a n e n t
in d iv id u a lit y ( anäiman\ possess it.
(3 ) W h a t is r e a lly im p u r e (açuci) is p u r e .
( 4 ) W h a t is r e a lly p a in fu l (duhkha) is p le a sa n t.
The viparyäsa o f im p u r it y w a s p r o b a b ly in tr o d u c e d t h r o u g h
th e in flu e n c e o f th e Yoga s y s te m , w h ic h d e fin e s avtdyä in e x a c t ly
th e s a m e te rm s (To. S S 9 i i, 5 , p . 6 1 ) . T h e o ld P a ß te x t s s p e a k
o f açttbha a n d n o t o f açuci (Anguttara , ii, 5 2 , lin e 6 ) . N ow
th e f o u r smrty-upasthänas a r e re g a rd e d as th e o p p o s ite s (prati-
paksatvät) o f th e s e fo u r e r r o r s , as a m a n le a r n s t h a t t h e b o d y ,
th e fe e lin g s , th e th o u g h ts and th e phenom en a are r e a lly
im p e r m a n e n t a n d h a v e n o su b sta n tia l e x is te n c e (M . S . A L 9 1 4 0 .2 5 ) .
V asuban dh u g o e s fu r t h e r a n d a scrib e s o t h e r m e r it s t o th e s e
f o u r m e d ita tio n s ta k e n c o lle c t iv e ly . They h e lp a bodhisattva
t o u n d e rs ta n d th e f o u r N o b l e T r u t h s a b o u t th e e x is te n c e o f E v i l ,
th e o r ig in o f E v i l , th e ce ssa tio n o f E v i l a n d t h e E i g h t f o ld W a y .
T h e y a r e based o n th e th r e e fo ld W is d o m a n d p r o m o t e t h e c u lt iv a
tio n o f th e päramitäs. T h e y a r e a d a p te d b y a bodhisattva to th e
in s t r u c t io n o f th e o r d in a r y p e o p le an d o f th e le a d e r s o f th e
H ln a y a n a . They c o n fe r s u p e r io r c a p a c ity on a bodhisattva ,
e v e n i f t h e y a r e p ra c tise d o n ly t o a s m a ll e x te n t. T h e b e n e fic ia l
re s u lts a c c r u in g fr o m th e m d o n o t d isa p p ea r e v e n in c o m p le t e
nirväna , a n d t h e y le a d to th e P e r fe c tio n s o f th e te n bhumis (sta g es)
a n d t h e W is d o m o f th e B u d d h a . (M . S . A L y p . 1 4 1 . )
T h e f o u r smrty-upasthänas m a y n o w b e c o n sid e r e d in d e ta il.
(A ) Käya-smrty-upasthäna
A bodhisattva*s a ttitu d e to w a r d s t h e b o d y s h o u ld b e d e te r m in e d
b y th is s im p le r u le : “ H e s h o u ld se e th e b o d y in th e b o d y , i.e .
re g a r d i t as th e b o d y s h o u ld b e re g a rd e d ” (käye kây-ânudarçï).
T h e c o m p le te fo r m u la ru n s th u s :—
92 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
“ A bodhisattva e n v is a g e s th e b o d y in t e r n a lly , e x t e r n a lly ,
a n d b o th in t e r n a lly a n d e x t e r n a lly as i t s h o u ld b e e n v is a g e d .
H e is a r d e n t, self-p o ssessed a n d m in d f u l, a n d h e h a s g o t r id o f
c o v e to u s n e s s a n d d e s p o n d e n c y in th e w o r ld . He does n o t
h a r b o u r a n y p e r v e r s e th o u g h ts a sso c ia te d w i t h t h e b o d y .” 31
T h e sa m e w o r d s a r e u se d t o d e s c r ib e t h e o t h e r smrty-upasthänasy
s u b s titu tin g vedanä , citta a n d dharmäh r e s p e c t iv e ly f o r kaya.
Kaye kây-ânudarçî : T h is s im p le r u le seem s in n o c u o u s
enough. But it has le t lo o s e a flo o d of c y n ic a l d ia trib e s
a g a in s t th e b o d y in B u d d h is t S a n s k r it lit e r a t u r e . W e fin d t w o
c u r r e n ts o f t h o u g h t o n th is s u b je c t in th e s e tr e a tis e s . Firsts
t h e b o d y is c o n d e m n e d , r e v ile d , d esp ised a n d a n a th e m a tiz e d a s
th e s o u r c e o f e v il, filth a n d s in . S t. F r a n c i s c a lle d th e b o d y
“ B r o t h e r A s s ” , b u t t h e B u d d h is t p h ilo s o p h e r s in d u lg e in m o r e
v ir u le n t in v e c tiv e . They to u c h th e lo w e s t d e p th s o f m o r b id
c y n ic is m . Secondly, th e b o d y is v a lu e d a n d c h e r is h e d a s th e in s tr u
m e n t o f a ltr u is tic s e r v ic e a n d fin a l p e r fe c t io n .
A c c o r d in g to th e L alita-vistara , M in d f u ln e s s w i t h rega rd
t o th e b o d y is “ a n e n tr a n c e t o t h e l i g h t o f t h e F a i t h ” , w h i c h
h e lp s a bodhisattva t o iso la te h i m s e lf fr o m t h e b o d y .82 A lm o s t
a ll B u d d h is t w r it e r s a p p r o v e o f t h e t h r e e fo ld d ic t u m t h a t th e b o d y
is fo u l a n d f ilt h y , t h a t it is tr a n s ie n t a n d u n s u b s ta n tia l, a n d th a t it
is th e s e a t a n d s o u r c e o f s in fu l p a ssio n s a n d d e sire s. T h e s e a r e th e
th r e e m a in c h a r g e s in t h e ir s c a t h in g in d ic t m e n t o f t h e b o d y .
P h y s io lo g ic a lly c o n s id e r e d , th e body is a m a ss of filth
and p u tr id ity . It exudes su ch m a lo d o r o u s and im p u r e
s u b sta n c e s as s w e a t, p u s , b ile , p h le g m , u r in e , s a liv a a n d e x c r e
m e n ts th r o u g h its n in e a p e r t u r e s .33 I t is in d e e d a r o t te n c a r c a s s ,34
a n d it is in fe s te d b y e ig h t y th o u s a n d w o r m s .35 I t s n a tu r a l fo u ln e s s
is n o t re alised b y o r d in a r y m e n a n d w o m e n , as i t is u s u a lly c o v e r e d
w i t h c lo th e s a n d o r n a m e n ts .36
T h e b o d y is th u s r e v o lt in g a n d r e p u ls iv e f r o m t h e a esth etic
p o in t o f v ie w . But th e c h ie f b u rd en o f c o m p la in t a g a in s t
i t is th a t it is tr a n s ie n t a n d u n s u b s ta n tia l. A bodhisattva a n a ly se s
th e b o d y w it h h is k e e n in s ig h t , a n d s c r u tin is e s i t “ f r o m th e so le s
o f th e fe e t to th e c r o w n o f th e h e a d H e sees t h a t it is m e r e ly
a n a r tific ia l c o lle c t io n o f u f e e t , to e s , le g s , c h e s t, lo in s , b e lly , n a v e l,
b a c k b o n e , h e a r t, rib s, fla n k s , h a n d s, fo r e a r m s , u p p e r -a r m s , s h o u ld e r s ,
n e c k , j a w , fo r e h e a d , h e a d , s k u l l ” , t o w h i c h are added o th e r
th in g s li k e t h e h a ir , th e b o n e s , th e s in e w s , e t c . 37 I t is c o m p o se d
<
THE THIRTY-SEVEN “ DHARMAS ” 93
o f th e f o u r e le m e n ts — e a r th , w a t e r , fir e a n d w in d .38 A bodhisattva
d e a r l y re c o g n ise s its c o m p o s ite n a tu r e , j u s t as a b u t c h e r o r h is
a p p r e n tic e m a y c u t u p a c o w ’s ca rca ss in to f o u r p ie c e s a n d e x a m in e
t h e m .89 A bodhisattva n e v e r fo r g e ts th a t th e b o d y is m a d e u p o f
m a n y se p a ra te in g r e d ie n ts a n d m e m b e r s, j u s t a s a fa r m e r k n o w s
e x a c t ly t h a t h is g r a n a r ie s c o n ta in w h e a t , r ic e , b a r le y , sesa su m
seed s, b ea n s, m u s ta rd seed s, k id n e y b ea n s, le n tils , a n d o t h e r p u lse s
a n d c e r e a ls .40 A s th e b o d y is th u s a m e r e ly c o m p o s ite s tr u c t u r e , it
c a n n o t b e r e a lly said to e x is t, as th e n a m e co rre sp o n d s to n o r e a lity .
A bodhisattva m a y th e r e fo r e re a s o n a b ly a s k , “ T h e n w h a t is
A n d h e u n d e rsta n d s th a t it is o n ly li k e akâça.
th is b o d y ? 99 41
F u r t h e r , th e b o d y is th u s n o t h in g m o r e th a n a n in s tr u m e n t o r
to o l, a s i t h a s n o e sse n tial a n d in d e p e n d e n t e x is te n c e . I t can n ot
fe e l, o r p e r fo r m a c tio n s , o r m a in ta in its id e n tity in th e p a st, p r e se n t
a n d f u t u r e .42 I t is a lso tr a n s ie n t a n d fr a g ile .43 I t is s u b je c t
to h u n g e r , th ir s t, d isease, o ld a g e a n d d e a th .44 I t is lik e u n to
a fo a m - b u b b le 45 o r a la m p o f s t r a w .46 M a n , th e W a y f a r e r ,
c a n n o t s ta y lo n g in th is a b o d e o f th e b o d y .47 I t is in d e e d m o r e
fr a g ile th a n a p o t o f c la y : th e la tt e r m a y b e k e p t in ta c t for* a lo n g
tim e w it h p r o p e r c a r e , b u t th e b o d y is d e stro y e d v e r y so o n l i k e a
tr e e g r o w i n g o n t h e b a n k o f a r iv e r .48 B y its v e r y n a tu r e , i t is
e x p o se d to th e fiv e c a la m itie s o f “ d e c a y in g , fa llin g , b r e a k in g ,
s c a tt e r in g and c r u m b l i n g ” . 49 I n d e e d , it c a n n o t b e o t h e r w is e ,
f o r th e b o d y is th e o u tc o m e o f o n e ’ s d eed s in a p r e v io u s li f e , o n e ’ s
karma $ it gro w s in th e s o il o f karma a n d is w a te r e d by
s e n s u a l p a ssio n . K arm a 50 is its a r tific e r . It can know no
h a p p in e s s o r p e a c e 5 i t m u s t c o n t in u a lly b e in a s ta te o f p a in .51
T h e b o d y is a lso th e s e a t a n d s o u r c e o f sin . I t s u ffe rs fr o m
s e n su a l d esires, th e e m o tio n s o f h a te , fe a r a n d d espon d en cy,
a n d th e fa ta l m a la d y o f d e lu s io n a n d f o lly . A l l th e s e a r e li k e
th ie v e s a n d ro b b e rs, t h a t a t t a c k i t . 52 I t is th e a b o d e o f s in fu l
d e e d s .53 The e le m e n ts , o f w h ic h i t is c o m p o se d , a r e u n r u ly
and d a n g e r o u s , li k e w ild h o rse s a n d serpents. They a lw a y s
c a u s e p h y s ic a l a n d s p ir itu a l e v i l .54
T h is th r e e fo ld a r r a ig n m e n t o f th e b o d y c u lm in a te s in th e
fa m o u s ( o r in fa m o u s) fo r m u la o f th e n in e m e d ita tio n s o n th e
I m p u r e ( i.e . th e im p u r ity o f th e b o d y — agubha-bhävanä o r açubha-
pratyaveksäi M . P y , l i i , p . 8 7 5 P r . P ä . Çata.y 5 9 , 1 2 5 8 ,
1 4 3 1 ff. ; L a i 3 2 . 2 1 ) . T h i s m e th o d o f re a lis in g th e tr a n s ito r i
n e ss o f t h e b o d y co n sists in v is it in g a c e m e t e r y (o r t h in k in g o f it)
a n d s e e in g o r v is u a lis in g th e d iffe r e n t a sp ects o f a c o r p s e 'in p ro ce ss
94 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
o f d is in te g r a tio n a n d d e c o m p o s itio n . I t is c a lle d t h e re a lisa tio n
( bhävanä) o r th e e x a m in a tio n (pratyaveksä) o f th a t w h ic h is
in a u s p ic io u s , fo u l o r lo a th s o m e . The P a li te x t s m e n tio n te n
o ffe n s iv e c o n d itio n s o f a c o rp se (-Dhammasangani, S e c tio n s 2 6 3
a n d 2 6 4 , p a g e 5 5 ) , b u t th e S a n s k r it w r it e r s d iscu ss o n ly n in e .
T h e M ahä-vyutpatii g iv e s th e f o l lo w in g lis t :—
T h e bodhisattva is e x h o r te d to f r e q u e n t c e m e t e r ie s a n d r e fle c t
o n th e fa te o f th e b o d y . T h e id e a o f a v is it to t h e c r e m a tio n -
g r o u n d w a s p r o b a b ly s u g g e s te d b y th e o ld le g e n d , w h i c h re la te d
th a t th e bodhisattva S id d h ä r th a s a w a fu n e r a l p r o c e s s io n . A d ea d
m a n ’s b o d y w a s b e in g c a r r ie d to t h e c r e m a t io n - g r o u n d .56 T h is
w a s re g a rd e d as o n e o f th e f o u r in c id e n ts t h a t p r e c e d e d h is flig h t
fr o m h is h o m e . K s e m e n d r a , in d e e d , im p r o v e s u p o n th e a n c ie n t
b io g ra p h ie s a n d te lls u s t h a t th e y o u n g S id d h ä r th a a c t u a lly v isite d
a c e m e t e r y a n d g a v e e x p r e s s io n to e d if y in g s e n t im e n ts .57 The
v iv id In d ia n im a g in a tio n p la y e d w it h th e id e a a n d d id n o t r e c o il
fr o m s u g g e s tin g th e se lu g u b r io u s m e d ita tio n s . The a u th o r o r
a u th o r s o f th e P r . P â . Çata . f o l lo w a n o ld tr a d itio n in r e c o m m e n d
in g th e se m e d ita tiv e e x e r c is e s , w h i c h a r e a lso m e n tio n e d in th e P a li
c a n o n .68 A bodhisattva sh o u ld g o to a c e m e t e r y a n d se e th e co rp se s
o f th e p erso n s w h o d ie d o n e , t w o , th r e e , fo u r , o r fiv e d ay s b e fo r e .
A s h e o b s e rv e s th e m in d iffe r e n t sta g e s o f d e c o m p o s itio n , h e
s h o u ld a p p ly th e m o r a l t o h is o w n b o d y a n d s a y to h i m s e lf :
“ T h i s b o d y h a s a lso th e s a m e c o n s t it u tio n : i t is o f s u c h a n a tu r e ,
and it cannot e sc a p e th is c o n d it io n .” Then he m ay
o b s e rv e co rp se s, w h ic h have la in in th e ce m e te ry fo r s ix
o r s e v e n d a y s, o r w h i c h h a v e b e e n d e v o u r e d a n d m a n g le d b y
c r o w s , e a g le s , v u lt u r e s , d o g s, ja c k a ls a n d w o r m s . A g a in , h e m a y
see h e a p s o f b o n e s h a n g in g t o g e t h e r b y th e te n d o n s , w it h th e
flesh a n d b lo o d o n th e m 5 o r s u c h b o n e s as h a v e a lt o g e t h e r lo s t
th e fle sh , b lo o d a n d te n d o n s, a n d lo o k l i k e s e a -sh e lls 5 o r s u c h
THE THIRTY-SEVEN “ DHARMAS” 95
b o n e s a s a r e s c a tte r e d o n a ll sid es, th e b o n e s o f t h e f e e t in o n e
d i r e c t i o n ,a n d th e b o n e s o f t h e th ig h s a n d o t h e r lim b s in o t h e r
d ir e c tio n s . F i n a l l y , h e m a y s e e s u c h b o n e s as h a v e la in in th e
c e m e te ry fo r several years an d h a v e been red u ced to r o tte n
p o w d e r - d u s t o f a b lu is h c o lo u r . S e e in g s u c h c o rp se s a n d b o n e s ,
h e s h o u ld c o n s t a n tly t h in k o f h is o w n b o d y , a n d s a y t o h i m s e lf :
44 S u c h is th e n a tu r e o f th is b o d y ” , ( Pr . Pa. Çata.> p p . 14 3 1-3 5
Çiksây p p . 2 1 0 ff.)
I n j u s t i c e to th e M a h ä y ä n is t w r it e r s , i t m u s t b e s ta te d t h a t
m o s t o f th e m d o n o t m e n tio n th e se m e d ita tio n s a t a ll. They
a r e n o t d iscu ssed in s u c h sta n d a rd tre a tise s a s t h e D h . £ ., th e
M . S. AL a n d t h e D a. B h ü . T h i s c ir c u m s ta n c e s h o w s t h a t t h e y
w e r e n o t p ra c tis e d o r r e c o m m e n d e d b y a ll th e se c ts. T h e id e a
w as p r o b a b ly b orrow ed fro m t h e J a in a s , w h o a tt a c h e d great
im p o r ta n c e to th e aguci-bhävanä ( anupreksä) .59
T h e s e d ia trib e s a g a in s t t h e b o d y a n d s u c h f u n e r e a l m e d ita tio n s
a r e in te n d e d to h e lp th e hodhisattva in h is s p ir itu a l d e v e lo p m e n t.
T h e y le a d to th e a b a n d o n m e n t o f th e sin s o f s e n s u a l p a s s io n .60
A hodhisattva is s o o n d e liv e r e d fr o m th e d a rk n e ss o f d e lu s io n , as
h e c o n s t a n tly p ra c tis e s th e se m e d ita tio n s .61 H e a ls o u ses t h e m as
th e m e a n s o f c o n v e r t in g o t h e r s .62 W h e n h e r e g a r d s t h e tr a n s ie n t
b o d y as th e a b o d e o f c a la m itie s a n d 't h e v ic t im o f e v il d e s tin y ,
h e is fille d w it h d isg u st fo r it (nirveda).*3 T h e m e d ita tio n o n th e
I m p u r it ie s is th e re a l a n tid o te t o se n su a l d e s ir e .64 E v e n an arran t
d e lu d e d fo o l w o u ld n o t lo v e th e b o d y a n d its lu sts, i f h e p r a c tis e d
th e s e e x e rc is e s . S e lf-s a c r ific e is n o t d iffic u lt f o r a hodhisattva, i f
h e re g a rd s th e b o d y as im p e r m a n e n t. H e c a n r e n d e r s e r v ic e
a s a s e r v a n t a n d a d isc ip le t o a ll li v in g b e in g s .65 H e a v o id s a ll
w ic k e d n e s s , c r o o k e d n e s s a n d h y p o c r is y , a n d d o e s not c o m m it
a n y s in s f o r th e s a k e o f th e b o d y . H e does n o t h a n k e r a fte r
p le a s u re s , a n d g iv e s h is a ll f o r o th e r s . A s h e g r o w s in s p ir itu a l
s ta t u r e , h e u n d e rsta n d s t h e fu n d a m e n ta l u n it y o f a ll b e in g s a n d
id e n tifie s t h e ir b o d ie s w it h h is o w n . H e th e n th in k s o f e s ta b lis h in g
a ll o f th e m in th e e te r n a l u n it y o f th e B u d d h a ’s s p ir itu a l B o d y ,
w h ic h is fr e e fr o m sin and ig n o r a n c e . He know s t h a t h is
o w n b o d y , t h e b o d ie s o f o t h e r b e in g s a n d th e B u d d h a ’s u n iv e r s a l
s p ir itu a l B o d y a r e e s s e n tia lly o f th e sa m e n a t u r e .66 T h u s th e
a p p lic a tio n o f M in d fu ln e s s to th e b o d y g r a d u a lly le a d s h im to th e
h ig h e s t W is d o m .
I n t h e c o u r s e o f d e v e lo p m e n t o f B u d d h is t t h o u g h t , t h e b o d y
c e a se d to b e d espised a n d c o n d e m n e d , as it c a m e to b e re g a r d e d as
96 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
th e blessed in stru m e n t o f a ltr u istic s e r v ic e a n d fin a l p e r fe c tio n .
T h i s c o n stru ctiv e id e a fin d s fr e q u e n t exp ressio n in th e w o r k s
o f Ç ü r a , Ç â n tid e v a an d K s e m e n d r a . T h e Lalita-vistara w a r n s
a bodhisattva th a t a w e a k b o d y is u n fit fo r th e a tta in m e n t
o f W is d o m .67 T h e b o d y is tra n sie n t a n d u n su b sta n tia l, b u t it
s h o u ld b e used to a c h ie v e su b sta n tia l resu lts b y e a r n in g sp iritu a l
m e r it (-asära, sâra).*s I n th a t case, it b e c o m e s a n in stru m e n t
(sädhana) fo r th e s e rv ic e o f o th e r s .69 T h e b o d y , w h ic h is tro u b le d
w it h h u n d red s o f diseases a n d v a rio u s a fflic tio n s, sh o u ld b e e m p lo y e d
as a sh ip to c a r r y o th e r c re a tu re s acro ss th e sea o f tr o u b le s.70
I t is in d eed fr a il, u n su b sta n tia l, u n r e a l, m ise ra b le , im p u re an d
u n g r a te fu l ; b u t w h e n i t is used fo r th e g o o d o f o th e rs, a bodhi-
nativa re jo ice s e x c e e d in g ly , as a w is e m a n sh o u ld d o .71 H e ,
w h o does n o t use th is m o r ta l b o d y to se c u re e n d u r in g b e n e fit
fo r h im s e lf an d o th ers, is in d e ed u n a b le to d iscern th e d iffe re n ce
b e tw e e n th e e p h e m e ra l th in g s th a t a re w o rth le s s a n d th e th in g s
th a t are 44 a possession fo r e v e r ’ \ 72 I n th e e n d , th e b o d y w ill b e
d e v o u re d b y v u ltu r e s a n d ja c k a ls , b u t i t sh o u ld b e p re se rve d as
a n in stru m e n t o f A c t i o n .73 I t is in d eed s u b je c t to o ld a g e , disease,
s o r r o w and d eath 5 it m u s t s u ffe r th e p a n g s o f u n io n a n d sep aration ;
b u t i f it is in sp ired b y th e w is d o m a n d re so lu tio n o f a bodhisattva,
it ca n p u rsu e th e lo n g c a fe e r o f a bodhisattva, rip e n a ll b ein g s,
an d fu lfil th e la w o f th e B u d d h a .74 A bodhisattva sh o u ld regard
e v e r y a c tio n a n d m o v e m e n t o f his b o d y as a n o c c a sio n fo r th e
c u ltiv a tio n o f fr ie n d ly th o u g h ts fo r th e g o o d o f a ll c r e a tu r e s.75
W h e n h e sits d o w n , h e th in k s th u s : “ M a y I h e lp a ll b ein g s to
s it o n th e th r o n e o f bodhil ” W h e n h e lies o n h is r ig h t side, h e
th in k s th u s : 44 M a y I le a d a ll b ein g s to nirvanal” W h en he
w a sh e s h is h an d s, h e th in k s th u s : “ M a y I r e m o v e th e sin fu l
p ro p en sities o f a ll cre a tu re s ! ” W h e n h e w a sh e s his fe e t, h e th in k s
th u s : 44 M a y I ta k e a w a y th e d irt o f sins an d passions fro m
a ll c re a tu re s ! ” I n th is w a y th e b o d y c a n b e c o n v e r te d in to
a h o ly vessel o f b e n e d ic tio n . A n d w h o can d e n y th a t th e
g r e a t B u d d h a ’s b o d y w a s a u sp icio u s {kalyäna-nikeiana) ? 76 B lessed
in d eed is h e w h o loses th is fr a il b o d y in d o in g g o o d to o th e r s .77
S u c h a sa crific e c a n b e m a d e o n ly b y th o se w h o h a v e a lre a d y
c u ltiv a te d v ir tu e a n d a c q u ire d m u c h sp iritu a l M e r i t . 78 A bodhi
sattva c a n n e v e r lo v e th e b o d y f o r its o w n sa k e , as it is fo u l, d ir ty
a r i illu s o ry 5 i f h e ch erish es i t , h e does so o n ly b e ca u se h e w ill
g ir d h im s e lf u p to sa ve so m e o n e so m e tim e s o m e w h e r e o n so m e
o cca sio n in th e m o m e n t o f tr ib u la tio n .79 T h i s jo u r n e y o f life
THE THIRTY-SEVEN “ DHARMAS ” 97
is fr u itfu l o n ly i f o n e does g o o d to o th ers, fo r w h o k n o w s w h a t
th e e n d o f th e b o d y w ill b e ? 80 A hodhisattva sh o u ld th e r e fo r e
b e in d iffe re n t to th e b o d y an d e v e n to h is life . H is a ctio n s ca n
le ad to E n lig h te n m e n t o n ly i f h e m a in ta in s su ch a h e r o ic s p ir it.81
(b) V tdanä-smrty-upasthäna
V e d a n ä is a “ te r m o f v e r y g e n e ra l im p o rt, m e a n in g
s e n tie n c e o r re a c tio n , b o d ily o r m e n ta l, o n c o n ta c t o r im p ressio n ” .
I t is d erived fro m th e ro o t vid in th e sense o f e x p e r ie n c in g
a fe e lin g o r sen sation . I t m a y b e in te rp re te d as “ sen satio n ” ,
as it is regard ed as th e im m e d ia te o u tc o m e o f th e c o n ta c t (sparga)
b e tw e e n th e sen se-o rg a n s an d th e e x te rn a l o b je c ts in th e w e ll-
k n o w n fo r m u la o f th e tw e lv e nidänas. I t is also d escrib ed as
s ix fo ld a c c o rd in g to th e se n se -o rg a n , w h o se c o n ta c t o rig in a te s it
(caksuh-sparçajâ vedanä, çroira-sparçajâ vedanä, e t c .) .82 T . W .
R h y s D a v id s , L . de la V a llé e P o u ssin , L . F e e r , P . O lt r a m a r e
an d P . E . F o u c a u x a g re e in tra n sla tin g vedanä h e r e as
“ s e n s a tio n s ” . 83 M . A n e s a k i’s re n d e rin g , “ senses,” is p erh ap s
in ad m issib le .84 B u t vedanä also seem s to m e a n “ fe e lin g ” ,
as it is said to b e o f th re e k in d s : p leasa n t (.sukhä), p a in fu l (<duhkhä),
a n d n e ith e r-p a in fu l-n o r-p le a s a n t, i.e . n e u tra l, in d iffe re n t {aduhkh-
äsukhä) . 85 I n th e fa m o u s T i b e t a n p ic to ria l re p re se n ta tio n o f th e
t w e lv e nidänas, th e sy m b o l o f vedanä is a c o u p le o f lo v e r s .86
S u r e ly th is is su g g e stiv e o f “ fe e lin g ” , an d n o t o f m e r e
“ sen sation ! ”
I t appears th a t vedäna is so m e th in g w h ic h is b o th fe e lin g an d
sen sation . W e c a n n o f p erh ap s fin d a p ro p e r w o r d fo r it in th e
te r m in o lo g y o f E u r o p e a n p s y c h o lo g y , w h ic h h as ad o p ted a d iffe re n t
p rin cip a l o f an alysis an d cla ssifica tio n . T h e B u d d h ist d id n o t
re ga rd fe e lin g an d sen satio n as m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e te rm s. In
a n y case, vedanä as a smrty-upasthana sh o u ld b e in te rp re te d as
“ fe e lin g ” , as th e re is n o sense in sp e a k in g o f M in d fu ln e s s w it h
re ga rd to th e sen sation s, w h ic h re ach th e m in d fr o m th e e x te r n a l
w o r ld . T h e fe e lin g s, w h ic h arise in th e m in d , c a n b e th e o b je c ts o f
m in d fu l re fle x io n . I t seem s p ro p e r to fo llo w th e le a d o f
R . O . F r a n k é an d W . H . D . R o u s e , an d tran sla te “ fe e lin g ” . 87
A hodhisattva, w h o p ra ctises M in d fu ln e s s w it h re g a rd to
F e e lin g , learn s to re stra in an d c o n tr o l a ll fe e lin g s. He
g ir d s h im s e lf u p in o rd e r to te a ch a ll b e in g s th a t t h e y sh o u ld
suppress F e e lin g , as hap p in ess is possible o n ly w h e n F e e lin g does
H
98 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
n o t e x ist. F e e lin g is a p e rv e rsio n an d a d elu sio n . H e e x h o rts
a ll b ein g s to ad o p t th is n e g a tiv e a ttitu d e to w a rd s F e e lin g 5 b u t h e
h im s e lf, as a bodhisattva, trie s to su b lim a te th e th re e k in d s o f F e e lin g
in to u n iv ersa l co m p assio n . H e re fle c ts u p o n h is fe e lin g s in such
a m a n n e r th a t h e a ch ie v e s t w o r e s u lts ; h e fe els deep co m p assio n
fo r a ll crea tu res, a n d h e im p ro v e s h is o w n p e rso n a lity b y d e stro y in g
o r d im in ish in g raga (sen se-desire), dvesa (h a te , ill- w ill) a n d moha
(d elu sio n , fo lly ). M in d fu ln e s s w ith rega rd to F e e lin g ca n th u s
su b serve th e h ig h e st ends o f a bodhisattva*s d iscip lin e. W h e n h e
e x p e rie n ce s a p leasan t fe e lin g , h e is o n h is g u a rd a g a in s t räga.
A t th e sam e tim e , h e th in k s w it h in fin ite p ity o f a ll th o se b ein g s
w h o are th e slaves o f p le asu ra b le fe e lin g s. W h e n h e e x p e rie n c e s
a p a in fu l fe e lin g , h e is fre e fro m h a tred and ill- w ill, a n d h e pities
th o se w h o s e hearts a re d a rk e n e d b y th o se e m o tio n s. W h e n h e
ex p erien ces a fe e lin g w h ic h is n e ith e r p a in fu l n o r p le a sa n t, h e
hastens to g e t rid o f moha, an d th in k s co m p a ssio n a te ly o f th o se
cre a tu re s w h o a re th e v ic tim s o f moha. F u r t h e r , h e a lso realises
o th e r tru th s. H e understan d s th a t p leasan t fe e lin g is im p e rm a n e n t,
th a t p a in fiil fe e lin g is ju s t lik e a th o rn , a n d th a t n e u tr a l fe e lin g
sh o u ld le a v e h im c a lm an d seren e. F in a lly , h e c o m p re h e n d s
th a t .th ere is n o e n d u rin g S e l f b eh in d F e e lin g , n o E g o th a t
feels. H e régards F e e lin g as a lto g e th e r illu s o r y , lik e a d ream .
(LaL F.*, 33.12 ; M . S. A l . , 141 5 Çiksâ, 232.)
(c) Citta-smrty-upasthäna
I t is to b e n o te d th a t th e w o r d dharma is a lm o s t a lw a y s u sed
in th e p lu r a l n u m b e r in th is smrty-upasthana : Dharmesu dharm~
ânudarçt. T h e d e ta ile d c o m m e n ts o f th e B u d d h is t w r it e r s also
s h o w th a t it c a n n o t m e a n “ th e id e a l, v ir t u e , c h a r a c t e r ” . W e
m u s t also d ism iss th e lo n g d is q u isitio n o n th e d iffe r e n t p r in c ip le s
and p re c e p ts (;nivaranas, skandhas, e t c .) Dtgha-Nikäyä , ii,
at
3 0 0 ff. as ir r e le v a n t a n d m is le a d in g . Dharm âh c a n n o t r e fe r to
a ll th o se d o c tr in a l c a te g o r ie s as th e o b je c ts o f th is smrty-upasthäna,
I f w e in te r p r e t dharmâh h e r e as “ P h e n o m e n a ” , “ T h i n g s , ” w e
fin d th a t th e sen se su its t h e c o n te x t. H a v i n g r e fle c te d o n th e
e le m e n ts o f h is o w n p e r s o n a lity , li k e th e b o d y , th e fe e lin g s a n d th e
m in d , a bodhisattva n o w tu r n s h is th o u g h ts to w a r d s th e o u te r
w o r ld , th e u n iv e r s e in g e n e r a l. T h u s b o th th e E g o a n d th e n o n -
E g o a r e in c lu d e d in th e o p e r a tio n s o f M in d fu ln e s s . T h i s n a tu r a l
c lim a x g iv e s s y m m e tr y a n d c o m p le te n e ss t o th e fo r m u la .
A bodhisattva, w h o a p p lie s M in d f u ln e s s t o th e P h e n o m e n a ,
u n d e rs ta n d s th a t t h e y a r e a d v e n titio u s a n d e x tr a n e o u s , ju s t as
dust* s m o k e , c lo u d s a n d fr o s t are m e r e ly a c c id e n t a l a d ju n c ts
o f S pace. H e a c q u ir e s p e r f e c t k n o w le d g e , w h i c h is fr e e fr o m
a ll d elu sio n a n d d ark n e ss. H e re alises th a t th e P h e n o m e n a a rise
THE TH IRT Y -SEVEN “ DHARMAS” IOI
fr o m ca u se s a n d a r e th u s r e la tiv e an d in te r-d e p e n d e n t. T h e y a re
im p e r m a n e n t a n d f r a g ile , l i k e a p o t o f u n b a k e d c la y o r a t o w n
b u ilt o f san d . T h e y m a y b e co m p a re d to th e san d o n th e b a n k
o f a r iv e r , th e fla m e o f a la m p , a c lo t o f fo a m , a g u s t o f w in d , th e
p la s te r w a s h e d a w a y in th e r a in y season , th e ste m o f a p la n ta in
tr e e an d a n e m p t y fist. S u c h s im ile s c a n b e a p p ro p ria te ly a p p lie d to
th e P h e n o m e n a . T h e y a r e ca u se d b y I g n o r a n c e a n d th e y
d o n o t r e a lly e x is t. G r a s s c a n b e tw is te d an d m a d e in to a ro p e ,
a n d th e b u c k e ts o f w a t e r a r e tu r n e d b y a w h e e l a t th e w e ll ;
b u t th e r e is n o 64 t u r n in g ” in th e m one b y one. S im ila r ly ,
th e m o v e m e n ts o f th e th in g s in th e u n iv e rse a re d ep e n d e n t on
o n e a n o th e r . T h e P h e n o m e n a a re in fa c t u n in te llig ib le .
T h e s p r o u t s p rin g s fr o m t h e se e d , b u t i t is n e ith e r th e sa m e a s
th e see d n o r d iffe r e n t fr o m it. A seal c a n g iv e a n im p re ssio n ,
w h ic h is n e it h e r t h e sa m e as th e se a l n o r d iffe r e n t fr o m it. W e
see th in g s o n a c c o u n t o f th e c o n t a c t b e tw e e n th e e y e a n d e x te r n a l
fo r m s , b u t th e la t t e r a r e n o t in th e e y e . F i r e is p ro d u c e d b y
th e fr ic t io n o f t w o p ie c e s o f w o o d , b u t n o m a n c a n see o r te ll
w h e n c e i t c a m e a n d w h it h e r i t h a s g o n e . I n th e sa m e w a y ,
so u n d is p r o d u c e d b y th e c o m b in e d a c tio n o f th e b o d ily o rg a n s
a n d th e m in d , b u t a ll so u n d is b u t a n e c h o . I t m a y b e p r o d u c e d
b y m e a n s o f a s tr in g e d m u s ic a l in s tr u m e n t, w h ic h is p la y e d w it h
t h e h a n d 5 b u t n o o n e c a n p e r c e iv e w h e n c e it c o m e s o r w h it h e r
i t g o e s. T h u s th e P h e n o m e n a a r e d u e to p r im a r y a n d
s e c o n d a r y c a u s e s , a n d t h e y a re v o id w it h in a n d w it h o u t . T h e r e
is n o e sse n ce a n d r e a lity in th e m . ( L a L Z 7 , 3 3 \ M . S. A l . , 1 4 1 ;
Çiksây 2 3 6 ff.)
A bodhisattva s h o u ld c u lt iv a t e th e fo u r 44sumyak-prahänänt”
( P â li sammappadhänä).88 T h e te r m h a s b e e n v a r io u s ly tra n sla ted
as fo llo w s :—
A p h ijn a s)
V. T he A b h ijn ä s
V I. T he D h &t a -gunas
V II. T h e V a c it â s
*
V III. T he I n d r iy a s an d th e B alas
T h e five indriyas and the five balas, which have the same
names, are included among the thirty-seven bodhipaksya-dharmas.
In the final formula, these are :— (1) graddhä (Faith), (2) vtrya
(Energy), (3) smrti (Mindfulness), (4) samädhi (Concentration),
(5) prajnä (Wisdom). But it is almost certain that this group o f five
was accepted after a process o f change and selection. T h e Pali
texts speak o f four, five or seven balas, and the names vary.267
Only Àree items (virya, samädhi, and prajnä) are mentioned at
M tu . ii, 290.9, and samädhi is omitted at L ai. V ., 434.22.
Chanda takes the place of graddhä in several passages o f the L ai. V.
(239.1— 262.8— 434.19). T h is substitution of chanda for graddhä
gives us a glimpse into the early history of the pentad. Chanda was
142 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
associated with the idea o f personal effort, as in the formulae o f the
rddhi-pädas and the samyak-prahânas. But çraddhâ suggested pious
devotion to the Buddha. Chanda gave place to çraddhâ, as the
Buddhists tended more and more to exalt the Buddha and depend
on his help and grace instead o f working out their oWri‘salvation
with diligence and being their own “ islands of refuge ” .268 It
is also to be noted that the same group o f five (with chanda in the
place o f çraddhâ) is incorporated in the formula of the eighteen
ävenika-dharmas (special exclusive attributes) o f a perfect Buddha
(Nos. 7 ,8 , 9, io , 1 i) .260 It is almost certain that chanda originally
occupied the place now accorded to çraddhâ.
Another group o f five balas is also mentioned in the
LaL V . : punya., prajnä , jnäna , ksänti, vïrya — (L a i. V
316.15).
W e may also surmise that an attempt was made by some thinkers
to add the two terms vimukti and vimukti-jnâna-darçana to the
group of the five balas. T h e innovators failed in this case, though
they succeeded in tacking these notions on to the three
old skandhas of çïla^ samädhi and prajn â .™ T h e five balas and
indriyas represent important and fundamental Buddhist concepts.
T h ey are .related more to the needs o f the heroic monk than to
those of the ordinary layman. T h ey begin with F aith, take up three
angas (parts, limbs) of the eightfold W ay (vïrya « vyâyâma,
smrti and samädhi), and end with the highest Wisdom. T h e
formula was found so helpful that the Yoga school borrowed it
from the Buddhists. It is found in identically the same form in the
Yoga-sütras (i, 20, page 23).
It is probable that the five balas were introduced into the formula
o f the thirty-seven dharmas after the five indriyas, as the latter are
always mentioned before the balas in the list. Açvaghosa indeed omits
all mention of the indriyas at xvii, 26 o f the Saund. K ä.y where
he speaks of the balas, This circumstance may lead us to suppose
that the indriyas were not recognised as a group in his time. But
he knew of them, as he refers to çraddh-endriya in the same poem
(xii, 37). In fact, the five indriyas, which are included among the
“ bodhipaksya-dharmas ” , have been taken over from another old list
o f twenty-two indriyas, which also occurs in the Pali canon.271
These twenty-two indriyas are enumerated in the M . Vy. (Section
108, page 156), but not in the D h . S. It has been suggested that this
list of indriyas is a revised and more elaborate form o f the twenty-three
or twenty-five categories (tattvas) o f the Sänkhya system.272 But the
THE THIRTY-SEVEN “ DHARMAS” H3
Buddhist list seems to include only the categories referring to the
individual living being, and it does not analyse the external world.
Thus the six external äyatanas (form, sound, odour, etc.) are excluded.
It seems more likely that the philosophers of the Sänkhya school
developed the idea suggested by the Buddhist categories and
extended its scope (cf. Sânkhya-kârikâ, verse 22, page 20). T h e
twenty-two indriyas are placed in a peculiar order in the Pâli
and Sanskrit texts, and the M . Fy. makes matters worse by putting
jïv ita at the end (instead* of the ninth place, which it occupies
in the Pâli list : Vthhanga, p. 123, lines 3 IF.).
T h e M . Fy. also places duhkka before sukha. It will perhaps
make the list more intelligible, if we mention the items in the
following order :—
tada tada tädi tädi mala mala sphuta sphuta phutu phutu svähä,628
V i l i , I X , X . T h e eighth, ninth and tenth päramitäs are really
superfluous. T h ey are named pranidhänay lala , and jnäna
respectively. These subjects have been discussed above {jnäna
being equivalent to prajnä).
C hapter VI
T H E BHÜMIS
A bodhisattva's entire career has been divided into several
parts and stages. He rises and advances from one stage to another
till he attains Enlightenment. These stages have been
called bhümis, and also vihäras. The word bhümi means, “ earth,
place, region ; (figuratively), ground, plane, stage, level ; state
of consciousness ” (Pali Dicy.). In a metaphorical sense, it is
employed in a general way to denote “ range ” , “ state ” , “ sphere ” ,
“ station ” , “ condition ” , “ function ” , etc. We find such phrases as
iäma-bhümiy dänta-bhümiy kumära-bhümi, nirväna-bhümi, citta-
bhümi,, ksänti-bhümi)prthag-jana-bhümi, tathatä-bhümi, etc. In the
Dhamma-sangani, bhümi is synonymous with magga (Way).1 The
Yoga-sütras mention drdha-bhümi, pränta-bhümi, särva-bhauma,
etc. (Yo. Sü.) i, 14 5 ii, 27 ; ii, 31— pp. 18, 97, 104). Bhümi
has thus become a philosophical term, meaning “ Stage” (of
spiritual progress). Almost all the Buddhist treatises divide a
bodhisattva's career into bhümis, but the Bodhisattva-bhümi also
discusses thirteen vihäras (states, stations). The M . 5 . AL gives a
fanciful etymological explanation of bhümi : “ bhüyo bhüyo amitäsu ”
(“ again and again in èie unmeasured stages ” ) 5 or, “ bhütânâm
amitânâm ” (“ immeasurable number of creatures ” , to deliver them
from fear).2 Such conceits need not be taken seriously.
There are at least four different schemes of division in the
principal Sanskrit treatises. The Pr. Pd. Çata.y the Mahä-vasiu
and the Da. Bhü. describe ten bhümis in different ways, and the
Bodhisattva-bhümi speaks of seven bhümis and thirteen
vihäras. Candrakïrti’s Madhyamakävatära is not available
in Sanskrit and cannot therefore be utilised as one of the sources
for this essay.
The idea of establishing “ Stages” on the spiritual pilgrim’s
long journey occurred early to the Buddhist thinkers. The
Hmayanists developed the doctrine of the four Stages, v^hich
has already been referred to. Three vihäras are also
mentioned in the Pâli canon : dtbba-vthäray ariya-
vihära and brahma-vihâra (Divine, Noble and Sublime).3 The
270
THE BHÜMIS 271
M . Vy. mentions seven bhümis of the çrävakas (Section 50).
The Mahäyänists did not attach much importance to the ten satnyo-
janas (Fetters) and the four Stages of the Hïnayânists. They
tried to devise a scheme of division based chiefly on the päramitäs.
The bhümis of the Mahäyäna are now supposed to be ten in
number, but it is almost certain that they were only seven in
the beginning. The vogue of the Da. Bhü. finally fixed the
number of the bhümis. But the Bodhisattva-bhümi formally dis
cusses seven bhümis (fol. 136A), and the Lankävatära-sütra
speaks of “ seven bhümis ” without specifying them (p. 28). The
Mahä-vastu speaks of ten bhümis, but it really describes only seven :
it gives no relevant details about the fourth, ninth and tenth.
It may therefore be inferred that it recognised only seven
bhümis at the outset. Even the Da. Bhü . shows clear indications
of the original scheme of seven bhümis. A bodhisattva is said
to practise all the ten päramitäs in the seventh bhümi, though
only one päramitä is allotted to each Stage. He is also supposed
to practise only the seventh päramitä in that bhümiy and this con
tradiction is left unsolved. There is a great “ Prediction ” in the
eighth bhümi, as if a new epoch commenced at that point, for the
bodhisattva obtains the first Prediction (yyäkarana) before start
ing on his career. It is also stated that a bodhisattva can
pass away in nirväna in the seventh bhümis if he so desires 5 but
he follows the higher ideal of the Mahäyäna, which is
especially realised in the eighth, ninth and tenth bhümis. A
bodhisattva, who has reached the eighth bhümi, should be
honoured like a perfect Buddha ! All these details point to an
original system of only seven bhümis. This is also the number
of the bhümis in the Yoga-sütras (To. Sü.y ii, 27, p. 97). The
probable cause of the change from seven to ten has already been
indicated above.
It is a curious circumstance that these different schemes
of the bhümis have very little in common with one another.
J. Rahder has tried to show that the system of the Mahä-vastu is
closely related to that of the Da. Bhü. He says : “ Après avoir
mis en lumière l’étroite parenté entre le Daça-bhumaka . . .
et le Daça-bhümika, qui montre la préparation à la dernière incarna
tion dans le Mahä-vastu, etc.” 4 But the only points of con
tact between the systems of the M tu. and the D a . Bhü . are that
the sections dealing with the first bhümi mention a few similar
virtues, and that one of the bhümis in both schemes is named
272 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
durjayä (,mdurjayä, in the Da. Bhü.). J. Rahder has pointed out
that some passages of the Da. Bhü. resemble those of the Mtu. ; but
the resemblance is so slight and vague that one cannot speak of
44l’étroite parenté On the contrary, the Mtu. has no definite
plan, while the Da. Bhü. allots a päramitä to each hhümi. The
Mtu. declares that a bodhisattva may fall back into a lower hhümi
on account of certain faults, but the Da. Bhü. never speaks of the
possibility of retrogression and always discusses virtues instead of
sins. The Mtu. gives certain names to the hhümis, but the Da.
Bhü. has quite different names (except one). The account in the
Mtu. is incoherent and confused : the Da. Bhü. shows a masterly
architectonic faculty. The Pr. Pâ. Çata. also fails to evolve
an intelligible system : it does not even assign any
names to the hhümis and mentions the same virtues and sins
again and again. The names of the hhümis and the vihäras
in the Bo. Bhü. are also different from those of the Da. B h ü and
there is a fundamental difference between the systems outlined
in these two treatises. The author of the Da. Bhü. has con
structed the framework of his system on the basis of the ten
päramitäs, but the Bo. Bhü. divides a bodhisattva*s career up to
a certain point according to the ancient triple formula of pia,
samädhi {citta) and prajnä. The two writers have not the same
point of view. It is true that the author of the Bo. Bhü. makes
an unsuccessful attempt to identify some of his vihäras with the
hhümis of the Da. Bhü. and cites some passages from that treatise.
But the principles underlying the two systems remain divergent
in all essential respects. It may be inferred that the sections
treating of the hhümis in the Mahä-vastu and the Pr. Pâ Çata.
represent an early stage in the development of the idea, while
the later systems of the Da. Bhü. and the Bo. Bhü. belong to two
different schools or sects. The Bo. Bhü. has borrowed several
ideas from the Da. Bhü. The doctrine of the hhümis was not
accepted in the same spirit by all the Mahäyänists. The M . S . AU
does not discuss the hhümis in detail, and the B. C . Ava. does
not mention them at all ! The Çiisâ speaks incidentally of the
first hhümi) but not of the others, though the author lived in
the same period as Candraklrti, who gives an elaborate account
of the hhümis in his Madhyamakävatära. Perhaps the exponents of
günyatä as conditioned Existence attached more importance to the
hhümis than the other Mädhyamikas, who interpreted it as absolute
Non-existence.
THE BHÜMTS 273
It is advisable to discuss the data of each treatise separately
and also to accept the Da. Bhü. as the standard treatise on the
subject. The systems of the other books may be summarised
very briefly.
III. T he B h ü m is and V ih ä r a s of th e B o d h is a t t v a -
B H Ü M I. ( fb l. 120 « ff.)
r
This important treatise gives a complicated and overlapping
system of seven bhümis, which include thirteen vihäras. The
subject is really discussed in detail in connection with the
vihäras, to which a long chapter is devoted. But the older scheme
of classification in seven bhümis is mentioned in the next
chapter, and the relation of the bhümis to the vihäras is indicated.
The seven bhümis and the thirteen vihäras are as follows (Bo.
Bhü.^ 136^ 4-7)
i. Gotra-bhümi, which is identical with the gotra-vihära.
ii. Adhimukti-caryä-bhümi, which is the same as the adhimukti-
caryä-vihära.
iii. Çuddh-âçaya-bhümi (the Stage of Pure Intention or
Thought), which is also called the pramudita-vihära.
iv. Caryä-pratipatti-bhümi (the Stage of the practice or per
formance of the Discipline). This stage is very important,
as it includes the following six vihäras : Adhifila-
vihära 5 Adhicitta-vihära 5 Adhiprajnä-vihära No.
I ; Adhiprajnä-vihära No. 2 5 Adhiprajnä-vihära
No. 3 5 Säbhoga-nirnimitia-vihära.
v. Niyatä-bhümi (the Stage of Certainty and Regulation).
This bhümi is identical with the anäbhoga-nirnimitta-
vihära.
vi. Niyata-caryä-bhümi (the Stage of certain regulated.Practice).
This bhümi is the same as the pratisamvid-vihära.
vii. Nisthägamana-bhümi (Attainment of the End of Perfec
tion). This bhümi includes two vihäras : the parama-
vihära and the täthägata-vihära,
The subjects gotra and adhimukti have already been discussed
above. The remaining eleven vihäras may be described briefly.
(1) Pramudita-vihära (The Station of Joy : Bo. Bhü^
fol. 123*, 3 ff.).
It is a curious coincidence that the first bhümi in the scheme
of the Da. Bhü. has the same designation (pramuditâ). In this
Station, a bodhisattva is distinguished for purity of
thought. He takes the great Vow or Resolve, which is also
called the “ Thought of Enlightenment ” . This Resolve is incom
parable and inviolable. It aims at saving all beings from pain
THE BHÜMIS 279
and raises a bodhisattva above the çrâvakas and the pratyeka-
buddhas. It arises in a bodhisattva'$ mind on account
of the accumulation of Merit in a previous life and the acquisi
tion of the proper Equipment for Enlightenment. Such a bodhi
sattva may rightly be called 46Buddha’s son of the breast
He is full of joy in mind and body, because he is free from anger^
malice and excitement, and all fears and dangers have disappeared
for him. He understands that there is no permanent Ego and has
therefore no notion of Self. He is free from self-love and never
thinks of injuring others. He is not proud or covetous. He puts
forth great energy, as he is blessed* with faith and a pure,
unsullied Will. He declares his ten great Aspirations. B y
virtue of these Aspirations, he subsequently develops many others.
He sees many Buddhas, about whom he has read in the
Scriptures, or o f whom he has thought with faith and devotion.
On account of his earnest wish, he is born in the worlds, where a
Buddha has made his appearance. He worships and serves those
Buddhas and learns the Doctrine from them. He practises virtue
and 44applies ” ail his Merit to the attainment of Enlightenment.
He 44matures ” the beings by means of the four sangraha-vastusy
and his 44Roots of Merit ” are purified. He teaches all creatures
in a liberal spirit and withholds nothing from them. He is
very strenuous, becomes a homeless monk and acquires many
samädhis (modes of Concentration). He can see the Buddhas in
many Buddha-fields with his supernal organ of sight. He
can live for hundreds of kalpas (aeons) and knows the past and the
future. He can create his own phantom-bodies and show them
to other bodhisattvas who need instruction 5 and he can perform
many other miracles.
(2) Adhiçïla-vihâra . This vihära is said to correspond
to the second bhümi of the D a . Bhü. A bodhisattva purifies his
thoughts by serving his teachers and living peacefully and happily
with his fdlow-bodhisattvas. He is master of his mind
and conquers all the great and small sins and passions. He does
not value the things of the world, thinks of the advantages of
Liberation, and continually cultivates the bodhipaksya-dharmds.
He is indifferent to worldly gain and honour. He rejects the
Hlnayäna and accepts the Mahäyäna. He is virtuous by nature,
and does not commit the slightest sin. He follows the ten
meritorious Ways of Action, knows the Results of good and
evil deeds in future rebirths, and exhorts others to the pursuit of
righteousness on account of liis great compassion for them.
28o THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
(3) Jdhicitta-vihära . This vthära is said to correspond
to the third bhümi o f the D a. Bhü. A bodhisattva now knows that
his thoughts are pfermanently pure and cannot be corrupted by
attachment to worldly and sinful objects. He cultivates the
virtue and wisdom that form the antidote to the äsravas (Intoxi
cants). He cannot be overcome by the hosts o f M ä r a. He feels
no pain or difficulty in practising severe austerities. He is devoted ^
to the Mahäyäna and takes delight in doing good to all. He
realises the dangers and disadvantages of all material things and
phenomena, and turns his mind away from them. He longs for
the knowledge o f the Buddhas, as it would confer wonderful
benefits on him. He skies the afflicted creatures and becomes
still more strenuous and vigilant. He understands that pure
and perfect Knowledge and Wisdom are the only remedies for
the evils, from which all living beings suffer. He diligently
studies the Scriptures and tries to acquire the dhyänas, samädhis
and samäpattis (Attainments). He is ready to sacrifice his
wealth, serve his teachers, and endure pain and hardship in order
to receive religious instruction, which he values more highly
than all the treasures o f the entire universe. He is so eager in
the pursuit of such knowledge that he would willingly throw
himself into the fire in order to learn a single new sentence or
maxim relating to the Doctrine and perfect Enlightenment. He is
prepared even to suffer in the purgatories, if need be. He acts
in accordance with the teaching, and attains the four dhyänas, the
four non-material samäpattisy the four “ infinite” Meditations, and
the five abhijnäs (Super-knowledges). He is then reborn at will,
wherever he thinks that the »interests o f the living beings can
best be served. He is freed from the bonds o f sensuous desire,
love o f existence, hatred and delusion.
(4) Jdhtprajnä-vihära No. 1. This vthära is said to corre
spond to the fourth bhümi o f the D a. Bhü . A bodhisattva now
practises the thirty-seven bodhipaksya-dharmas. He gets rid o f
the last traces o f the wrong belief in the ätman. He does all actions
that have been praised by the Buddha, and avoids all actions that the
Buddha has condemned. He is more compassionate, active,
grateful, virtuous, energetic and steadfast than ever before. He is
more than a match for all rival teachers belonging to other sects.
(5) Jdhtprajnä-vihära No. 2. This vihära is said to
correspond to the fifth bhümi o f the D a. Bhü. A bodhisattva
makes further progress in knowledge and comprehends the four
THE BHÜMIS 281
Noble Truths in all their aspects. He determines to obtain the full
Equipment o f Merit and Knowledge in order to liberate all beings.
He thinks o f nothing else but this duty, and cultivates mindfulness,
thoughtfulness, proper deportment and other virtues. He acquires
a thorough knowledge of the arts, sciences and technical crafts.
He helps the people by bestowing wealth on the poor, healing
the sick, and supplying all with appropriate objects o f enjoy
ment. He protects them against such dangerous persons as
kings, thieves and robbers. He exhorts them to do what is proper
and shun what is improper, to take what is beneficial and reject
what is detrimental to them. He teaches them how to live
together in love and peace in this life, and attain happiness hereafter.
(6) Adhiprajnä-vihära No. 3. This vihära is said to
correspond to the sixth bhümi of the D a. Bhü. A bodhisattva
now comprehends the formula o f the pratïtya-samutpâda and the
three ‘‘ Entrances to Liberation” , viz. çünyatâ, änimitta and
apranihita. He gets rid of the notions o f Doer, Knower, Existence
and Non-existence. He realises that the twelve causes
of Existence and Pain depend on impure sin and passion {kleça).
He attains absolute Knowledge and the Perfection of Wisdom, and
can therefore perform all ordinary worldly actions without being
attached to anything. He cultivates the ksänti that is called
änulomikt. He experiences thousands of samädhis. He is skilful
in the choice of the means for converting and helping others.
(7) Säbhoga-nimimitta-vihära (The Station of the Uncon
ditioned, accompanied with Mental Effort or Thought).6
This vihära is supposed to correspond to the seventh bhümi o f
the D a. Bhü. A bodhisattva now rises above mere Merit and begins
to acquire the Buddha-knowledge in body, speech and mind. He
understands the immense scope of Buddhahood and continually tries
to be faultless in his deportment, conduct and thoughts. He
* fulfils the ten päramitäs and all the/seven Factors of Enlighten
ment (bodhy-angäni). He is completely free from all the sins
and passions like sensuous desire, hat/ed, etc. 5 or it may be said
that he transcends them altogether. He improves and per
fects his knowledge o f the arts and sciences He is sùperior
to all beings except the Buddhas and the jmore advanced bodhi-
sattvas. He experiences a million samädhis. His words, deeds
and thoughts are now independent of nimitta (cause and
motivej. He attains the summum bonum^ but does not disappear
in nirväna.
282 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
(8) Anäbhoga-nirnimitta-vihära (The Station o f the Uncon
ditioned without Mental Effort or Thought). T h is vthära is
said to correspond to the eighth bhümi o f the D a . Bhü. In this
vihäray a bodhisattva9s actions are perfectly pure, whereas they
were not so in the preceding Stations. He obtains infallible
knowledge o f the past, present and future. He comprehends
that all things are really undefinable and indescribable. There
can be no origination and no causation. Thus he acquires the
ksänti that is called anutpattika-dharma-ksänti. He is now
exhorted by the Buddhas and obtains the ten Powers (vaçitâ ). He
can enjoy the dhyänas that he wishes to experience. He can get
material objects like food and drink merely by thinking o f them.
A ll his desires are automatically fulfilled. He can know everything
that he wants to know. He is never deprived o f communion
with the Buddhas.
(9) Pratisam vid-vihära. T h is vthära is said to corre
spond to the ninth bhümi o f the D a . Bhü. In this vthära , a bodhi
sattva understands the problem o f moral corruption and purifica
tion in all its aspects. He becomes a great and successful preacher
and teacher. He is protected by the magic spells o f the devas
and acquires the four pratisamvids.
(10) Param a-vihära (the highest or supreme Station). This
vihära is said to correspond to the tenth bhümi o f the D a. Bhü.
A bodhisattva now attains, the highest samädhis and incom
parable, innumerable Powers. He destroys the sins and errors
o f many beings by spiritual instruction. He is like a cloud that
sends down rain on the earth ; he lays the dust o f passion and
promotes the growth o f meritorious deeds by his teaching. He
is absolutely free from all sins and all hindrances to Knowledge.
(11) Täthägata-vihära (the Station o f the Buddhas). In this
vihäray a bodhisattva reaches his goal and acquires Omniscience.
He attains final and absolute Enlightenment.
Th is scheme o f thirteen vihäras has really very little in common
with the ten bhümis o f the D a. Bhüy though the author o f the
Bo. Bhü. takes great pains to point out that ten o f the
vihäras correspond to the ten bhümis o f the D a . Bhü. But
they do not so correspond. T h e D a . B hü . allots one päram itä
to each bhümi : that is the essential feature o f its system. But
the author o f the Bo. Bhü. mentions the word päram itä only twice
in the chapter on the vihäras (fol. 129 by 5.1 and 130Ä, 2.1). He
does not attach particular imoortance to the däna-täram itä in
THE BHÜMIS 283
the pramudita-vihära , which is said to correspond to the first
bhümi o f the D a . Bhü . He omits the Perfection o f ksänti altogether.,
He does not mention the seventh, eighth and ninth päramitäs ih
connection with the vihäras that are supposed to correspond
to the respective bhümis o f the D a. Bhü. He goes further and
adds the last vihära that does not correspond to any
bhümi o f the D a . Bhü. Here the pretence is dropped. There
are other discrepancies too. T h e D a. Bhü. allots one o f the
sangraha-vastus to each o f the first four bhümis, but the Bo. Bhü.
puts all o f them in the pramudita-vihära (fol. 125*7, 1.2-3).
Th is system o f the vihäras is really based on the idea of what
is called nirnimitta-bhävanä, and not on the ten päramitäs. This
is the fundamental difference between the schemes o f the D a.
Bhü. and the Bo. Bhü. T h e Bo. Bhü. lays stress on the gradual
realisation o f the principle of nirnimitta-bhävanä (cultivation
o f the idea o f the Unconditioned, the Uncaused: fol. 121 b,
5.2 ff.). T h is bhävanä commences in the adhimukti-caryä-
vihära and reaches complete fruition in the last vihära.
In conclusion, the Bo. Bhü. declares that all the vihäras
and bhümis are purified by faith, compassion, friendliness,
learning, fortitude, indefatigable zeal and the worship o f the
Buddhas.
TH E LAST L IF E AND E N L IG H T E N M E N T
I. B ir t h
II. T h e S u p e r m a n
As a child, boy and youth, the bodhisattva is a prodigy o f strength,
skill and erudition. T h e Lai. V. also relates that the images o f the
300 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
devas fall down before him on the occasion o f his visit to
the temple.31 This incident is intended to prove the superiority
o f the bodhisattva to the devas and o f Buddhism to Hinduism. When
the bodhisattva is taken to the school, it is found that he knows as
many as sixty-four languages and scripts.82 A t a later period, he
shows that he is well-versed in all the arts and sciences : archery,
swimming, writing, arithmetic, poetry, grammar, painting,
drama, music, dancing, history and the technical crafts.33 T h e
bodhisattva is thus represented as a veritable Superman, who
possesses the most varied intellectual accomplishments. He has
finished the most complete course o f liberal education that can be
imagined. Aristotle, Plato, Albertus Magnus, Leonardo de Vinci,
Mezzofanti, Goethe and other versatile polymaths pale into
insignificance in comparison with this bodhisattva. T h e Buddhist
writers were indebted to the portraits o f the heroes o f the
Rämäyana and the Mahähhärata for this ideal of a perfectly cultured
and educated man. T h e Pali canon does not speak much o f
Buddha’s knowledge o f the arts and sciences. According to the
Lai. F .) a bodhisattva in his last existence is a master o f all profane
learning. He is also endowed with beauty, strength and physical
fitness. His voice is sweet and deep : his body shines like
gold, or even more than gold.84 He is expert in all the sports
and exercises o f manly youths. He is so strong that he can
send a dead elephant flying over the walls o f the town by pushing
it with his toe.35 He excels all athletes in running, wrestling,
swimming and other sports. He wins a wrestling match against
five hundred young men.86 He surpasses even Arjuna’s exploits
in archery. His body is not only lovely and powerful,
but is also marked by the thirty-two principal signs o f the
mahäpurusa (great man) and his eighty secondary or
minor characteristics. T h ey are due to his self-control in previous
lives {Sam. R ä ., fol. 193^, 1). T h e thirty-two principal marks are
as follows (according to the L a i. V .) 87 :
(l) His head is like a cap in shape (or like a royal turban).
E. Burnouf interprets the term usnïsa-çïrsa as meaning “ having
a bump on the head ” 38 (Pâli : unhisa-sïso. sahaj-osnïsa-mastakah 5
Rsemendra, i, 671). E. Senart compares the usntsa to the kaparda
o f Ç iva and Rudra , and says: “ Toutefois, parmi les inter
prétations auxquelles il donne lieu, l’une fait de Vusnisa une
disposition particulière de la chevelure, ramenée sur le sommet
de la tête.”
THE LAST LIFE 301
(2) His hair turns towards the right in locks, which are dark-
blue like a peacock’s tail or mixed collyrium. T h e M . Vy. and
D h. S. say nothing about the colour o f the hair.
(3) His forehead is even and broad.
(4) Between his eyebrows there is white hair, which has the
lustre o f snow and silver (urna. Pâli : unnâ). E. Senart com
pares the ürnä to the white hair on the breast o f Visnu and Krsna ,
to the eyebrows o f Zeus, the third eye o f Çiva^ etc.39 But his
analogies are generally superficial. It is a curious fact that the
M . Vy. gives ürnä-kegah (having woolly hair?). But Csoma’s
list has ürnâ-koça (“ hair o f treasure ” on the forehead). Th is
is incorrect, as Tibetan spu means “ hair” (Tib. Dicy., 798).
(5) His eyelashes are like a cow’s (i.e. “ completely surrounding
the eyes, thick like a black cow’s ” $ or, “ bright and soft like a new
born red calf’s ” ).
(6) T h e pupils o f his eyes are very dark (ahhinïla).
(7) He has forty teeth, which are even (or, “ o f equal size ” ).
(8) There are no gaps or interstices between one tooth and
another (avirala-danta. Pali : avivara).
(9) He has white teeth (or “ very white ” ).
(10) He has an excellent voice (brahma-svara).
(11) His sense o f taste is very acute and keen (rasa-rasägratä).40
E. Senart points out that A gni in the Rgveda has many teetfi
and tongues. E. Burnouf explains : “ Il a la supériorité du
goût des saveurs ” (“ Lotus ” , p. 567).
(12) His tongue is large and slender (prabhüta-tanu-jihva ).
(13) His jaw is like a lion’s. E. Senart refers to the epithet
o f A gni in the Rgveda.
(14) He has evenly-rounded shoulders. (Susamvrtta has also
been rendered as “ even ” , “ symmetrical,” “ equally rounded.”
Pâli : samavattakkhandho.) Skandha refers to “ the exterior
o f the whole vocal apparatus,” and not merely to the trunk or
the shoulders. It has also been translated as “ bust” . E.
Foucaux translates : “ le bras bien arrondi.”
(15) He has seven convex surfaces or prominences, (sapt-otsada,
sapt-occhada ; i.e. the backs o f the four limbs, the shoulders and
the trunk are well fleshed. Pali : sattussado.) Csoma translates :
“ O f seven spans in stature ” (p. 93).
(16) T h e space between his shoulders is well filled up (literally,
“ heaped up ” ; cit-äntarämsa).
(17) His skin is fine and o f the colour of gold.
302 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
(18) When he is standing erect and not bending, his arms
reach down to the knees.
(19) The front part of his body is like a lion.
(20) His body has the symmetrical proportions of a banyan-tree
{nyagrodha), “ It was believed that a banyan always measured
the same in height and width ” {Dialogues ii, 15). “ Th e bodhi~
sattva’s height is equal to his outstretched arms ” (E. J. Thomas :
“ Buddha ” , p. 220).
(21) Each hair on his body rises straight upward.
(22) Each hair curls to the right.
(23) His private member is concealed in a sheath.
(24) He has well-rounded thighs.
(25) His legs are like an antelope’s.
(26) He has long fingers.
(27} He has long heels.
(28) He has prominent ankles {utsanga-päda. Pâli : ussankha-
psdo). Csoma reads ucchankha-päda and translates : tc the
joints of the armies do not appear.” T h e Tibetan equivalent
is shabs-kyi lon-bu-mi-mnonpa, which means, “ the ankle-bone
of the foot is not conspicuous” (Tib. Dicy. 363, 1224). The
Tibetan interpretation is just the opposite of the usual explana
tion. Other renderings are as follows :—
“ His ankles are like rounded shells (5T. W . Rhys Davids :
Dialogues ii, 14 ; iii, 138).
Lord Chalmers : “ His ankles are over the exact middle of
his tread ” (M ajjh . tr., ii, 72).
E . J . Thomas : “ Prominent ankles ” (“ Buddha ” , p. 240).
F . M ax M üller : “ Having the foot arched ” (Dh. 5 ., p. 53).
E . Burnouf*. “ Il a le cou-de-pied saillant ” (“ Lotus ” , p. 573).
(29) His hands and feet are soft and delicate.
(30) His hands and feet are webbed or netted. {jäl~änguli~
hasta-päda. Pâli : jäla-hattha-pädo.) Other renderings are
as follows :—
“ Hands and feet like a net ” (T . W . Rhys Davids : Dialogues,
ii, 14). “ Les doigts de ses pieds et de ses mains sont marqués de
réseaux” (E. Burnouf, “ Lotus,” 573-4).
“ His fingers and toes spring clean, without webbing between
them ” {M ajjh. tr., ii, 72).
“ Les doigts de ses pieds et de ses mains sont réunis par une
membrane, jusqu’à la première phalange ” (P. Foucaux, Lai. F^
trsln., p. 96).
THE LAST LIFE 303
“ Netted hands and feet ” (E. J. Thomas, “ Buddha,” p.
220).
“ His hands have the fingers united by a membrane ” (A. B.
Keith : “ Indian Mythology,” p. 195). T h e Pâli Dicy. explains
thus : “ having net-like hands and feet, probably with reference
to long nails.” E. J. Thomas refers to the webbed fingers o f
some of the Gandhära statues, and adds : “ But this was only a
device of the sculptor to give strength to parts likely to be broken,
since this feature only occurs when the fingers stand out.
Buddhaghosa appears to have known this view, as he denies that
the fingers were webbed, and says that one with such a defect
could not receive ordination. That the network of lines on the
hand was originally intended is a sufficient explanation. Buddha-
ghosa’s own view is not likely to be the primitive one. He says
that the four fingers and five toes were of equal length (as he no
doubt saw them on statues), and that when Buddha entwined his
fingers, they were like a window with a lattice made by a skilful
carpenter” (“ Buddha ” ,p. 222). T h e difficulty seems to be that the
Pali text reads simplyjäla-hattha-pädo (Dïgha ii, 17), but the M . Vy.
and the Divy. give jäl-ävanaddha-hasta-pädah. T h e M tu .h a s
isla , but it does not mention the epithets in their fully developed
form, and one manuscript reads jâ lï [M tun ii, 30). T h e D h. S.
gives a corrupt reading, which may be understood to stand for
jäl-äbaddh-änguli-päni-päda-talata. Thus several Sanskrit texts
seem to differ from the Pali in inserting a participle (avanaddha
or âbaddha) after jä la and also mentioning the fingers. Perhaps
the Pâli and the Sanskrit terms do not mean the same thing. T h e
Sanskritists may have altered the phrase in order to explain the
“ webbed fingers” o f the Gandhära statues. It is a curious
circumstance that Csoma’s Tibetan list omits this item altogether.
But the Tibetan equivalent is phyag dan skabs dra-bas hbrel-bay
which means “ having the hands and feet connected with a web or
net The word dra-ba is also employed in a compound, which
denotes “ web-footed, like a goose or duck” ; and the word hbrel~ba
is used in a phrase which means, “ her fingers and toes adhered
together, like the toes of a goose ” (Tib. Dicy., 646, 933).
(31) On the soles o f his feet, there are two wheels, white,
radiant and luminous, with a thousand spokes, and (complete) with
rim and nave (tyre and hub). T h e D h. S. and M . Vy. simply
mention that the hands and the feet are maiked with wheels, and
Csoma’s Tibetan list agrees with them. T h e wheel is not described,
304 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
as it is in the L a i. V . T h e M tu . omits the wheel altogether
(ii, 29).
It has been suggested that the wheel is the symbol o f the sun ;
but it really represents universal sovereignty, as is clearly indicated
in the M aha-sudassana-sutta (.Dïgha , iii, 169 ff.). T h e word
cakra-vartin is associated with a “ wheel ” , though cabra originally
meant “ sphere o f power ” in that word. E. Senart o f course
discerns a solar attribute in the wheel. He says : “ C ’est le propre
cabra, à mille raies, de Fisnu, un des emblèmes les plus antiques
et les plus populaires du soleil......... Cette ro u e. . . . peut même
paraître issue d’une conception du soleil considéré directement
comme le pied du dieu lumineux............Ce pied unique formerait
avec la roue unique du char solaire un parallélisme frappant
{Rgveda^ i, 164.2) ” .41 But the analogy is very defective. T h e
bodhisattva bears the figure o f the wheel on the soles o f both feet,
and, according to some accounts, on his hands too. It is not easy
to understand why he should bear so many symbols o f the sun on his
body. A wheel is one o f the seven “ jewels ” o f a universal monarch,
and a Buddha is also said to “ turn the wheel ” o f the Doctrine. In
the sculptures o f Bharhut, the wheel represents the preaching o f
the first sermon by Gautama Buddha.42 Hence a bodhisattva,
who is born with this mark, must become either a universal ruler
{cakra-vartin) or a Buddha (dharm a-cakra-pravartin ). E. J.
Thomas has clearly shown the untenability o f the solar hypothesis in
this case (“ Buddha” , pp. 219 ff.).
(32) His feet are well-set (well-planted). “ T h e traditional
meaning is that the whole under-surface touched the ground
at once ” (Dialogues, ii, 14).
T h e eighty secondary marks are similar to these principal
characteristics in many respects. T h e y are described in the
M ahä-vastu , the L ai. the M . F y., and the D h . 5 .43
W ith regard to the origin o f these signs o f a mahâpurusa^
it is admitted that the theory o f the mahâpurusa existed before
the rise o f Buddhism. E. Senart has traced it through the epics
and the Upanisads back to the Jth a rva -ved a (x, 2, p. 217),
and even to the Purusa-sükta o f the Rgveda (x, 905 voi. vi, p. 243).
But the theory o f the bodily marks o f a mahâpurusa has very little
in common with the idea o f the primeval mythical Purusa with
a thousand heads, a thousand eyes and a thousand feet. It is more
probable that the epithets applied to the heroes o f the great epics
gave rise to the list o f the thirty-two signs. Rama is described in the
THE LAST LIFE 305
Rämäyana as vipul-ämsa^ mahä-bähuy maha-hanu^ äjänu~bähuy
sulaläta , sama-vibhakt-änga, pïna-vaksas, vtçâl-âksa, etc.44 T h e
doctrine o f the marks is pre-Buddhistic, as the Pâli canon speaks o f
brahmins who profess to interpret them, and it also disapproves o f
such occupations.45 Some o f the marks indicate the poet’s ideal o f
manly beauty, e.g. white and regular teeth, a broad chest, black
hair, dark eyes, rotundity o f figure, etc. Others are symbolic :
the covered male organ typifies lifelong chastity ; the long tongue
betokens success as a preacher, or it may be an emblem o f the sun’s
rays. A few marks may be due to some tradition with regard to
Gautama Buddha’s physiognomy. Some are clearly borrowed from
Gandhära sculpture, which created a figure of Buddha in imitation
o f the Hellenic statues o f Apollo. A . Foucher says: “ Aux
grands Dieux, aux bodhisattvas, au Buddha, ils semblent avoir
été d’accord pour réserver le type idéal de Phoebus-Apollon . . .
Les Buddha, qui tous ont la tête découverte et la marque de Vürnâ
au front . . . L a routine des imitateurs gandhariens vient de
créer de toutes pièces la bosse de Vusnïsa, dans l’acception bouddhique
et postérieure du m o t. . . Une malfaçon de leurs pâles imitateurs
fait surgir sur la tête du Maître . . . une protubérance d’un
caractère anormal.” 46
T h e thirty-two marks thus owe their origin to the national
æsthetic ideal, spiritual symbolism and Gandhära art. T h e
eighty minor marks are due chiefly to the fussy fatuity o f the
Buddhist writers, who could not leave well alone.
III. M a r r ia g e , R e n u n c ia t io n an d P enance
IV . M ara and th e B o d h is a t t v a
V. E n l ig h t e n m e n t
F in is .
NOTES AND REFERENCES
(The abbreviations p. and pp. have generally been omitted after the
titles o f Sanskrit and Pâli works).
CH APTER I
1 For the conditions and attributes of arahatta in the Pâli canon,
cf. Brahmajäla-sutta {Dïgha, i, 1 - 4 6 ) ; Sämanna-phala-sutta (.Dïgha, i,
p p . 4 7 - 8 6 ) ; Dïgha, i, 1 7 7 (Kassapa-sïhanâda-suîtd) ; Majjhima,* i,
6 - 1 2 iß abbasava-suita) ; Samyuita, iii, 2 8 , section 13 (Kkandka-
samyuttd) ; Majjhima, ii, 1—2 2 , (Makâ-sakuluddyi-sutta) ; Majjhima, ni,
1 2 4 - 8 (Bakkula-sutta) ; Sutta-nipâta, p p . I l 5 - 2 3 {Väsettha-suita) ;
Samyuita, iv, 2 5 2 { J ambukhädaka-samyutta) ; Samyutta, iv, 1 5 1
(Salâyatana-samyutia) ; Anguttara, iii, 3 4 (Sumana-vaggd) ; iii, 4 2 1 ,
section Ixvi (Devatâ-vaggd) ; Puggala-pannatti, 7 3 (Nava-puggalâ) ;
Majjhima, i, 1 0 1 ff. (Ceto-khila-sutta)*, Dïgha, iii, 13 3 (Päsädtka-
sutta) ; Majjhima, iii, 29 f f (1Chabbisodhana-sutta) ; Dïgha, iii, 2 0 7 ff.
( Sangïti-suttantà).
2 Vinaya, i, 21 : a Caratha bhikkhave cärikam bahujana-kitàya
bahujana-sukhâya lokänukampäya atthäya hitâya sukhdya deva
manussänamP Dhammapada, 77, 158 : “ Ovadeyy9 anusäseyya asabbhä
ca niväraye 99 ; “ attänam eva pathamam patirüpe nivesaye, ath9 annam
anusäseyya na kilisseyya pandito9 t i 99
3 Cf. Dhammapada, 28 : “ Pabbatattho va bhummatthe dhïro bàie
avekkhatï’ti."
Sutta-nipata (Khagga-visäna-sutta), pp. 6-7 : “ eko care khagga-
visäna-kappo.” “ M/’/Af suhajje anukampamäno häpeti attham patibaddha-
citto, etam bhayam santhave pekkhamäno eko care99 etc.
Milinda-panha, 3 1 : “ K in-ti mahäräja idam dukkham nirujjheyya
annan-ca dukkham na uppajjeyyäti etadatthä mahäräja amkäkam
pabbajjä anupädä parinibbänamP
Thera-gäthä, No. 245, p, 31 : “ Tathä Brahmä tathä eko, yathä
devo tathä duve, yathä gämo tathä tayo, kolähalam tat9 uttarin ti.99
No. 380, p. 42 : u Tassa c9atthäya pabbajito agärasmä anagäriyam
so me attho anuppatto sabba-samyojana-kkhayo9 t i 99 (said by Kassapa).
No. 224 : “ tisso vijjä anuppattä katam buddhassa säsanan t i 99
(p. 29), etc.
4 For the ideal o f the pratyeka-buddha, cf. Puggala, 14, and
Da. Bhü., 26, 11. 1-4. T he Puggala-pannatti describes him thus :
u Idh9 ekacco puggalo pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu sämam saccani
abhisambujjhati na ca tattha sabbannutam päpunätt na ca phalesu vasi-
bhävam : ayant vuccatì puggalo pacceka-sambuddho"
319
320 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
5 Vinata, i, n , L 23.
8 Cf. Dtgha, i, 46 : 44Käyassa bheââ uddham j ïvita-pariyâdâna
na dakkkinti deva-manussä ti.”
Sutta-nipäta, No. 235, p. 4 1: 44Khin am puränam, navam
n’ atthi sambhavam,” etc.
Samyutta, iii, 109 ff. (dialogue between Säriputta and Yamaka).
It is denied that Buddha taught annihilation, but it is not affirmed that
a monk continues to exist. 44na hi Bhagavä evam vadeyya khinäsavo
bhikkhu käyassa bhedä ucckijjatì vinassati na boti param marana ”
(p. xxo).
Udäna, viii, 3 (p. 80) : 44asti bhikkhave ajätam abhütam akatatn
asamkhatamP
Milinda, 96: 44parinibbuto Bhagavä na ca Bhagavä püjatn
s ä d iy a ti ‘etc.
7 Asamskfta-dhätu. The word dhätu, derived from dhä, means
44a primary element” , and also signifies 44factor, item, principle” ;
44natural condition,” etc. The Buddhists divide the entire sum of
things into seventy-five dhätus, of which seventy-two are 44compounded,
made up ” (samskfta) and three are 44uncompounded ” (asamskfta).
L. de la Vallee Poussin translates asamskrta as 44inconditionné The
three dhätus, which are uncompounded, are : (1) âkaça (Space, Ether).
(2) Jpratisankhyä-nirodha (Cessation, which is not due to pre
meditation or deliberate intention) (4<suppression non due à la sapience ” :
L. de la Vallée Poussin). (3) Pratisankhyä-niradka (Cessation, which
is due to pre-meditation or deliberate intention, i.e. nirvana, or the
cessation of the production of new thoughts (Abhidharma-koça, i, 5,
pp. 6 ff.) ; cf. 44Tables of the Elements ” in Th. Stcherbatsky’s 44The
Central Conception of Buddhism” , p. 106. Th. Stcherbatsky renders
asamskrta as 44immutable ” , and explains pratisankhyä-nirodha thus:
44The suppression of the manifestations of an element through the
action of understanding (jprajnä), as, e.g. after having realised that the
existence of a personality is an illusion, a kind of eternal blank is
substituted for this wrong idea.”
8 E. Burnouf, Int, p. 97, 1. 10.
0 Pr, Pä. Çata, 2, note 2.
10 ERE. ii, 739*.
11 5 .C. Ava. Pka ., 421.
12 P. Oltramare, 44Bouddhique,” p. 250, note.
13 ERE, ii, 739*.
14 RHR., voi. xlii, 1900, p. 360, note.
15 44The Yoga-dorcana? translated by G. Jha, p. 8# {Bombay,
1907).
16 H. Kern, 44Manual,” p. 65, note 5 ; 44 Histoire,” i, 383, note.
17 K. E. Neumann, Majjh. tr., vol. i, p. 620, note 5. K. E.
Neumann cites other words like manosatto, mänasatto, bhavasatto, etc.
NOTES TO CHAPTER X 321
18 P. Oltremare, “ Bouddhique,” p. 250.
19 Ksemendra, i, 3 ; M. Fy., p. 50 ; ]. Rahder, “ Glossary,” p. 134.
20 J. H. Woods, Yoga, pp. xvii, xx, 93.
21 T . W. Rhys Davids, “ Buddhist India,” pp. 161 ff. (London,
1903)5 “ Dialogues,” i, pp. xx, 1.
22 The word yäna is generally translated as “ vehicle ” , also as
“ boat Hina is rendered as “ lower ” , “ inferior ” , “ lesser ” , and
Mahä as “ higher ” , “ greater ” , The Tibetan equivalent is tkegpa,
which means “ vehicle” (Tib. Dicy., Das, 585). According to E. J.
Eitel, the Chinese also translate yäna as “ conveyance ” (p. 90). But
it is doubtful if yäna originally meant “ vehicle It denotes' “ way,
path” in the Vedas and the Upanisads, e.g. CJiândogya Upd.9 v, 3.2
(“ pathor deva-yänasya pitr-yänasya ca vyävartanä ” ). In Buddhism,
there are more than two yanas, and the contrast between htna and mahâ
is not the fundamental point. There is the yäna of the pratyeka-buddkas,
and they surely do not need a “ vehicle ” for their solitary career. It
may be suggested that yäna in Buddhism originally denoted “ Way,
Career ” , and that the connotation was changed after the publication
of the Sad. Pu.9 with its famous parable of the three yänas (chap. iii).
That play on words led to the substitution of the idea of “ vehicle ” for
that of “ way
23 Sankära-dkäna. H. Kern translates “ heap of dirt But dhärn
means “ receptacle” , not “ heap” (from the root dkä) ., Sankära is
rendered as “ Kehricht ” by Böhtlingk and Roth.
24 Divasa-mudrä. Mudrä means “ seal” , hence a cren with the
superscription on it. Literally, divasa-mudrä means “ day*3 coin ”
25 Tathägata. This puzzling word may be construed as tathä-gata
(“ gone thus, in that way ”), or tathä-ägata (“ come thus, in that way ” ).
It has been variously translated as follows: “ The Truth-finder ”
(Chalmers, M ajjh . tr., i, 46, etc.) ; “ the Accomplished One ” (Sfläcära,
M ajjhf tr., p. 67) ; “ He who has won through to the Truth ”
(Dhammasangani tr., 1099); “ The Sain», who has attained Truth”
(J. E. Carpenter, “ Buddhism,” p. 259); “ Der Vollendete”
(H. Oldenberg, “ Buddha,” p. 145, note ; Nyänatiloka, Anguttara tr.,
vol. v, p. 283). The Jainas employ the term tattha-gaya (=» tatra-gatd),
which is explained as meaning “ he who has attained that world, i,e.
emancipation” (SBE., voi. xiii, p. 82). R. O. Franke thinks that
jVathägata means “ one, who has himself gone on the Way, that he
teaches others” (“ der so Gegangene,” . . . “ derjenige, der diesen
Weg, den er lehrt, zuerst selbst zurückgelegt hat” ; D ig ha, p. -287).
He also pointe out that Yathägata simply means “ arhat, monk, individual ”
in several passages (Dîgha9 p. 294). C. A. F. Rhys Davids is of opinion
that the word means “ thus come ” , and that Gautama Buddha’s disciples
gave him that name, because he “ was believed to have come as a teacher
in an order, according to which others had come ” (“ Gotama,” p. 45.)
v
322 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
H. Beckh explains : “ Ein So-gegangener, d.h. einer der den Buddha
weg auch wirklich gegangen ist,” “ der den gleichen Pfad wie alle Buddhas
gewandelt” (“ Buddhismus,” voi. i, pp. 61, 62). Buddhaghosa offers
no fewer than eight different explanations, which have been discussed
by R. Chalmers in JRAS. 1898, pp. 105 ff. : (a) “ He who has arrived
in «mch fashion,” i.e. who has worked his way upwards to perfection
for the world’s good in the same fashion as all previous Buddhas.
(è) “ He who walked in such fashion,” i.e. (1) he who at birth took the
seven steps in the same fashion as all previous Buddhas ; or (2) he who
in the same way as all previous Buddhas went his way to Buddhahood
through the four Jhänas and the Paths, (c) (Tatha and àgató), he who
by the path of knowledge has come at the real essentials of things.
(d) (Tatha and àgate), he who has won Truth, (f) He who has discerned
Truth. (/) (ägato = àgado), he who declares Truth, (g) (Gaio ==
pavattd), he whose words and deeds accord, (h) (Tatha and agata) (agata=
agada* “ medicine, physic” ), the great physician, whose physic is all-
potent. R. Chalmers derives the word from tatha and àgata and interprets
it as meaning “ One who has come at the real truth ” . Böhtlingk and
Roth interpret the word as tathä-gata (sich in solcher Lage, in solchem
Zustande, befindend; derartig, so beschaffen). Tathägata occurs in
several passages of the Makäbhärata, e.g. (“ äjagmuh sahitäs taira yatra
räjä tathâgat&h i, 4879; vol. i, p. 179, Calcutta Edition). It is not
probable that the doctrine of a succession of Buddhas would be embodied
in a term, which belongs to early Pâli literature. This consideration
weakens the argument for the derivation tathä-ägata. It seems rather
pedantic to discover tatha ( = Truth) in this word. The simple and
natural sense seems to be tatha-gata. On the analogy of the Jaina term
and the phrases in the Makäbhärata, we may explain it as “ gone there,
i.e. to Liberation, nirvana, or whatever the sutnmun bonum may be” *
It would thus mean “ The Liberated One ” , “ One who has reached
the goal”
26 Upadhi (Pâli: Upädi). The word upadhi seems to be a wrongly
Sanskritized form of Pâli upädi, which is derived from the root dà.
It is closely related to upädäna, meaning “ fuel ” , “ stuff of life ” , “ sub
stratum of the aggregates ” (khandhas). Nirvana with upadhi is attained
during life on the extinction of the äsravas : Nirvâna without upadhi
•simply means “ the death of such a saint The Tibetan equivalent
is dnos (thing) or phun-po ( = Skt skandha ; Tib. Dicy., Das,
824*; M . S. A l. tr., p. 27, note 4.) L. de la Vallee Poussin translates
“ residue ” (JRAS. 1906, p. 964). “ Daseinsgrundlage ” (M. Wintemitz
in “ Lesebuch ” , p. 279),
27 Santäna. H. Kern translates “ intelligence ” . The word denotes
the series of mental states, which constitute the individual.
Kuçala-mülàni : “ roots or bases of goodness or merit” (Pâli
Dicy.). '
NOTES TO CHAPTER I 3*3
28 Dfoy,, 50.9; Lka., 65, verse 130; Ava.-ça., i, 65.1 ; Pr. Pä.
Çata., pp. 85, 296 5 Kä. Vy., 46 ; Ksemendra, i, 623.50 ; Da. Bhü.,
65.2, etc.
29 Auidhatya. This term occurs in the lists of the nîvaranas .and
the samyojanas. As a ntvarana, it is’ coupled with kaukrtya (Pâli:
uddhacca-kukkuccam). It has been explained as “ recklessness ” ,
“ pride” , “ la présomption” , “ vanity” , “ excitement” . In the
M. S. AL, it is mentioned with laya (142.9). It seems to denote a mood
of exaltation and self-satisfaction as opposed to self-reproach and dejection.
Çïla-vrata-parâmarça (Pâli : stlabbata-parämäsd). Cf. Dkamma-
sahgani, sections 1005, 1174. Parâmarça, derived from mrç (with
para), means “ touching, contact, being under the influence of ;
contagion” . Hence die meaning, “ perversion,” “ infatuation,”
“ inverted judgment.”
Sat-kâya-dfsti (Pâli: sakkäya-diptht). (Dkammasangani, section
1003.) This Pâli term is explained in two ways : (1) sva-käya-drsti ;
and (2) sat-käya-drsti. The latter Sanskritized form is generally accepted
as correct. It has been translated as “ Heresy of Individuality ” ,
“ Delusion of Self” , “ The Personality View” , etc. L. Peer’s rendering
is perhaps inadmissible : “ la persuasion que le corps est une chose
bonne ” (Ava.-ça. tr., p. 14). Literally, sat-käya means “ the body in
being, the existing body” ,
80 Kleça. In Buddhist Sanskrit, this term is derived* from, kliç
( = “ to soil, to stain ” ). Bad butter is called sankilittka in Pâli (cf.
Dhamma-sangani, section 1229). The word has been rendered as
“ passion ” , “ sin ” , “ lust ” , “ les corruptions de mal ” , etc. (Pâli :
mesa, Mesa, sankilissati ).
81 traidkätuka. L. Feer translates, “ sous les trois formes.” But
the word refers to the three worlds.
82 mst-candana. L. Feer translates, “ froid comme le sandal” ;
but perhaps the word vast corresponds to Pâli väsita, and the idea of
“ fragrance ” seems more appropriate than that of “ coldness ” , or both
ideas may be combined ; “ cold like fragrant sandal-wood E. BumouFs
interpretation is probably correct : “ the sandal-tree and the axe that
cuts it down ” (asi). An arhat sees no difference between them. This
is a third simile.
88 U pendra. L. Feer translates “ Indra, premier et second.” But
I have followed Monier Williams’s Sanskrit Dictionary.
84 Bad. Pit., 80, 11. 6, 9; 8 1 .1.
85 Pr. Pä. Çata., 122.10; 130.3 ff.
88 anupadki-çesa-nirvâna. See note 26 above (Chap. I).
87 M . 8. A l., 115.7 ff.
88 M . S. A l., 53.4.
89 M. S. AL, 53.3.
40 B.C. Ava., vii, 29 ; iv, 7 ; ix, 49 ; vui, 145. Bo. Bhü.,
324 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
fid. 9^.2 ff. Pr. Pâ * Çata*, 122, 282, 485. M . 5 . .*//., 40, 98,
168, 171. Çiksâ, 61.6, 66.11, 50.13, -W. P«., 276.8, 129.9,
47*3> etc.
41 PM, 6$. 6.
42 £0. /^., 15,10 ff.
43 Pr. P0. Asta*, 375.14 ft.
44 f /£/<?, 14.8.
45 Sad. P«., 116.2, 203,11, 131.12, 378.3. üf. S. AL, 6.
*-“- 46 P.C. Ava*, vii, 18.
47 D. T. Suzuki, “ Outlines,” p. 294. SîlâcSra : M ajjh* tr.,
p. 66.
48 ikf/0., i, 239.185 Pr. P0. Çata., 91 ; D0. P M , 25, etc.
49 Af/«., i, 63.2 ; ii, 394*12.
50 “ Outlines,” p. 295.
51 Mtu., ii, 341.2, ii, 397.2. Sam. P0., fol. 10.1. PM , 299*
verse 261, etc.
52 Pr. P0. (70/0., 64, 174, 682. Divy., 143. Sad. P«., 41.5,
Saund* Kä., xvii, 34. PM , 256. Pr. P0. ^r/0., 397. P>0. PM ,
97, etc.
53 Pr, P0. Çata., 1326, 1373, 499. Pr. Pä* A/0., 281.19.
IM PM , 95.25. M. section 1 (p. 20). PTtfr. P«., 9.11.
M* S . AL, 33. -
?4 2>/*y., 127.13; 205.120.
55 £W. Pu*, 308.9.
56 P ö. Bhü., fol. 39^.6 Çarva-tarka-mârgu-samatikräntatvad).
57 P ö. PM , 370.6, and 37^.3 {nirmalam, apratihatam, sarvajnänam,
asanga-jnänam). M. S* AI*, 33.14.
58 P0. P M , fol. 37^. 3.3.
59 M. 5 . AL, 34.3, 35.14.
60 M. P. AL, 36.19. Po. PM , fol. 39Æ.6 agrä çresthâ vara
pranttä ”).
61 Ava* ça., i, 7.5, etc. Po. Bhü*,foL 148^.6 ; 37^. 5.1. ikf. ^ .,
section i i .
These three Fields of Mindfulness are defined as follows :
Impartiality or same mental attitude (sama-ättatä) towards those who
wish to hear or learn, those who do not wish to hear or learn, and those
who partake of both characteristics (çuçrüsamànesu-, etc.). Cf. Suita-
nipäta, 383, p. 67. The words may mean “ obedient ” , “ disobedient
62 Mtu., i, 38.14 ff. Lai* V ., 5.2, 403.1. Sad. Pu*, 81.3.
63 M . Vy., section 7. D h* S*, section 76. *Lai. V*, 275.10.
Ava.-ça*, i, 7.5. M. S. AL, 186. Csoma, p. 5. Cf. Anguttara*,
v, 33.7 ff. 'Majjhima, i, 69 ff.
64 Sthân-âstkâna (Pâli : thänäitkäna). This term has been interpreted
in several ways. Csoma de Körös (p. 5) and Nyänatiloka (Anguttara tr.,
vol. v, 282) translate : “ what is possible or impossible D, T. Suzuki
NOTES TO CHAPTER I 325
renders it as “ right and wrong” . T. W. Rhys Davids, C. A. F.
Rhys Davids and Lord Chalmers are of opinion that it refers to the
knowledge of specific causal relations. (“ Dialogues,” iii, 205 ; Dhamma-
sahgani tr., p. 323 ; Majjh. tr., i, 46.) P . Oltramare translates : u II
sait ce qui est comme étant, ce qui n’est pas comme n’etant pas ”
(“ La Théosophie Bouddhique,” p. 241). S. Hardy explains the term
as meaning Mthe wisdom that understands what knowledge is necessary
for the right fulfilment of any particular duty, in whatsoever situation ”
(“ Manual,” p. 394). F. Max Müller translates : “ Knowledge of
admissible and inadmissible propositions” (Dh. S., p. 51). SîÈcâra
translates : “ understands according to truth and fact the true and the
false” (Majjh. tr., p. 67).
63 Adhimukti (Tibetan : mos-pa-sna-tsogs). Csoma de Körös and
D. T. Suzuki read vimukti (“ liberation ” ). But the Tibetan equivalent
shows that this is a wrong reading.
66 Dkätu. See note 7 (Chap. I).
67 The M. Fy. has indriya-varävara. But the DA. S. and the
Pr. Pâ. Çata. read indriya-paräpara, which is confirmed by the Pâli
text, " indriya paropariyattam ” (Ahguttara> v, 34). The Tibetan
equivalent is mchog-dan-mchog-ma, but mchog corresponds to both Skt.
parama and vara (Tib. Dicy., Das, p. 436). Csoma de Körös translates :
“ the power of knowing what is and what is not the chiçf organ.”
Lord Chalmers renders indriya as “ hearts ” .
68 Sarvatra-gämini pratipad. The Pâli text has sabòattka-
gäminipatipadam (which perhaps points to a possible Sanskrit reading
sarvärtha instead of sarvatrd). Csoma de Körös translates : “ the power
of knowing all the ways of transmigration.” F. Max Müller also
accepts the alternative reading sarvärtha (“ leads to all the highest
objects ”). Nyänatiloka translates : “ Jedweden Ausgang ” ( = sarvatra).
Lord Chalmers thinks that it means “ the future t©which every course
leads ” (Majjh. tr., i, 47). Slläcära renders it as “ the way that leads
to all states” (Majjh. tr., 67). The Tibetan text has tkams-cad-du-
kgro-ba ( = “ going everywhere ”, Tib. Dicy., Das, p. 300). This
shows that sarv-ärtha-gämini was not accepted by the Tibetan
translators.
69 The Pâli text makes it clear that the compound should be
divided in this way : sarva-dhyäna-vmoksa-samädhi-samäpattinäm
sankleça-vyavadâna-vyutthâna. Lord Chalmers translates vyavädana as
“ specific stage ” and renders samâpattïnâm as “ achievements of
Ecstasy, etc.” (Majjh. tr., i, 47). But vyavadâna (Pâli : vodând) means
“ purification Slläcära translates vyuttkäna (Pâli : vutthänd) as “ manly
endeavour” (without citing any authority), and renders samäpatttnäm
as “ those aiming at ecstasy ” , etc. But samäpatti always denotes the
four Attainments leading to the formless, non-material worlds (ärüpya-
samäpattayah). Csoma de Körös translates : “ Liberation from the
326 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
miseries of vice and all sorts of theories ” (which is really very wide of
the mark).
70 Laf. V ., 344. M tu., ii, 283.
71 Cf. Majjhima, i, 71. Anguttara, ii, 9.
72 Csoma, p. 249. U. Wogihara, Bo. Bhü., p. 42. M. Walleser,
Pr. Pâ. tr., p. 72. S. Lévi, M . S . A L, tr., pp. 13, 303. D. T . Suzuki,
“ Outlines,” p. 327. Nyänatiloka, Anguttara tr., ii, 14. L. Feer,
Avança, tr., p. 12, etc. For viçarada and vatçâradya, cf. Sam. Rä.,
fol. 112a .6. M tu ., i, 39 .13; iii, 386.14. LaL F ., 403.1,
160.14. D h . S., section 77. M . Fy ., section 8. K ar . Pu ., 106.12.
Ava.-ça., i, 7.5. Fy., 40.1. 351.7. The D h. S . omits
the third vatçâradya
78 jkf. Fy ., p. 10. M. £. A L, tr., p. 27.
74 M. 5 . A L tr., p. 27
75 dharmäh. Lord Chalmers translates, “ mental states” (Majjh.
tr., i, 48). But this rendering does not suit the context. Slläcära
translates more correctly, “ things ” (M ajjk. tr., p. 68).
76 Csoma de Körös interprets the thiM vatçâradya thus : “ Boldness
to teach or prophesy with certainty the immutability of the immanent
virtues ” (p. 249). But the Pâli text does not support this rendering.
77 E. Bumouf, Int., p. 150, note. Nyänatilok«, says: “ Das
Wort ist wahrscheinlich auf ven (gehen) zuröckzuführen ” (Anguttara
tr., voi. v, p. 530).
78 H. Kern, SBE., voi. xxi, p. 31, note. S. Hardy, “ Manual,”
p. 395. Csoma, p. 250. L. Feer, Ava.-ça. tr., p. ï 2. S. Lévi, M . S . AL
tr., p, 304. C. F. Koeppen, “ Buddha,” i, 436. J. Speyer, Ava.-ça.,
ii, 223.
79 Pali Dicy., s.v.
80 E. Burnouf, Int., p. 150, note.
81 For the ävenika-dkarmas, see M . Fy., section 9. D ivy., 148.
M . S . AL., 187. Pr. Pâ. Çata., 1450. Lai. F ., 2 75.11. D a. Bhü.,
13.26; 17.17. D k. S ., section 79. M tu., i, 160.
82 nâsti ravitam. The Pr. Pâ. Çata. has the incorrect reading,
caritam. The Tibetan equivalent is ca-co-med-pa, and S. C. Das translates :
“ free from noise or chatter, without fuss ” . D. T . Suzuki renders the
phrase as “ faultless in his speeches” (“ Outlines,” p. 327); but this
is a different idea altogether. H. Jaschke gives the rendering : “ not
loquacious or talkative” (Tib. Dicy., 138).
83 D. T . Suzuki translates : “ He knows everything, yet he is calmly
resigned.” The Pâli word appatUankhâ means “ want of judgment ”
(Dhamma-sangani, section 1346, p. 231, “ idhekacco appafisankhâ
ayoniso âhâram âhâreti ” ). (Pâli Dicy., s.v.) Csoma de Körös translates :
“ no indifference for any undiscussed things.” But it is best to follow
the Pâli text.
NOTES TO CHAPTER I 327
84 The M . Fy. omits vimukti-jnâna-darçana, and the Dh. S. omits
anägate *dkoani (“ knowledge of the future” ). The Pr. Pâ. Çata.
includes both these items in its list, and gives nineteen dharmas instead
of eighteen ! D, T . Suzuki arbitrarily omits samädhi and includes
vimukti-jnäna-dargana (“ Outlines,” p. 327). The M . Fy. has känik,
but the Dh. 8., the M. S. A L, and the Pr. Pâ. Çata. give the reading
parikänih, which seems to be more correct.
85 Asangam apratihatam jnàna-darçanam. P. Oltramare translates :
“ la connaissance intuitive et sans limitation ” (“ Bouddhique,” p. 241).
Csoma de Koròs renders the Tibetan text thus : “ occupied with th#
contemplation of the wisdom which has been neither attracted nor hindered
by the time that has hitherto elapsed.” But this cannot be the correct
interpretation according to the Sanskrit text.
86 Cara. Literally, “ motion, walking, doing, behaviour, action,
process” (from car, carati). (Pâli Dicy.)
87 M. 8. A l., 184.3, 187.12. Pr. Pâ. Çata., 1472. D h y .,
124 .11, 126.13. Lka., 12.3. jFar. Pu., 17.2. Ksemendra, i,
907.73 ? ih 933. Ava.-ça., i, 7.5, etc.
88 Sad. Pu., 136.4, 108.17, 89.12, 90.2. M. Fy., section 19.
89 M . Fy., section 10.
90 Kaihä-vatthu, xviii, 3, p. 561 {itatthi Buddkassa Bhagavato
karunätt).
91 Cf. Diogenes Laertius, voi. ii, p. 217, 11. 21 IF. * E. Zeller,
“ Stoics,” p. 238, 1. 4.
92 M . Fy., section 12. Cf. Anguttara, iv, 82 £F. Digka, hi, 217.
93 Sad. Pu., 228.4, 229.1, 294.6. M. Fy., section 1. D iv y ,
391, 126. Lai. F ., 131.3. Mtu., i, 200.10. Ksemendra, i,
673.39. 423 8 . A L, 184 ff.
94 Lai. F ., 5, 260. M . Fy., section 2.
95 Lai. F ., 402.io. Sad. Pu., 385.4. Su. Pr., fol. 14^.5.
Su. Fy., 10. M. S. A L, 48. Pr. Pâ. Çata., 73.17. Mtu., i,
$7> etc.
96 Kar. Pu., 122.10, 119. Pr. Pâ. Çata., ï ï i .
97 Mtu., i, 61.10 ff.
98 Lai. F ., 376.5, 402. Sad. Pu., 238.4. L k a , 234.
99 Sad. Pu., 144 ff.
100 Dïgha, i, 46.
101 Milinda, 95 ff., “ tisso sampattiyo patilabkantiP
102 Mtu., iii, 226.
108 Sad. Pu., 326.2, 3 19 .i, 323.7.
194 Sad. Pu., 249.
105 Su. Pr., fol. $a. i ff, (na tu çâkya-muner âyuh çakyam ganayttum).
106 Mtu., i, 158.il .
107 For Buddha’s miracles, cf. Ava.-ça., i, 109, 331. Divy., 48 ff.,
128, 203, etc.
328 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
108 Mtu., i, 16 7 .17 ff. Vasumitra’s “ Treatise on the Sects,”
cited by D. T . Suzuki (“ Outlines,” pp. 249 £F.).
100 L. de la Vallee Poussin (JRAS. 1906, p. 960) has compared the
Buddha’s bodies to Krsna’s ordinary and glorified bodies (Bkagavad-
gîta). But it is not proper to mix up the Buddhist notions o f upäya-
kauçalya and nirmäna with the entirely different Hindu doctrine of
avatâra (Incarnation).
110 Su. Pr., fol. 6a ff., “ anasthi-rudhira-kâye kuto dhâtur bhavisyati
. . . dkarma-käyä hi sambuddhä dharma-dhätus iatkägatah ” (fol. 7^.4).
Sam. Râ., fol. 95^.4, “ na rüpa-käyatas iatkägatah prajnätavyah . . .
dharma-käya-prabhävitäc ca buddhä bhagavan toetc.
111 Pr. Pä. Çata, 12x1.4 .
112 Sad. Pu., 3 1 9 .1. M. S. A L, 4 6 .1 .
113 P a jr S ,43. Sad. Pu., 143.3. D a. Bhü., 3.2 7.
114 D w y„ 396.28; 158.23. Ç iktf, 159.7.
115 Sam. Râ., fol. 95^.4.
lis p r p Sm Çata., 1470 .3,3 8 0 .6 . M .S .A L , 4 5 .3 , 1 8 9 .1 ,3 6 .1 7 .
“7 M . S. A L, 77.13 ff.
118 Çiksâ, 230. M . S. A L , 40 .14.
119 Pr. PS. Asta., 5 12 ; 307.18.
120 Pr. Pâ. Asta., 307.12.
121 M. S. A L, 4 8 .1 1 , 83.2.
122 M . S: A L, 49 .14 .
128 Pr. Pâ. Çata., 1263.
124 M. S. A L, 83.1.
126 M. S. A L, 4 5 .1 , 188.6.
126 Da. Bhü., 83.
127 Kar. Pu., 122. M. S. A L , 18 9 .1.
128 Samyutta, iii, 120 {To kho Vakkali dkammam passati so marri
passati). Itivuttaka, p. 91 {dkammam passanto mam passait).
129 Vinaya, i, 14 {cha loke arahanto honti).
130 Majjh., i, 482 {na me te vutta-vâdino, etc.).
131 Vinaya, i, 16 {yathä setthi . . . yasam kulaputtam na passeyyâ).
132 Vinaya, i, 24 ff. {yena Uruvelâ tad avasaxi, etc.).
133 Ahgüttàra, ii, 38-39 {na kho aham brâhmana manusso bhavissà-
miti ; Buddko ti mam brâhmarta dhârehîtt).
184 M ajjh., iii, 15 {anuppannassa maggassa uppädetä).
w M ajjh., i, 142, H. 7-8.
186 Dïgha, ii, 133 {ckavi-vanno pariyodâto).
187 Mahâpadâna-sutta {Dïgha, ii, 15). Majjhima, ii, 222 fF.
188 MakSparinibbâna-sutta {Dïgha, ii, 103) {kappant va tittheyya,
etc.).
11
139 Majjh., ii, 143 {Brahmâyu-sutta, . 20-1).
140 Kathä-vatthu, xviii, 1-2 (pp. 559, 56 1); ii, 10 (pp. 221 ff.)
{vohâra-kathâ).
NOTES TO CHAPTER I 329
141 J. M . Robertson, “ A Short History of Christianity,” p. 142
(London, 1913)* E. Gibbon, “ Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,”
vol. iii, 147 5 l 9 7 > v, 36 (ed. J. B. Bury, London, 1896-1900,
7 volumes).
142 Sarnytetta, iii, 119 fF. (p. 124).
143 Cf. P. Sabatier, “ Life of St. Francis,” p. xx (London, 1920).
144 R. H. Thouless, “ An Introduction to the Psychology of Religion,”
pp. 1 36 ff. (Cambridge, 1923). A. G . Tansley, “ T he New Psychology,”
p. 88 (London, 1921). “ Extroversion is the thrusting out o f the mind
on to life, the use of the mind in practical life, the pouring out of the
libido on external objects. Introversion, on the other hand, is the turning
in of the mind upon itself, involving a withdrawal from the external world
and the cultivation o f an internal mental life.”
CHAPTER II
Notes
I S. Kimura, “ Study,” pp. 59, 60. “ Historically, it must be
said that Buddha preached his phenomenological doctrines in an exoteric
form to the people and his ontological doctrines in the esoteric form were
reserved only for advanced or brilliant men.”
* Digita, ii, 100.3. Samyutta, v, 153.18 (ßati-patthäna Sarnyutta,
“ na tatth* Änanda Tathdgatassa dhammesu äcariya-mutthi.” ).
3 M. Wintemitz, “ Problems,” p. 63.
4 H. Kern, “ Manual,” p. 122.
ß E. Senart, “ Origines,” p. 24.
6 Ibid., p. 31.
7 K. J. Saunders, “ T he Gospel for Asia,” p. 59 (London, 1928),
8 L. de la Vallée Poussin, “ Opinions,” pp. 21, 22.
9 Tkera-gätkä tr., p. xxi. C. A. F. Rhys Davids, “ Psalms of the
Brethren” (London, 1913).
, *° Qn*saddhä, cL Majjhima, i, 142.8. Dkammapada, 333, “ sukhä
saddkä patitthitä” Majjkima, i, 356.2 {Sekka-sutta). Majjhima,
i, 478.29 (saddkä-vimuttd) (Kltägiri-suttd). Majjhima, ii, 176.21
11
(Cahkl-sutta; “ saddhä-bahukärä” ). Anguttara, iii, 4, . 3, XX ;
iii, 352.20 (Dkammika-vagga). Digha, iii, 2 3 9 .1 5 ; iii, 227.75
iii, 237.5 ff.; iii, 238 .2; iii, 1 13 .16 (Sampasadanlya-suttantd).
Sutta-nipäta, 182, 184 (pp. 32, 33), “ 8add9 tdka vittam purisassa
settham ” ; “ Saddkäya tarati ogham” Digha, ii, 2 17 .1 9 (J dna-vasabha-
suttanta : “ Buddhe avecca-ppasädena samannägatä ” ). Dhammasangani,
section 12, “ saddhä okappanä abkippasädo
II O. C. J. Rosenberg, “ Probleme,” i, 36. L. de la Vallee Poussin,
“ Opinions,” p. 215.
13 JRAS. 1906, p. 493.
13 On the devas, cf. Majjhima, i ,251 ff. (Cüla-tanhâ-sahkhaya-
tutta : Sakha receives instruction). Majjhima, ii, 130.18 ( Kannakat-
thala-sutta ; Some devas must be reborn on earth). Majjkima, i, 73
{Mahä-slha-näda-sutta : the devas need nirvana). Digha, iii, 218
( Sanglti-suttanta : The devas are not free from sense-desires). Digha,
iii, 28 (Pätika-suttanta ; Brahma is not the creator of the universe).
Digha, ii, 263 ff. (iSakka-panka-suttanta : Sakha does homage at Buddha’s
feet, p. 269 ; the devas desire happiness). Digha, ii, 208 (jana-vasabha-
suttanta : The devas honour Buddha). Ahguttara, i, 144 ( Sakha is
subject to death and rebirth, and is not free from desire, hatred and
33°
NOTES TO CHAPTER II 331
delusion). Samyutta, i, 219 (Sakka is not free from anxiety;
Sakka-samyutta).
14 Dtgka, ii, 259 (Mahäsamaya-sutta).
15 Cf. K. J. Saunders, “ Gospel,” p. 171. H. Kern, “ Manual,”
p. 122. H. Raychaudhuri, “ Materials,” p. 74.
16 Sad. Pu ., 8 9 .11, 90.2, 229.11.
17 Su. Fy., 18, 19.
18 The five änantaryäni are sins, which are immediately followed
by retribution and punishment. These are : (1) parricide, (2) matricide,
(3) murder o f an arhat, (4) causing a schism in the Confraternity, and
(5) maliciously wounding a Buddha. (DA. S., section 13. M. Fy.,
section 122. Mtu., i, 244. SBE., vol. xlix, pt. ii, p. 197.
19 ERE., xi, 54Ì. P. Dörfler, “ Anfänge,” pp. i n , 112, “ So
begegnen uns seit dem 4. Jahrhundert die Formeln,” etc.
20 R. A. Nicholson, “ Mysticism,” pp. 38, 78.
21 ERE. xi, pp. 63, 68.
22 M . Horten, “ Islam,” vol. i, p. 157.
28 DA. S., section 12. M. Fy., section 23. Ava.-ça., i, 3 .7 .
Lai. F ., 438.6. Çiksâ, 297. 4
24 Su. Fy., 76.8. Lai. F ., 366.19. Mtu., ii, 323.14.
Kar. Pu., 2 .1 .
25 M. Fy., section 23. Sad. Pu., 47,2.
26 On the Bhägavatas and Krsna, cf. Chändogya Upanisad, iii, 1 7 .6
(p. 185, “ Krsnäya devakUputräya” ). A. Barth, “ Religions.” p. 166.
A. B. Keith in JRAS 1915, pp. 548, 841. H. Raychaudhuri,
“ Materials,” pp. 19 ff. ERE. ii, 540 ff.
27 Between 305 and 297 b.c. (“ Camb. Ind.,” i, 472).
11
28 J. W . McCrindle, “ India,” p. 201, . 1-3.
29 Cf. S. Sorensen, “ An Index to the Names in the Makäbhärata
p. 203 (London, 1904).
80 R. G . Bhandarkar, “ Sects.,” pp. 116, 117.
11
81 J. M . McCrindle, “ India,” p. 200, . 5 £
82 “ Camb. Ind.,” i, 225.
88 Ibid., p. 518.
84 Ibid., p. 335. P. V . N. Myers, “ General History,” p. 61
(Boston, 1919).
85 JRAS. 1915, pp. 63 ff. ; 1916, pp. 138 £ ; 1916, pp. 362 ff.
86 V . A. Smith, “ Asoka,” pp. 140 ff.
87 J. H. Moulton, “ Zoroastrianism,” pp. 96 ff. A. J. Carnoy,
“ Iranian Mythology,” pp. 260, 261 (Boston, 1917). Zend-avesta,
SBE., vol. xxiii, pp. 4, 203.
88 R . G . Bhandarkar, “ Sects,” pp. 15 3 , 15 7 .
39 It has been suggested that this epithet only refers to the descent
o f the Çâkya family from the sun. Even if this were so, it would show
that the solar myth had already influenced genealogy. Mara is called
33 * TH E B O D H IS A T T V A D O C T R IN E
Krsna-bandhu, So it is probable that äditya-bandhu did not refer
only to Gautama Buddha’s ancestry. (Cf. E. J. Thomas, “ Buddha,”
p. 217.)
40 R. G . Bhandarkar, “ Sects,” p. 153.
41 On Gandhära art and Buddhism, cf. A. Foucher, “ Art,” voi. ii,
pp. 278-336, 407-21. “ Le GandhSra, sitôt converti, allait rester
jusqu’à l’invasion des Musulmans l’une des terres d’élection du
Bouddhisme” (p. 411). “ La fusion des deux éléments . . . le grec
et le bouddhique” (p. 443).
42 H. G . Rawlinson, “ Intercourse,” p. 163.
43 A. J. Edmunds, “ Gospels,” p. 41.
44 H. G . Rawlinson, “ Intercourse,” p. 174. E. W . Hopkins,
“ India,” p. 124.
45 H. G . Rawlinson, “ Intercourse,” p. 142. E. J. Thomas,
“ Buddha,” p. 237.
43 H. G . Rawlinson, “ Intercourse,” p. 177. A. Lillie, “ Buddhism,”
P- * - 33
47 R. Garbe, “ Christentum,” pp. 128 ff. E. W . Hopkins, “ India,”
p. 141. A. E. Medlycott, “ Thomas,” p. 16.
48 Eusebius, “ History,” p. 178, U. 5 if. (“ he advanced even as far
as India” ).
49 R. Garbe, “ Christentum,” p. 150. A. J. Edmunds, “ Gospels,”
p. 42.
60 JRAS. 1911, p. 800.
51 V . A. Smith, “ Asoka,” p. 43.
52 Cf. H. G . Rawlinson, “ Intercourse,” p. 178. A. J. Edmunds,
“ Gospels,” pp. 53 £F. R. Garbe, “ Christentum,” pp. 179 ff. E. J.
Thomas, “ Buddha,” pp. 237 ff. R. Seydel, “ Legende,” pp. 1 1 -1 5 ,
22-33. G.., A. v.d. Bergh v. Eysinga, “ Einflüsse,” pp. 2 1-6 4 :
(“ Indische Überlieferung höchst wahrscheinlich bereits die altchristliche
Evangeliendarstellung beinflusst h a t” ), p. 102.
53 ERE. vii, 568b. “ Barlaam and Ioasaph,” p. v.
54 E. W . Hopkins, “ India,” pp. 152-62. “ T h e parallels here
given are almost too close in thought as in diction to have sprung from
two independent sources ” (p. 157). “ Buddhism borrowed from
Hinduism, Hinduism in turn from Buddhism, and both probably from
Christianity” (p. 161). F. Lorinser, Gita, pp. 267 ff. “ Die Lehren
der Bhagavad-gîtï . . . mit aus dem Christenthum herübergenommenen
Ideen und Sentenzen zum mindesten stark versetzt sind.” “ Der
Verfasser der Bhagavad-gitä auch Einsicht in die Schriften des Neuen
Testamentes genommen.”
55 Cf. note No. 52 above.
56 J. E. Carpenter, “ Theism,” p. T/.
57 Majjhima, i, 17.6*, i, 1 1 4 .2 4 ; i, 163.9*
68 Kathä-vatthü, xxiii, 3, p. 623 ; iv, 7, 8, pp. 283-90.
NOTES TO CHAPTER II 333
59 M . WaUeser, Pr. Pä . tr., p. 4. W . McGovern, “ Outlines,”
p. 20. K. J. Saunders, “ Epochs,” p. xiv Taranâtha, p. 58.
60 M. Fy., sections 26, 28, 29.
61 £0. Bkü., fol. ioo/$.2. p&ra, 7.17. 2>a. Pia., 21,15.
82 Çtksâ, 286.
63 p'i/a, 194 ff. 6W. Pa., 1 1 . 13. Çisya-lekka, 68 ff.
Kar . Pa., 104.19.
84 PTar. Pa., 101 ff. Ksemendra, i, 903.61. Pr Pa. fa/a„
1531 f f, 1415 ff.
85 f/£/a, 14.
66 D à. S.y section 12.
67 C. Eliot, “ Hinduism and Buddhism,” voi. ii, p. 19.
88 E. W . Hopkins, “ Origin and Evolution of Religion,” p. 325
(New Haven, 1923).
69 JRAS. 1927, p. 241.
70 J. Edkins, “ Chinese Buddhism,” p. 382 (London, 1880^
71 E. J. Thomas, JRAS. 1929, p. 359.
72 X. J. Saunders, “ The Gospel for Asia,” p. 71 (London, 1928).
73 M . Winternitz, “ Problems,” p. 38.
74 JRAS. 1915,-p. 403; 1906, p. 464.
CHAPTER IH
Notes
1 Da. Bhü., i l .
2 Bo. Bhü., fo l 4a ff. M. S. A l., io ff.
8 Bo. Bhü., fol. 120a ff.
4 M. Fy., section 6 i.
5 B.C. Ava., Canto ii. Çiksâ., 58, 290.
6 D i. S., section 14.
11 11
7 Angüttara, iy, 373, . 7 ff.; v, 23, . 7 ff.
11
8 Majjhtma, iii, 256, . 7 ff.
11
9 Buggaia, \%, . 30 ff.
10 G . K. Sastri, “ A Treatise on Hindu Law,” p. 88 (Calcutta,
1927). H. S. Gour, “ T h e HindiKCode,” p. 281 (Calcutta, 1923).
11 Majjhima, i, 12 (dhamma-däyädä). Dtgha, iii, 84 {putto oraso
mukhato jSto). Itimttaka, 101 (putta orasä mukhato jäta).
12 “ Le Muséon,” 1905, p. 4. P. Oltramare, “ Bouddhique,”
P- 392* '
18 Da. Bhü., 7 1 .1 9 .
14 The details in this sentence are given on the authority o f L . de la
Vallée Poussin, “ Le Muséon,” 1905, p. 4.
15 Bo. Bhü., fo l 4*7. 1 .1 . (dharma-Samâdâna-gurukah samparàya-
gurukah).
16 Bo. Bhü., fol. 4*7. 1 .2 (anumâtresv-avadyesu bhaya-darçî).
17 .1
Bo. Bhü., fol. 4*7.2 (kalaha-bhandana-vigraha-vwâdesu).
18 Bo. Bhü., fol. 4*7.2.i (akrtyât).
19 Bo. Bhü., fol. 4*7.3.2 (ârdra-cittah, bhadratâ, satya-gurukah)
20 Bo. Bhü., fol. 4*7.4. i (guna-priyah).
21 Bo. Bhü., fol. 4 *7 .5 .1.2 (paresâm aniikâd afakäram labdhvä
nâghâta-cittatâm pràviskarotï).
82 Bo. Bhü., fol. 4*7.7.2 (prakrtyä utthänavän bhavati . . .
abhibhüy-*äkartukämatäm âlasyam pratisankhyâya prayujyate).
23 Bo. Bhü., fol. 4*7.8.2—3 (dfdha-niçcayo; bhogänäm arjane raksané).
24 Bo. Bhü., fol. 4 J . 1 . 2 (näpy-ätmänam paribhavati; nâtyartham
khedam âpadyati).
25 Bo. Bhü., fol. 4 Ì .3 .2 (sukham vata naisiramyam; aranya-
vana-prasthânànï).
26 Bo. Bhü., fol. 4 Ì .4 .1 (prakftya manda-ileço manda-nwaranc
manda-daustkülyah).
27 Bo.* Bhü., fol. 4 ^ .4 .2 (papaia asad-vitarkâh).
334
NOTES TO CHAPTER III 335
28 Bo. Bhü., fol. 120 4 .3.1.
29 Bo. R£«., fol. 120 4 .4 .1.
30 Af. 8 . ^/., i i . 9.
31 Af. R. ALy i i . 14.
32 Rr. Ri«., fol. $4.2 (kleç-àbhyâsàt tivra-kleçatââyatana-kleçatâca).
33 Bo. Bkü.y fol. «>£.2.1-2 (müdhasy-äkugalasya f afa-mitra-
awprtfytfi).
34 2?0. Ri«., fol. 5 4 .2 .2 -3 (räjä-caura-pratyarthik-ädy-abhibhütasy-
äsvätantryam $ citta-vibhramaç cd).
35 R ö. Ri«.,fol. 5 4 .2 .3 ,3 .1 . M . 8 . Al.y 11,2 5 (ufakarana-vìkalasy-
äßvik-äpeksd).
38 Rr. Ri«., fol. 5 4 .3 .3 , 4*2, 5• i («</&« eva aviparita-bodhi-
mirga-daiçikam mitrami na çitkila-prayogo kusîdd).
37 Rr. Ri«., fol. 5« .5.2 (Jps parimucyaté).
38 R0. Ri«., fol. 5^. 5.3 (»« rtf tathä twräm âpâyikîm duhkha-
vedanäm vedayate).
39 Bo. Bhü.y fol. 5tf.6.3 {kärunya-cittam pratilabhate).
40 Bo. Bhü.y fol. 5 * .2 .3 , 3 .1 , 3.2 (bkadram kalyänam
çukla-paksya- . . . samanvägatam ; çresthasy-âcintyasy-âcalasy-
änuttarasya tathägatasya padasya).
41 Af. 8. ALy i i . 19.
42 Af. S. ALy 127.18 .
48 Bo. Bhü.y fol. 120 4 .7.2 , 6 .3 .
44 Bo. Bhü.y fol. I2 itf• i • i.
45 2 4
Bo. Bhü.y fol. 1 2 1 4 .3 .3 ; I I Ì . .I.
48 Bo. Bhü.y fol. I 2 l£ .6 . i. Çiksây 7 .19 . Da. Bhü.y 1 1 .1 2 .
47 jDi. 8 .y section 14. B.C. Ava.y Canto ii. Çiksa9 i ó i , 169, 313.
43 B.C. Ava.y ii, 24. T he word, which is translated as “ atom ” ,
is am. This is a very small measure o f length. A yojana is equal to
about 7 miles (as much as can be travelled with one yoke of oxen), and
it contains 79 X 384000 anus. {Lai. V.y 149 ; W . Kirfel, “ Kosmologie,”
P- 335 *)
49 B.C. Ava.y ii, 26, 48, 49. Cf. Dtgha, i, 8 5,1.13 . Khuddaka-
11
päthüy p. I. Anguttara, i, 5 6 , . 8-9. Triratna may also be rendered
as “ Triple Jewel” , but the Dh. S. speaks of trini ratnani.
58 Ava.-ça.y i, 3 0 1 .4 ; and passim.
51 B.C. Ava.y ii, 28 £F. Paçunâ. This reading is supported by the
B.C. Ava. Pka.y which adds the comment : “ moha-bahulatäm ätmano
darçayati ” (shows his own excessive folly), (p. 59.)
52 B.C. Ava.y ii, 33 ff.
68 Pgveda, vii, 86 (vol. iv, pp, 212 ff.) {kimäga äsa Varuna . . .
pra tan me voco . . . etc.). Bhagavad-gitây xi, 42, 44, 45 (prasîda
deveça jagan-nivâsay etc. pp. 166, 167, Ânandâçrama Series, 1908).
84 Dîghay i, 85. Cf. Samyutta9 iv, 317 ff. {GSmini-samyutta9
section 8). Majjhima9 i, 440.
336 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
55 Ksemendrat ii, 697.21; i, 1077. Çiksâ, 58.15, 290.2,
119.4, 170.20, 156.6, 161 ff. B .C . Ava. Pka., 153, 13. 16 ff.
56 B .C . Ava., iii, 1-3.
57 B.C. Ava., iii, 4-5.
58 D à . S., section 14.
59 The two words “ pains and sorrows ” in the translation stana
for only one word in the original, duhkha. B .C. Ava., iii, 6 ff.
60 L. de la Vallée Poussin translates : 44tant qu’il y aura des maladies ”
(B.C. Ava. tr., p. 18). The text is: “ yävad rog-äpunar-bhavah”
(Üi, 7).
61 L. de la Vallée Poussin renders vyathä as 44le feu ” . B.ut it is
preferable to translate literally.
62 utpräsaka (iii, 16). A rare word. The B .C . Ava. Pka. explains :
44upahäsakä vidamba-kârino va ” (p. 83, 1. 11). Monier Williams
translates utpräsa as 44violent burst of laughter, ridicule ” (Dicy.
1524). Böhtlingk and Roth cite only one passage from the Sâhhya-
darpana.
63 Sankrama. Böhtlingk and Roth cite several passages from the
Râmâyana, in which it means 44Brücke, Steg über ein Wasser ” , The
B .C. Ava. Pka. gives no explanation.
bhadr-ghata. The B .C . Ava. Pka. explains: 44y ad y ad vasto-
abhilasìtam abhisandkäy-äsmin hastam praksipet tat sarvani sampadyate.”
Böhtlingk and Roth give no explanation. L. de la Vallée Poussin
translates : “ une eruche miraculeuse.” But Monier Williams gives the
technical sense (also A. A. Macdonnell)
Siddha-vidyä. L. de la Vallée Poussin translates : “ une formule
souveraine.” The B .C . Ava. Pka . explains : 44siddha-mantrah yad-yat
karma tayä kriyate tat sarvam sidhyati.” Böhtlingk and Roth cite
a passage, in which it means 44Die Lehre der Glückseligen ” . L. D.
Barnett translates : 44a spell of power ” Käma-dhenu : “ cow of plenty ”
(L. D. Barnett, “ Path,” p. 45).
64 D. T. Suzuki, 44Outlines,” pp. *311, 303.
35 M . Anesaki, ERE. v, 450. Cf. L. de la Vallée Poussin’s critical
remarks in JRAS. 1908, p. 891.
66 Lka., p. 46, verse 106; p. 158, verse 38.
67 Saund. K ä., xv, 26; xviii, 27. Lai. V ., 412.13. Çiksâ, 2.4.
B .C. Ava., ix, 163; iv, 15, 16, 20. Avança., ii, 181.13. Çisya-
lekha, verses 61-3. Su. Vy., 73.9, 75.9.
68 M. Vy., section 120. Çisya-Iekba adds u mlecchas ” (verse 62),
These are called the eight aksanas. Cf. S. Yamakami, 44 Systems,”
p. 92.
69 Sad. Pu., 3 19 .i l . Çiksâ, 2.5. Avança., i, 230.5.
70 Sad. Pu., 463.4. Saund. K ä ., xvîii, 27. B .C . Ava., iv, 20.
The passage translated is taken from the Majjhima-Nikâya (iii, 169).
Cf. H. De’s note in JPTS. 1906-7, p. 174.
NOTES TO CHAPTER: Ili * I** ~ *
337
71 U L F ., 1 7 3 .1 ff.
78 J ä . Mä.j 226.23. K sem ndra,i, 615.34.
73 5^* 227.1.
74 Ibid., 227.3.
75 Ibid., 227.5.
73 Ibid., 227.8.
77 Divy.y 27, 100, 486.
78 ,7*. M*., 228.10.
79 Ibid, 228.14 ff., 2 3 1.1.
80 Ibid., 226.17, 226.24, 231.3.
81 287.14.
82 Ibid., 228.1-5.
83 Ibid., 8.12, 288.6.
84 Ibid., 288.8.
85 Ibid., 288.11, 289.1.
86 Bo. Bhü., 98Æ. 1.2.
87 Ibid., 98^.2.2, 3.3.
88 Ibid., 7*.5.2.
89 Ibid., 7^.3• 3, 98^.3.i.
90 These arç the five kasäyas, which are signs of degeneracy. A
Buddha is bom to counteract them. Cf. Kar. Pa., 16 ; Su. Fy., 99 ;
Sad. Pu., 43 ; Lai. F ., 248.13 ; Çiksà., 60; M . Fy., section 124;
D à . S ., section 91, etc. The Pâli word may literally mean “ an
astringent decoction of a plant ” ; it means “ astringent ” when applied
to taste, and “ pungent ” when applied to smell (Finaya, i, 277,11. 4-5 :
u nipacci kasäva-vannam kasäva-gandham kasäva-rasam ” ). The old Pâli
form is basava (Pâli Dicy., s.v.). Bóhtlingk and Roth cite several
passages from Suçruta, in which it means “ a decoction” . But it is
difficult to understand the transition from this meaning to the figurative
sense, “ evils, fundamental faults, calamities ” . The Tibetan equivalent
is snigs-ma, which means “ sediment, impurity or defilement in food ;
impurity ” (Tib. Dicy., 501). The Chinese equivalent means “ mud99
(M. S . A l. tr., p. 78). Böhtlingk and Roth also cite several passages,
in which kasäya signifies “ sediment, impurity99(e.g. Chändogya Upanisad,
vii, 26.2, p. 43 5 : “ tasrnat mrdita-kasäyäya tamasas parata darçayati
bhagavän ” ). It is probable that the Buddhist technical term is related
to kasäya in this sense (and not to the meaning “ decoction ” ). It has
been rendered as “ calamities” , “ les cinq fanges,” “ les dégéné
rescences,” “ attachments,” “ depravities,” etc. (ERE. i, 189^, etc.).
The five kasäyas are enumerated as äyuh-kasäya, drsti-, kleça-, sauva-,
k a l p a These five show signs of degeneracy. The Jainas employ this
term in the sense of “ sin” , “ passion,” and reckon four kasäyas:
krodha “ anger ” , mäna “ pride ” , mäyä “ deception or illusion ” , and
lobha “ avarice ” : (J. Jaini, “ Outlines,” p. 94). Cf. ZJttarädhyayana-
sütra, 31.6 “ vigahä kasäya sannänam ” (p, 216).
z
338 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
91 Su. Fy., 15. Lai. V ., 124.22, 181.5. J ä . M ä„ 36.19.
Da. Bhû., h . 13, etc.
92 B .à . Ava., iii, 22.23.
93 Bo. Bhü., fol. 6*, 2.2 to 3.1.
94 Bo. Bhü., fol. 6a, 4 .1.
' 95 B .C . Ava., i, 35.
96 Dh. S., section 15.
97 Çiksâ., 356.1. 2?.C. Ava., i, 19. Bo. Bhü., 9*. 5.1.
98 Br. Bä. Asta., 437.
99 ÇiÂfâ., 9.7» 10.5.
100 Mtu., i, 104, 2.
101 Bo. Bhü., fol 6a, 5.2.
102 Mtu., ü, 368.5 ff.
103 Mtu., i, 40, 97.
104 Mtu., i, 83.
105 Bo. Bhü., fol. 90b, 2.3, 3.1.
los jya phü., 12. i.
107 Bo. Bhü., fol qb, 3 .1, 4 .1, 5.1. Taksa : “ name of certain
mythical beings or demi-gods, who are attendants on Kuvera, the god
of wealth, and employed in the care of his garden and treasures . . .
they correspond to the genii or fairies of the fairy-tales . . . Historically,
they are remnants of an ancient demonology” (Pâli Dicy.).
108 Bo. Bhü., fol. io a, 1.2.
109 Bo. Bhü., fol. 8a, 6 .2 to 8h, 2.3.
110 Bo. Bhu., fol. 6a, 4.2 (parama-bhadra parataa-kalyâna).
111 B .C . Ava., i, 10; iii, 27 ff. M. S. A I., 16.
1X2 Bo. Bhü., fol. 6b, 4.2:
1X3 Bo. Bhü., fol. 6b, 5.1.
tu Çiksâ., 8.15. B .C . Ava., i, 15.
113 Bhü., fol. 6b, 6 ,* ,7a, 2.
116 Bo. Bhü., fob 7 a, 2.1.
117 Çiksâ., 6, 8.
118 M . S. A L, 15.2. Bo. Bhü., fol 7b, 2.3. Avança., i, 211.5.
Br. Bä. Asta., 396.3.
119 Bo. Bhü., fol. 7b, 4.2, 5 .1, 5.3.
120 Sam. Bä., fol. 112Ì, 1. ï.
121 Br. Bä. Çatà., 937 ff.
12s p r p$m Çata., 1185 ff. Bo. Bhü., fol. 8b, 4.2.
123 Da. Bhü., 13.21.
»i?4 B .C . Ava., v, 102 ff.
125 Bo. Bhü., fol 8a, 1. 4, section 3.
*28 Ibid., fol. 8a, 5.1.
127 Ibid., fol. 8a, 5.2.
128 Ibid., fol. 8a, 5.3.
129 p r p g Çata., 1263.19. Bo. Bhü., fol. 8b, 5 .3 ."
NOTES TO CHAPTER III 339
«o Bo. B h ü fol. 8h, 6 .1 .
131 11
Bo. Bhü., fol. 9a, . I, 2, 3.
132 B .C . Ava., iv, 4.
133 P.C. Ava., iii, 25 ff.
134 P.C. Ava., iv, 12.
135 Pr. Pa. Asta., 328.1, ff.
136 Çiksâ., 67.15.
137 Pr. Ptf. Asta., 435.2.
188 D. T. Suzuki, “ Outlines,” *p. 307.
139 J A . 1 8 8 1 , p. 4 7 6 , 11 . 5 - 7 .
149 M . S. A L, 147*25.
141 Dh. S., section 112.
142 Pr. Pâ. Asja., 435.7 ff
143 Ava.-ça., i, 4 . 1 ; i, 10.1, etc.
144 Lai. V ., 161.19, 163.16, 175*13» 361.3 ff*» 167.14, 399.17»
4 1 4 .1.
145 Su. Fy.y u f f .
146 Samyaktva (Pâli : fammattd). It is one of the three räsis of Psii
literature. In the Abhidhamm* literature, three räsis (“ accumulations ” )
are spoken of, viz.*: micchatta-niyato rasi, sammatta-niyato rasi, and
aniyato rasi (“ wrong-doing entailing immutable evil results ” 5 “ well
doing entailing immutable good results” ; and “ everything not so
determined ” ). (Pâli Dicy.) (Cf. Bo. Bhü., 84^, 4.)
Kathâvatthu, xxi, 8, p. 611 (“ sabbe kammâ niyatâ //,” etc.).
147 Su. Vy., 1 1 . 21.
148 jDa. Bhü., 14.10 ff. Çiksâ., 291 . u f f . For a literal translation
of this long passage, 'see Çiksâ. tr., pp. 265 ff.
149 W. H. D. Rouse translates “ place” (Çikçâ. tr., p. 266.11),
but bhümi in Buddhist Sanskrit means “ stage” (of a bodhisattva's
career).
150 W. H. D. Rouse translates “ animal world ” ; but sattva means
“ living being” .
161 Ksemendra, ii, 667.93, 159.26, 107.52, etc.
152 p/[. fry 9 sections 34, 26, 27.
138 Sad. Pu., 65.3, ff.
164 vidy-äcarana-sampannah. This phrase may also be translated
“ endowed with knowledge and good conduct” . Lord Chalmers
translates rather freely: “ walking by knowledge” (Majjh. tr., i, 45).
anuttarah. This word should be construed with the following
phrase. The M . Vy. puts them together (section r, p. 2a). Some
scholars take anuttarah as a separate epithet.
155 Ava.-çâ., i, 7.2 ff.; i, 12.16 ff., etc.
158 M. S . A l., 166.3.
157 Divy ., *50.18/
158 p r pâ. Asta., 212.
340 TH E B O D H IS A T T V A D O C T R IN E
.,162 On the five gaits, see Divy., 124.15. Saund. K.3 ., xi, 62. Ava.-
pa i, 16.12. Kar. Pu., 67.1. B .C. Ava. P&*., 589.15, etc.
Prêtas. They are not merely “ ghosts of the dead” as A. B.
Keith assumes (“ Indian Mythology,” p. 203. Boston, 1917). They
are a special class of beings, born in a state of woe.
163 On the six gatis and the asuras, see Lka., 347 ; Mtu., i, 30 ;
Çiksâ., 253 ; Divy., 394.10 ; Çisya-lekhâ, 99 ; K ä. Fy., 16.3 ; Da.
Bhü., 62.g ; Ava.-ça., i, 215.5, etc*
164 Cf. Çatapatha-Brâhmana, ii, 3.3.9 (tka vai punar-mrtyum
mueyate, p. 94); x, 1.4 .14 (p. 510) “ yajamanah punar-mftyum
apajayatv” etc. (Vedic Press, Ajmer, samvat 1959.)
165 ERE, xii, 434Æ.
166 Baniyutta, ii, 178 ff. (u Anamataggâyam bhikkhave samaro ” ). Cf.
L. de la Vallée Poussin, “ Nirvâna,” pp. 34 ff. ; C. A. F. Rhys Davids,
“ Psychology,” pp. 244 ff.
167 Skandha (Pali : Khandhd). This word is derived from the root
skand “ to rise ” , and literally means 44shoulder ” , “ upper part of the
back ” ; hence “ trunk ” of a tree, “ bulk or mass in general,” “ heap,”
44ingredients or parts,” 44constituent elements,” 44sensorial aggregates.”
It has also been translated as 44les épaules ” , 44les appuis ” , 44les troncs ” ,
“ supports ” , 44Daseinselemente ” , 46les Branches ” , etc.
168 Mtu., iii, 335.
169 L. de la Vallée Poussin, “ Opinions,” pp. 81, 168. Le Muséon,
1905, p. 51. S. Konow, “ Lehrbuch,” ii, 112. E. Bumouf, “ Int.,”
pp. 423, 449, 573. Nyânatiloka, Aûguttara tr., i, 285; SBE., vol. x,
pt. i, p. 56, note. Th. Stcherbatsky, “ Conception,” p. 20.
H. Hackmann, 44Buddhism,” p. 13. F. L. Woodward, “ Sayings,”
p. 29. H. Beckh, “ Buddhismus,” ii, 81. S. Lévi, M. S. A L, tr. p. 47.
E. Senart, RHR. 1900, tome 42, p. 351. C. H. Warren, “ Buddhism,”
p. 116. O. C. J. Rosenberg, “ Probleme,” ii, 212. K. E. Neumann,
Majjh. tr., ii, 249. K. J. Saunders, “ Epochs,” p. 5. H. Oldenberg,
“ Buddha,” p. 274. M. Walleser, Pr. Pâ. tr., p. 6. T . W. Rhys Davids,
“ Buddhism,” p. 156. Sïlâcâra, Majjh. tr., p. 1 26. “ Dialogues,” ii, 196,
ii, 335 ; iii, 211, 204. J. S. Speyer, J â . Ma. tr., p. 324. E. J. Thomas,
“ Buddha,” p. 89. H. Kern, “ Manual,” pp. 47, 51. S. Dasgupta,
‘'Voga,” p. 98. R. Franke, Dïgha, pp. 307 ff. R. Garbe, Sânkhya, p. 269.
R. Chalmers, Majjh. tr., i, 95. M. Winternitz, “ Lesebuch,” pp. 223,
239, 251. F. Heiler, “ Versenkung,” p. i x. D. T. Suzuki,64Outlines,”
p* 150. P. Oltramare, “ Bouddhique,” p. 161. P. Foucaux, Lai. V. tr.,
P' 349- SBE., vol. xiii, p. 76. Th. Stcherbatsky,44Nirvana,” pp. 184,
197.’ C. F. Koeppen, “ Buddha,” i, 603. C. A f F. Rhys Davids,
44Psychology,” p. 51 ; “ Sakya,” p. 378, etc.
NOTES TO CHAPTER III 341
170 “ Compendium,” pp. 94 £ D. T . Suzuki, “ Outlines,” p. 151.
171 A. B. Keith, “ Philosophy,” p, 86.
172 R. O. Franke, Dtgha, p. 311.
173 P. Oltramare, “ Bouddhique,” p. 161, note.
174 Samyutta, iii, 87, II. 8 £ (khandha-saqtyutta).
175 Digha^ iii, 217. Samyutta, ii, 82, 11. 9 £
176 Dkamma-sangant, section 62, p. 18.
177 Abhidharma-koça, i, 15*2 (voi. i, p. 28).
178 Af. Fy., section 104.
179 Milinda, p. 61, 1. 20.
180 Th. Stcherbatsky, “ Conception,” p. 20.
181 C. A. F. Rhys Davids, “ Gotama,” p. 35. JRAS. 1927, p. 201.
182 Dhamma-sangani, section 63.
183 Abhidharma-koça, i, i6<z (vol. i, pp. 30-1).
184 Mdh., 366, 341. Fajra, 25, 21. Da. B k i i 55, 49. Af. 5 .
154. 68. Pr. Pâ. Çata., 1509. Saund. K S., xviii, 15, etc.
185 Lai. F ., 419.5 £ M tu., iii, 335.12 £ , 338, 447.
is« i/[ pry 9 section 208. Pr. PS. Çata., 472, 522.
187 Mdh. 347.12, 349.9. Pr. PS. Çata., 582. 242. S .C
ix, 78.
188 Lka., 253. Avança., i, 85.10; i, 292.12; ii, 75.11. D a
Bhü., 39. M. S. A l., 34. Mdh., 340, 361. Kar. P u /. /fë.
47. j§.C. ix, 78 £
189 Pr. PS. Asta., 431.2.
190 Ava.-ça., ii, 7 5 .ix, and passim. E. Burnouf, MIni,” p. 235.
Af. section 209.
191 Ksemendra, i, 659.53. y * . Af*., passim.
192 D*. 35. Lai. V ., 345, etc.
193 BrhadSranyaka Upd., ii, 5.1. Kafka Upd., i, 3 -15 ; i, 2.22.
Mundaka Upd., i, 1.6, etc.
194 St. John, iv, 24.
195 Dîgha, ii, 63.2 £
196 Samyutta i, 122.10 £ ; iii, 124.9
197 M . S. A l., 185. ÇikçS., 13. M t u ii, 362, 364.
198 jWVjy î 9 . i
199 £*. 2Mf., fol/ 137A, 6.2-3. ^ Ä 183-
200 Cf. Tkera-gStkä, verse 112, p. 16 ; verse n $ , p. 16; verse 493,
p. 51, etc. Dtgha, ii, 314-15. M ajjh., ii, 103.
20x Ava.-ça., ii, 7 1 .7 ; ii, 117.9.
202 Ava.-ça., i, 128.65 i, 133.10; i, 162.4.
203 Da. Bhü., 46, 54. Sad. Pu., 207.10, 263.10, 312.1, Lai. V .,
124.18, 130.5, 151.20, 271.9, 282.4. M. S. A l., 9,
204 M tu., i, 55.8; i, 57.5. Lai. V ., 215.6. Sad. Pu., 200.1a
Af. S. A L , 33. Pr. PS. Asta., 518.12.
205 ÇiksS.,*97.12. M . Fy., section 249.
342 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
206 Mdk., 431.5. M . S. A i.9 171. Jva.-ça., i, 7. Bo. BAü., fol.
138*, 4 .1.
207 W. Kirfel, “ Kosmographie,” p. 336. S. Hardy, “ Manual,” p. 6.
202 M. Rémusat, “ Mélanges posthumes d’Histoire et de Littérature
Orientales,” p. 69, 1. 8 (Paris, 1843);
209 w . Kirfel, “ Kosmographie,” p. 336. S. Hardy, “ Manual,”
p. 6.
210 “ Buddhist Birth Stories,” vol. i, p. 28 (London, 1880).
211 L. de la Vallée Poussin, “ Opinions,” p. 294 ; “ Morale,” p. 224.
212 J. E. Carpenter, “ Theism,” p. ór.
218 Lai. P .9 147. Abhidharma~koça9 iii, 93^-04^, pp. 189-90.
M . F y section 249.
214 Abkiâkarma-koça, iii, 8 9 ^ - 9 3 pp. i8r ff. Anguttara, ii, 142,
section 156.
215 Mtu.y i, 77.
CHAPTER IV
N otes
375
CHAPTER VII
Notes
1 Mtu., i, 239. Lai. F ., 393.12, 414.19. Pr. Pâ. Aspa., 368.
2 M tu., i, 38.
3 Mtu., i, 49 ff
4 M tu., i, 47. ^
5 Ksemendra, ii, 931.
6 Lai. V ., 19.7. M tu., ii, I.
7 Mtu., i, 197. Lai. V ., 25.5 ff., 23.10 fF.
8 Lai. F ., 26.15 ff., 28.16.
9 Dïgha, i, 1 1 5 (“ samano khalu bho Gotamo ubkato sujâto,” etc.).
10 Lai. V ., 55.3 ff. M tu., ii, 8.17.
11 Mtu., iii, 4 11 . 4. Ksemendra, i, 665.7.
12 E. Senart, “ Légende,” pp. 254, 255.
18 W. Windisch “ Geburt” , pp. 176, 182.
14 A. de Gubernatis, “ Zoological Mythology,” *ii, p. 92 (London,
1872).
15 “ Indian Mythology,” p. 195 (Boston, 1917). J. S. Speyer has
discussed thè question in ZD M G . 1903, pp. 305-10. In the sculptures
of Bharhut and Bara-budur, the elephant has only two tusks. J. S.
Speyer is of opinion that the Pâli word chaddanto means “ Zähmer der
Sechs ” (danto to be derived from “ dam ” ). He rejects the hypothesis
that “ six” may refer to the six rival teachers, who are mentioned in
the Pali canon. He thinks that the word denotes the six organs of sense,
and says : “ Wenn von einem Zähmer der Sechs die Rede ist, soll
man doch zunächst an die fünf Sinnesorgane und das manas denken.”
The epithet was then applied to the elephant and misunderstood as
meaning “ six-tusked” . But this explanation does not seem to be
grammatically sound.
M tu., i, 213. Lai. V ., 60 ff
17 M tu., i, 218.10 ff Lai. V ., 83.10.
18 Lai. V ., 85.1 ff.
19 M tu., i, 207. Divy, 205. Lai. V ., 85.14.
20 Lai. V ., 98.8. M tu., ii, 3.9.
21 E. Senart, “ Légende,” j ?. 267.
22 E. Senart, “ Legende,” p. 243.
23 T . Keightley, “ The Mythology of Ancient Greece and Italy,”
p. 102 (London, 1896).
24 L. Spence, “ An Introduction to Mythology,” pp. 133-4 (London,
1921).
376
NOTES TO CHAPTER VII 377
25 P. Ehrenreich “ Die Allgemeine Mythologie,” p. 146 (Leipzig,
1910).
26 Açvalâyana Grhya-sütra, i, 7.19 (“ ath-ainäm . . . sapta-padäny-
abhyutkrämayatietc.: p. 33, Bibliotheca Indica Series).
27 ikf/«., ii, 20.18.
22 B . C/., i, 33.
29 E. Windisch, “ Geburt,” p. 132, note.
80 T. Keightley, op. cit., p. 103. J. H. Philpott, “ The Sacred
Tree,” p. n 8 (London, 1897).
81 Lai. F ., 120.3.
82 Lai, F ., 125.19 ff
88 Lai. F.> 156.
84 Lai. F .f 122.7.
85 Lai. F.> 145.4 ff.
86 Lai. F 153.1 ff.
87 Lai. F.y 105.u ff. M. Fy ., section 17. Dh. S ., section 83.
ii, 29.19 ff. Ksemendra, i, 669.29 ff. (Cf. Dtgka, ii, 17;
iii, 142.) The items Nos. 21 and 22 may also be interpreted thus:
“ He has one hair to each pore, and his hair rises straight upward and
curls to the right.” But the M. Fy. says : “ Each hair curls to the right
and the hairs rise upward.” The list in the M. Fy. agrees with that
given in the Lai. F. The M. Fy. has only sama-laläta (No. 3) ; the
mark No, 7 is divided into two items ; the items 5 and 6 are given as
one mark ; 'the adjective in No. 9 is suçükla (very white) ; tie feet are
not described as “ even ” (sama) ; the wheel is both on the hands and
the feet, and it is not described. These are the chief points of difference
between the M. Fy. and the Lai. F . The Dh. S. really mentions more
than thirty-two signs. The hands are also described as “ well-set” .
Several new items are added : e.g. a “ straight body ” , “ a white jaw ” ,
“ the gait of a swan” . The tongue is not described as “ slender”
{tanti) ; the skin is “ white ” instead of “ fine ” (süksmd) ; the wheel
is on both the hands and the feet. These are the chief points of difference
between the Lai. F . and the Dh. S. Tfi.e Mtu. describes the signs
by short adjectives, some of which cannot'be clearly understood.
38 E. Bumouf, “ Lotus,” p. 553.. “ Sa tête est couronnée par
une protubérance du crâne.” E. Senart, “ Légende,” p. 126.
39 E. Senart, “ Légende,” p. 128.
40 Ibid., p. 134.
41 Ibid., pp. 139-40.
42 A. Grünwedel, “ Art,” p. 67, 1. 10.
43 Dh. S., section 84. M. Fy., section 18. Miu.> ii, 43.
Lai. F.y 106. The eighty minor marks (anuvyanjanâni) are not very
important. Some of them'may be mentioned here. The nails are of
the colour of copper ; the fingers are round and beautiful ; ’ the gait is
like that of a lion, an elephant, a swan and a bull (!) ; the abdomen is
378 THE BODHISATTVA DOCTRINE
deep ; the lines of the hand are soft, deep, long and straight ; the lips
are red ; the voice is sweet and pleasant ; the ears are equal in size ;
etc. For a complete list in English and French, see Dh. S ., pp. 55 ff.,
and P. Foucaux, Lai. V '. tr., pp. 96 ff.
44 Rämäyana, p. 1 (i, x .9-10-11).
45 Dïgha, i, 9 (section 21), 44iti evarüpäya tiracchäna-vijjäya pati-
virato S amano GotamoP
46 A. Foucher, “ Art,” voi. ii, pp. 360, 362, 289, 297. See also
the figures of Buddha, voi. ii, pp. 291, 347, 777.
47 Lai. F ., 129. M tu., ii, 45. In the Lai. F ., the bodhisattva
experiences four dhyânas.
48 Candra-räja Bhandäri, Bhagavän Mahâvïra, p. 123 (Bhänpura,
1924),
49 B . Ct., canto iii, pp. 21 ff. Lai. F ., 187 ff. M tu., ii, 150 ff.
60 Cf. Anguttara, i, 145 (section 38.2).
» Lai. F ., 161 ff.
«2 Lai. F ., 217 ff.
58 Lai. F ., 251 ff. M tu., ii, 231 ff.
54 Lai. F ., 272 ff. Mtu.y ii, 264.
55 E. Windisch, “ M ära” p. 187.
56 E.» Senart, “ Legende,” p. 180.
57 H. Kern, “ Histoire,” i, 302.
58 Cf. Sutta-nipäta, 355 (p. 62). jDïgha, i, 93.10 (pisäcepi Kanhä
ti sanjänanii).
1 1
59 Sutta-nipäta, p. 15, . 3. Majjkima, iii, 60, . 29.
60 Dïghay ii, 109 (attha kho imä Änania parisü, etc.).
61 Samyutta, i, 103 ff. (mahantam hatthiräja-vannam abhinimmi-
nitvä, etc., p. 104; mahantam sappa-räja-vannam, p. 106).
62 Samyutta, i, p. 114 (section 9) ; p. 112 (section 7).
63 Majjhima, i, 332 (K'tn-nu kho me kucchi garugaru, etc.).
64 Samyutta, i, 128 ff, (B hikkhunï-samyutta).
65 Samyutta, iii, 124.
66 Vinaya, i, pp. 21, 22 (baddho9 si sabba paschi, etc.).
87 Jätaka, i, 72-3. N.B,— 150 leagues, not 250. (E. J
Thomas.)
68 Samyutta, i, 115 (tava r&pä tava cakkhu-samphassa, etc.).
69 Majjhima, iii, 94 (/abbati tassa Märo otäram, labkatì tassa Miro
àrammanam).
70 Sutta-nipäta, pp. 74-8 (verses 425 ff).
71 Samyutta, iii, 189, “ tvam Rädha rüpam Maro ti passa,9 etc.
72 Pr. Pâ. Çata., 71. Ava.-ça., i, 215.7. Çiksâ, 244.4.
73 Lai. F ., 283.20.
74 Lai. F ., 301.3. Mtu., ii, 341.35 ii, 320.5. Pr. Pâ. Çata.,
112. Da. Bhü., 90. Lai. F ., 261.6, 262.20, 263.4.
75 E. Windisch, “ Mära,” p. 186.
NOTES TO CHAPTER VII 379
78 LaL F ., 130.8.
77 Ksemenira, ii, 583.61. 2?. Ci., xiii, 2.
78 K sentendra, i, 7x3.1.
79 Ibid., i, 95.136; ii, 323.8.
80 Da. Bhü., 53.18.
81 E. Senart, “ Origines,” p. 7.
82 Jâ . Ma., 19.20 fF.
83 Dwy, 357, 361, 363.
84 Pr . Pâ. Çata.y xx86.
85 Çiksâ, 49 ff.
86 357. Ksemendra, ii, 575.42.
87 D&y, 145.
88 38, 40.
89 Ibid., 49.
90 Çiksâ, 139.9.
91 Lai. F., 354.11, 224.8. D*. Pi«., 54.17. PT*r. P«., 127.7,
Çiksâ, 198.10. D h . section 80. ikf/«., iii, 281.7. L. de la
Vallée Poussin mentions only three Mâras in his article (ERE. viii, 407*2),
but the Mahäyänists made a fourfold division.
92 Pr . P«. pzAz., 485.
93 Z)«. Pi«., 62.5.
94 Pr. P«. 385,
95 Pr. PJ. ^/Az., chaps, xi and xxiv, pp. 232, 416). Çiksâ, 151.
96 Lai. V 262.14. M/«., ii, 240.
97 ÇVZaz, 49 ff.
98 Pr. P«. .^/Az., 448.
99 Çiksâ, 42.16.
100 if/«., ii, 404.20, 408.9, 241.13 ff., 244.5 ff» *46*3
250.20 ff.
101 P. Ca , xiii, 4-5.
102 Ksemendra, i, 725.44.
198 Lai. V ., 300.
104 Ibid., 301.
195 Ibid., 378.4.
106 P. Ca , xiii, 3.
197 Lai. F , 308.15.
108 Ibid., 308 ff.
109 Mtu., ii, 408.10 ff.
119 Lai. F , 308 ff.
111 Râmâyana, Yuddha-Kända, sargas 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 16 (vol. ii,
pp. i i 3 ff)-
112 Jâtaka, i, 63 (mârisa mâ nikkkammi).
113 I«/. 261.
114 M/«., ii, 238.
115 LaL F ., 317.20.
38o TH E B O D H IS A T T V A D O C T R IN E
116 Lai. V., 319.3
117 Ibid., 320 ff.
118 Cf. Aitareya Brähmana, i, 4.6 (p. 98), “ deväsurä vä esu iokesu
samayatanta,” etc. (Anandâçrama Series, vol. xxxii, pt. i, Poona, 1896).
“ The Works of Hesiod,” translated by J. Banks (London, 1914), p. 33.
L. Spence, “ Introduction to Mythology,” p. 293.
119 Mtu., ii, 410. Lai. F.y 305. B. Ct., xiii, 19 ff Ksemendra,
h 729-
120 Mtu.y ii, 282.2. Lai. F.y 335.13.
121 LaL F 9 318. i i .
122 LaL V.y 333.
128 Mtu., ii, 280.1.
124 MtU.y Ü, 283.4.
125 LaL F 9 340.21.
126 B. C/., xiii, 57 ff
127 Ksemendra, i, 729 ff
128 Majjhima, i, 247 (So kho akam Aggivessana olärikam ähärant*
äkäretva, etc.).
129 Digha> ii, 4 (section 8).
180 E. Senart, “ Légende,” pp. 168, 169, 197, 207. E. Senart
summarizes his conclusions thus : “ II (Buddha) est mûr pour sa mission
prédestinée : la conquête de l’ambroisie et de la roue, de la pluie et
de la lumière fécondes. Il prend possession de l’arbre divin 5 le démon
orageux accourt le lui disputer 5 . . . la sombre armée de Mâra,
rompue, déchirée, se disperse. Les Jpsaras, filles du demon, les
dernières vapeurs légères qui flottent au ciel, essayent en vain d’enlacer
et de retenir le triomphateur. . . . Il paraît dans toutes sa gloire, dans
sa splendeur suprême : le dieu a atteint le sommet de sa course ” (u La
Légende,” p. 434).
H. Kern says : “ La vérité indéniable de la légende, sauf quelques
détails insignifiants, n’est pas celle de l’histoire, mais celle de la mythologie
de la nature. . . . Le Buddha est un de ces avatâras, celui du dieu
solaire. . . . La lutte entre le boâhisatva et Mâra, le répresentant
de l’obscurité, appartient, au moins dans ses traits essentiels, aux mythes
les plus anciens de notre race. . . . Le Dieu solaire était tantôt loué
comme chasseur des ténèbres, comme exterminateur d’êtres méchants,
géants et autres monstres, tantôt comme la source abondante de bénédictions
pour la terre entière, à cause de la lumière bienfaisante dont il illumine
la terre et le ciel . . . chez les Indiens, le grand Libérateur du monde
est le Dieu solaire. . . .” (“ Histoire,” i, 50, 239, 241, 243, 245).
131 A. B. Keith, “ Mythology,” p. 197.
132 Rgveda, .i, 32 (p. 309, vol. i), u indrasya nu vtryànt provocata
etc. Cf. H. D. Griswold, u The Religion of the Rgveda ” pp. 17 8-86
(Oxford, 1923). H. Oldenberg, “ Die Religion des Veda,” pp. 133 ff
(Stuttgart, 1917).
NOTES TO CHAPTER VII 381
133 SBE., vol. xxiii, p. 231 (Bahram Tasi), “ We sacrifice unto
Verethraghna,” etc.
134 J. G . F razer, “ T h e G o ld e n Bough,” voi. i, pp. 56, 58 (L ondon ,
1894).
135 J. H. Philpott, “ The Sacred Tree,” pp. n r , 115, 116 (London,
1897). T . Keightley, op. cit., p, 74.
136 Lai, V., pp. 343 ff. B. C i., xiv, 2.
137 Miu., ii, 286, 417. Gf. Lai. V., 355.19. Upasargà devatâ.
The Pâli word upasagga means “ attack, trouble, danger Cf. Anguttara,
i, 101, u ye keci upasaggä uppajjanii
188 Miu., ii, 416.6.
APPENDIX
C hronological N otes on the Principal Sanskrit T reatises that
have been utilised for this E ssay {compiled from various
sources)
(1) Maha-vastu (“ The Book of the Great Event or Subject”).
In its oldest form, it was probably extant in the early part of the third
century b.c. The final redaction probably dates from the sixth or
seventh century a.d. (fourth century, according to M. Wintemitz and
A. B. Keith). Cf. Vassilief, p. 270 ; ZD M G ., voi. lii, 1898, p. 673 ;
Ihdologica Pragensia i, p, 76 (1929); “ Journal des Savants,” 1899,
p. 628 ; Täranätha, p. 2 7 1, 1. i ; “ Cambridge History of India,” voi. i*
p. 304; J. N. Farquhar, “ Outline,” p. n o .
(2) Lalita-vistara (“ Extended Account of the Sport ” ). Nos. 159
and 160 in B. Nanjio’s catalogue. Translated into Chinese four times :
a.d. 221-63, 308, 420-79, and 683. Its oldest parts may be assigned
to the third century b.c., and its final redaction to the sixth century a.d.
(second century, according to M. Wintemitz).
Cf. LaL *V. Tib.) vol. ii, p. xvi ; Nettipakaraça, p. xxvii ; “ Abhand
lungen und Vorträge des fünften internationalen Orientalisten-
Congresses” (Zweite Hälfte), pp, 107-22 (Berlin, 1882) ; JRAS. 1856,
p p . 242 ff. ; JA. 1892, p . 202 5 A. Foucher, “ Art,” voi. ii, p . 674;
M. Winternitz, “ Lit.” ii, 200 ; S. Beai, “ Abstract,” p . 12 ; S. Beal,
“ Catena,” p. 13 ; A. Grünwedel, “ Mythologie,” p. 4; A. Grünwedel,
“ Art,” p. 85 ; G. K. Nariman, “ Lit.” p. 26.
(3) Sad-dkarma-pundarîka (“ The White Lotus of the true Dharma
or Faith” ). Nos. 134, 136, 138, 139 in B. Nanjio’s catalogue.
Translated into Chinese in a,d. 255, and later. The earliest part
(chaps, i-xx) may belong to the first century b . c ., while the supplementary
chapters (xxi-xxvi) date from the third century a .d.
(4) Sukhâvatî-vyüha (“ The Structure or Arrangement of the Region
of Bliss ” ). The word vyüha has also been translated as “ description ” ,
This treatise exists in two recensions, of which the larger was translated
into Chinese in a.d. 148-70. Nos. 23 (5), 25, 26, 27 and 863 in
B. Nanjio’s catalogue. Dates from first century b.c. The smaller
treatise may be assigned to the fourth century (Nos. 199, 200 in B.
Nanjio’s catalogue).
(5) Açvaghoça’s Buddha-carita and Saundaränanda-Kävya. The
original Budiha-carita is available in Sanskrit only in a truncated form
(Cantos i-xiii and 32 verses of Canto xiv). Açvaghoça was the preceptor
of Kanifka, who flourished in the first century a.d. *
382
APPENDIX 383
Cf. Yassilief, p. 77 ; JA. 1892, p. 203 ; “ I-tsing,” p. 481 ; “ Cam
bridge History of India,” vol. i, pp. 582, 583, 703 ; BEFEO. 1904,
p. 56.
(6) Asta-sähasrikä Prajnä-päramitä (“ The Perfection of Wisdom ”
in 8,000 “ verses ” ). No. i (e) in B. Nanjio’s catalogue. Translated
into Chinese a.d. 179. It may be assigned to the first century b.c.
(7) Çata-sâhasrikâ Prajnä-päramitä (“ The Perfection of Wisdom ”
in 100,000 “ verses ” ). No. 1 (ä) in B. Nanjio’s catalogue. Translated
into Chinese a.d. 659. Belongs probably to the fifth century a.d. Only
chapters i-xii have been utilised.
(8) V ajra-cchedikä Prajnä-päramitä (“ The Diamond-Cutter : a
Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom” ). Nos. 1 (i), 10, 11, 12, 13,
14 and 15 in B. Nanjio’s catalogue. First translated into Chinese
about a.d. 400. Dates from the fourth century a.d.
These treatises on Prajnä-päramitä are attributed to Nägärjuna,
jrho lived in the second century a.d. (according to M. Walleser and
S, Seal). But internal evidence proves that they were not written by
the same author. We may regard “ Nägärjuna ” as a group-name
the pioneers of the Mahäyäna, the most eminent of whom was the
philosopher Nägärjuna.
Cf. Täranätka, pp. 87, 127, 131 ; Yassilief, p. 213 ; Räjatarangini,
i, 172-3, p. 8 (ed. M. A. Stein, Bombay, 1892) ; J. Takakusu in ERE.,
iv, 838* ; JRAS. 1905, p. $3 ; JBTS., voi. v, pt. iv, p, 15 ; “ Lehrbuch,”
ii, 183 ; ZII. 1928, p. 224 ; “ Ind. Ant.,” xv, 1886, p. 356Æ; “ ‘Zeit
schrift fur Buddhismus,” Bd. vi, Heft 2, 1925, p. 242.
(9) Müla-madhyamaka-kärikäh (“ Yerses on the fundamental doctrines
of the Mädhyamika school” ). This treatise is also attributed to
Nägärjuna.
(10) Dkarma-sangraha (“ Compendium of the Doctrine”). It is
erroneously attributed to Nägärjuna. It may be assigned to the seventh
or eighth century a.d., as it was translated into Chinese in the tenth
century. No. 812 in B. Nanjio’s catalogue.
(11) Avadâna-çataka (“ A Century of instructive Stories”).
No. 1324 in B. Nanjio’s catalogue. First translated into Chinese
a.d. 223-53. The word dinära is mentioned in it. Early second
century a.d. The first ten stories are Mahäyänist in spirit ; the rest
belong to the Hïnayâna.
Cf. “ Annales du Musée Guimet,” vol. xviii, 1891, pp, ix ff. ; T ’oung-
Pao, 1907, pp. 106, 110; JA. 1879, tome 14, p. 151 ; JRAS. 1907,
pp. 681 ff.; JRAS. 19x5, pp. 504 ff.
(12) Dwy-ävadäna (“ The Heavenly Stories” ). Nos. 1343, 1344
in B. Nanjio’s catalogue. The oldest portions date from the second
century b.c. ; they were included in the Vinaya of the Müla-sarvästi-
vädin sect. The final redaction may be assigned to the sixth century
a.d. (third century, according to M. Winternitz). Mainly Hînayîna.
384 t h e b o d h is a t t v a d o c t r in e