15

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter outlines the ideologies of researchers and authors on

topics which would facilitate this research process, such as the sustainable
Housing, the vernacular architecture with specific reference to dwellings, the
significance of culture and architectural space, the climate responsive
architecture and thermal performance of traditional dwellings.

2.2 SUSTAINABLE HOUSING DESIGN

Everyone is familiar with the definition of sustainability used by

the World Commission on Environment and Development in their 1987 study
(WCED 1987), that sustainable development means meeting the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
Deepa Gopalakrishnan Nair (2006), in her research on
sustainable and affordable housing remarks that Sustainable development is a
balance between human need to improve lifestyles and feeling of well-being
on one hand, and preserving natural resources and ecosystems, on which the
total population of today and tomorrow depend.

The concept sustainable development was initially conceived as a

term most relevant to macro economic development. It is only more recently
that it has been applied to a consideration of the quality of development in
human settlements and, by implication, housing (Choguill 1999). Begin with
 16

the concept of the sustainability of human settlements, and from there we will
work our way into housing issues. In order to be sustainable, housing
initiatives must be economically viable, socially acceptable, technically
feasible and environmentally compatible. Protecting the environment is a
fundamental aspect of sustainable development. It includes the improvement
of essential ecological processes, biological diversity and the natural resource
base.

Sustainable housing can be conceptualized in the same way as

sustainable development, to maintain a balance between the present and
future housing needs. In order to satisfy the present needs, sustainable
housing should be affordable to the users (particularly poor households).
Deepa Gopalakrishnan Nair (2006) further adds that sustainable housing from
the perspective of the users can be defined as housing that is accessible and
affordable to them, and meets their housing needs. She concludes that social
and cultural factors influence the primary requirements of housing.

It has been observed that there is a significant shift to new building

design strategies taking into account sustainable considerations in the last
twenty years. However, in most countries, sustainable buildings are still at a
nascent phase of development. The construction industry has more needed
knowledge, and industry professionals continually seek for best solutions in
practices in order to understand of how to apply sustainable considerations to

positively impact environmental issues pushes knowledge to the forefront

(Halicioglu 2012).

According to Choguill (2007), certain policies in five areas must be

devised and implemented in order to achieve sustainability in the housing
 17

analysis.

The first of these policy areas is the involvement of the community

in all steps concerned with planning, constructing and maintaining planned
improvement. The second policy area concerns insuring that those who build
housing, whether they are self-builders or private sector firms, have access to
good quality building materials at a cost they can afford. The third policy area
concerns Building standards. The fourth policy area required is in the realm of
housing finance and the final set of policy issues concerns the fundamental
problem of land (Choguill 2007).

Finally he concludes that, without thinking through housing

policies and basing them on sustainability criteria, there is no chance of
t

Sustainable building designing involves integrating environmental,

social and economic objectives. Some important issues to consider include:
Energy consumption during construction and use, energy efficiency measures,
the use of renewable energy; environmental sustainability of building
materials; indoor environmental quality; consumption of potable water, water
efficiency and recycling measures; waste management and recycling
facilities; access to public transport and cycling facilities; atmospheric
emissions, waste water discharges and surface water run-off; land use, local
ecology, visual impact, contextual fit and community relations (David
Richard Oxley III 2006).

In this regard, vernacular architecture presents simple solutions for

the sustainable issues because it has significant environmental friendly
features that respond to sustainability such as low-energy techniques to
 18

provide for human comfort, approaches that are integral to the form,
orientation, and materials that are obtained from local resources. Hence, in
recent years professionals have begun to rediscover vernacular architecture
features due to the increasing challenges about providing sustainability in a
built environment.

Analyzing environmentally responsive features of vernacular

architecture will provide significant insights and lessons for designers who are
involved in development of future sustainable built environments.

2.3 VERNACULAR DWELLINGS AROUND THE WORLD

Vernacular architecture is taken attention in terms of its continuity.

Thus, it can be seen as the essence of sustainability with its inherent
characteristics. Vernacular settlements are often considered as the
predecessors of sustainable built environments. (Halicioglu 2012)

The pioneers in the research of vernacular architecture like Amos

Rapoport, Paul Oliver and the people interested in vernacular architecture still
engaged themselves in search of the essences of vernacular architecture. The
b
showed some of the undiscovered architecture around the world, those are
surviving for thousands of years within a sustainable way (Avinash Gautam,
2008). It presents basic and simple solutions for the sustainable issues because
it has significant environmental friendly features that respond to sustainability
such as low-energy techniques to provide for human comfort, approaches that
are integral to the form, orientation, and materials that are obtained from local
resources. The strength of vernacular architecture is that it makes buildings
that are in natural harmony with climate, built form and people (Dili et al
2010). Vernacular is strongly tied to cultural and social traditions. It responds
to ambient environmental conditions, and it is, in a way, a naturally evolving
 19

process. It comprises all buildings, not just dwellings and relates to

environmental contexts and available resources. It is built to meet specific
needs, while accommodating the values, economies, and ways of life of the
cultures that produce them (Oliver 1987). Vernacular architecture is adapted
to specific social and cultural contexts. The built spaces are not arbitrary; they
are the expression of a reality slowly elaborated during centuries, executed
with local techniques and means, expressing precise functions and satisfying
social, cultural and economic needs (Plemenka Supic1982). Vernacular
buildings are the response to the climate and express the relationship between
culture, nature, material and climate. Each community over the years
develops a prototype that responds to local needs and carries it forward
through generations (Oliver 2006). The vernacular constructions express the
physical form of values that the tribal, peasant and popular cultures have
coded in the different types of dwellings (Plemenka Supic 1982).

Amos Rapoport (1969) introduces vernacular architecture as a folk

tradition t direct and unself-conscious translation into physical form
of a culture, its need and values as well as the desires, dreams and passions
of the people.

From the very beginning, shelters have been guided by the climate
of the region. Vernacular solutions show a variety of designs related to the
conditions that surround it, responding to the nature, culture, symbolic
interpretations and definition of comfort in that area (Rapoport 1969).

Amos Rapoport (2000), expresses the concept of dismantling in the

onsidered to
be a general process through which culture and housing can be related. It is a
standard technique or approach in which, the components or attributes of both
culture and housing can be understood clearly. He has also tried to explain the
nature of housing and one of its characteristics environmental quality.
 20

According to Rapoport, housing is a system of settings within

which a certain system of activities takes place.

The environmental quality of housing is described as a set of

characteristics, obtained by dismantling and can be represented as a profile. It
is evaluated through several of the components of culture.

Environment, one of the important attributes of housing could be

defined conceptually as follows:

The organization of space, time, meaning and communication;

A system of settings within which systems of activities take

place;

The cultural landscape;

Composed of fixed, semi-fixed and non fixed elements.

Kazimee (2009), who has done an extensive study on the

vernacular design principles, states that the vernacular architecture is a
learning method by which new global challenges such as global warming,
housing crises and economic equality can be addressed. The principles of
vernacular architecture as characterized by sustainable affinity between nature
and human settlements are studied and analyzed by him in two identified
settlements, one in the harsh cold climatic zone of Afghanistan and the other
one in the hot arid region in Iran. The analysis reveals that Participatory
Paradigm, Density and Sense of Place, Local Materials and Regional Flair
and Energy conservation and Ecology are the important design principles that
should necessarily be incorporated in modern architecture to solve the
housing problem in a particular region, as well as saving and enhancing
environment. The tradition of user participation in the planning and building
process is just beginning to be appreciated and used in many societies.
 21

Flexible and adoptable designs are another hallmark of the vernacular mode
of building. According to Kazimee (2009), housing that provides freedom of
choice and is easily adoptive to changing needs and the desires of the families
over time are sustainable. He also concludes that vernacular settlements are
defined by extremely dense townscapes, which shows a higher degree of
complexity and cohesiveness. He further adds that the new building practices
should take into consideration the use of local technologies and materials
which are less costly and more easily available, compared to the imported
industrial products. Understanding and appreciating the micro climatic factors
of the site in which the building is located can considerably improve the

Similar studies were carried out by Philokyprou & Micheal (2012)

to investigate the bioclimatic design principles followed in traditional
dwellings in the rural semi mountainous village of Cyprus. According to
them, different bioclimatic elements of the vernacular architecture are best
understood by exploring the building features such as the central courtyard,
the semi-open spaces, building orientation, lighting and ventilation, shading
strategies, construction materials and the relationship between buildings to its
surroundings.

The size and the proportion of the courtyard to the surrounding

built spaces make it as an excellent micro climate regulator for providing
thermal comfort inside the building. The courtyard integrates a wide variety
of passive devices into its design, each creating its own thermal envi
They state that the size and positioning of window openings play an important
role in allowing the required amount of light and air and to provide comfort.
They conclude that, thermal comfort in a traditional dwelling largely depends
on the way the occupants make use of the house. They further add that a
systematic knowledge of traditional architecture and building technologies is
 22

the basis for supporting stable, balanced and sustainable socio economic
development and promoting conservation and rehabilitation of vernacular
architecture.

The direct relation to human need and accommodation of economy,

beliefs, and cultural values yields a phenomenological sense of place that is
therefore of important value to the study of architectural design- and the
future of the built environment (Cyriacus L Wamayanga 2008).

Vernacular architecture is a major part of our daily experience, and

interaction of our physical environments and cultural myths (Vellinga &

Aquith 2006). The proportions, the forms, the patterns of material, light, dark,

may often be equated to comfort, or to a sense of belonging in a particular

space- E Linam Jr. 1999)

According to John E Linam Jr. (1999), the direct relation to human

need and accommodation of economy, beliefs, and cultural values yields a
phenomenological sense of place that is therefore of important value to the
study of architectural design- and the future of the built environment.

In his study of Developmental Vernacular Architecture in Machiya

(traditional dwelling form) in Japan, he states that an understanding of
vernacular processes enhances the understanding our own built environment
and the architectural and cultural patterns of those outside our own. It is

research in vernacular architecture is both s

He further adds that, in the case study of the Japanese vernacular,

He quotes the
 23

work of Hasan Fathy in the New Gourna village of Egypt, as an excellent

example for Developmental Vernacular. Seeking a self-reliant system of
building which would be based on local material, process, and community
participation (including local architects), Fathy attempted to produce not only
a pleasing architecture but also a valuable process based on local patterns.

The study of Sirince vernacular settlement of western Turkey was

conducted by (Halicioglu 2012) for finding out the available sustainable
considerations in terms of its compatibility with topographic and climatic
conditions, common building plans, materials and low-tech used and solar
passive features in the vernacular buildings of Mediterranean climatic
conditions of the region.

solutions to the climatic and topographic constraints of the region. The site
planning was discovered to be particularly comfortable in providing not only
shade but also air circulation in the settlement. Form of the streets contributes
to the ecological regulation. Therefore, the streets stay shaded most of the day
in the summer.

He has found in his study that minimum surface to volume ratio

maximizes the heat gain inside the rooms during daytime and minimizes the
heat loss during night time.

In addition, the compactness of the house and small in sized

windows help to reduce heat loss from inside the house in winter. The rooms
with minimum openings and wooden walls provide refuge from the cold
conditions outside while conserving inner heat in winter.

He further add that, the usage of locally available materials like

stone and wood which are from the same climatic zone, fit perfectly into the
 24

local environment. They have environmental advantages such as significant

reduction in energy involved in material processing and transportation, low
environmental impact in their production.

As a result of his study, Sirince vernacular architecture have

significant sustainable features due to the fact that it incorporates the use of
local materials and indigenous building sources, incentive to promote the
continuation of low-tech and environmentally friendly solutions, and energy-
efficient design principles. For instance, most of the houses have some solar
passive features such as enhanced air circulation, promoting natural
ventilation, reducing heat gain and effective shading solutions. He finally
concludes that these houses have provided energy efficiency and thermal
comfort to the occupants of the settlement for most part of the year without
using any artificial costly source of energy by using materials with less
embodied and operational energy.

2.4 FACTORS OF SUSTAINABLE VERNACULAR DWELLINGS

Vernacular dwellings are sustainable in all respects because

vernacular cultures generated buildings and spaces that are in harmony with
nature and resonate the ecological integrity of place.

Kazimee (2009), states that because of the limitation of resources

and building technologies, the vernacular architecture used ways and
solutions that were most efficient and affordable. These conditions resulted in
sophisticated and innovative building forms and design techniques that are
environmentally sustainable and culturally adaptive.

He further adds that the art of living in harmony with nature and the
elegant use of local materials and technology decrease our burden on the
finite energy resources and save the environment from further degradation.
 25

The vernacular buildings provide us with a large repository of natural and

cultural heritage that illustrate a genuine and symbiotic relationship with the
spirit of a particular place.

Krishna Kumar Dhote et al (2012) have conducted a study on the

tribal settlement of Central India and they identified that the tribal populations
in the geographically remote areas are still following the indigenous
vernacular style for their settlements and habitat. These habitats provide them
the needed thermal and visual comforts at reduced level of resource
consumption.

According to their study, the sustainability in these settlements is

achieved through

Finite size of the settlements

The spatial planning which is governed by the social groups

formed due to ethnicity, topography, availability of fertile land
and shared community facilities like water sources and
movement channels.

Existence a group of distinct cultural identity which leads to

setting up of a living and working community that reflects the
diversity of the settlement and a better social cohesion.

They opine that minimum internal partitions or partitions created by

storage bins and flexible spaces allow an easy passage for cross ventilation
and staggered openings help in enhancing the air velocity.

And it was established by them that the tribal settlements and

habitat demonstrate an economical use of native natural building resources,
and respond to climatic conditions using eco friendly design principles that
 26

provide human comfort. These design principles are consistent with the form,
orientation and materiality of the buildings.

This relationship that is mediated through knowledge and values

can be a valuable lesson for the mainstream architecture of 21st century. We
should reconnect intimately with the ecological nuances of region and culture
to achieve sustainable human settlements.

The climate responsive features of the vernacular dwellings are the

major contributing factors for the sustainability of these dwellings. These
features are in terms of building form and orientation, design and size of
openings and materials usage, etc.

The adoption of these climate responsive or solar passive features

results in the less energy consumption for providing comfortable indoor
thermal environments.

2.4.1 Significance of Cultural Studies in Vernacular Architecture in

the Context of Sustainability

The Vernacular Architecture forms the back bone of social and

cultural set up of any region. Amos Rapoport (2010) states that, knowledge
of the culture of the community of people is of prime importance in the
creation of a dwelling, as culture happens to be one of the main factors that
dictate the dwelling (Kumudhavalli 2013). It exhibits the potential of the
community in organizing spaces, evolving a strong architectural base and
enriching lives through their socio-cultural manifestations. Thus the central
factor of every settlement is the culture and socio economics.

Vernacular architecture is used to describe structures built by

people whose design decisions are influenced by traditions in their culture.
 27

Vernacular arch
climate, terrain and culture (Zhiqiang Zhai & Jonathan M Previtali 2009).

Vernacular environments, and spontaneous settlements in

developing countries, i.e. most housing, is an evolutionary process whereby
environments gradually become congruent with activity systems, lifestyles,
meanings, etc. (Rapoport 1995a, 1986) by applying rules which are often
unwritten, as in most cultural landscapes.

ople, also
the
recognizable nature of cultural landscapes and style in buildings both result
from the systematic and consistent application of systems of rules. Vernacular
design was believed to use unwritten rules, but it appears that in some
contexts rules may be written, or formalized in other ways, through Feng Shui
masters and manuals in China and Korea or the legal rules (and local
traditions) in Moslem cities.

Amos Rapoport (2000) describes that, regarding housing, there are

number of different housing forms when considered historically and cross-
culturally in different settlement types (e.g. Oliver 1987, 1997), although
activities in dwellings are more or less similar. The m

design and, therefore, most directly related to culture.

Mustafa Pultar (1997), has tried to propose a structure for the

cultural studies of architectural space for which he has used two fundamental
concepts: a spectrum of cultural studies and the life-cycle of architectural
space.
 28

He quotes Rapoport (1980) saying that space is the three-

dimensional extension of the world around us, the intervals, distances and
relationships between people and people, people and things, and things and
things.

He stresses that architectural space, serves human functions of

habitation, shelter or circulation, and is intentionally built or appropriated by
man to serve such functions. So he declares that, not only well defined spaces
such as halls and rooms, but also arrangements of furniture so as to define a
spatial expanse, allowing it to be perceived as a whole, should be considered
as an architectural space, too.

Culture, as strongly declared by Rapoport

way of life typical of a group, the second as a system of symbols, meanings,
and cognitive schemata transmitted through symbolic codes, the third as a set
of adaptive strategies for survival related to ecology and resources.
Increasingly, these three views are seen not as being in conflict but rather as
complementary 1980 .

Culture can be broken down into three fundamental components:

technology, knowledge and value systems.

In the study of architectural space with reference to culture,

Mustafa Pultar (1997) argues that its life cycle consists of four stage cyclic
process. He says that each space has a life cycle, in which most spaces reach
the end of its useful life due to various reasons and lead to a repetition of the
cycle in the form of renovation, remodeling, re-adaptation of use or the
 29

2.4.2 Climate Responsive Architecture in the Context of

Sustainability

Climate responsive buildings can improve human comfort and in

doing so improve the human condition, in all parts of the world. It
substantially reduces the economic and environmental costs of buildings to
individual, regions and to nations.

The direct exposure of structures to solar radiation is the source of

maximum heat gain inside the building space. By minimizing the incident
solar radiation, orientating the buildings properly, adequate layout with
respect to the neighbouring buildings and by using proper shading devices to
help control the incident solar radiation on a building effectively are the
natural ways to cool a building which make them energy efficient.

They further add that in tropical climate, pitched or sloping roofs

are recommended, specially designed to stand the many and sudden tropical
showers as well as the violent winds, from gusty to cyclonic. Flat roofs are
not advisable because of the risk of leaking during heavy rains (Karim 1988).

Vernacular architecture sets an example of harmony between

dwellings, dwellers and the physical environment. Learning from traditional
wisdom of previous generations through the lessons of traditional buildings
can be a very powerful tool for improving the buildings of the future.
(Sandeep Sharma & Puneet Sharma 2013).

Studies and researches have already proved that the design

strategies affecting indoor thermal comfort conditions are different for all
climatic zones and they are best expressed in the traditional buildings.
 30

It is generally accepted that traditional or vernacular architecture is

well adapted to the dominant climate of its surroundings by means of the
method of tria
desires or cultural expressions (Sandeep Sharma & Puneet Sharma 2013).

It is common attitude among the architects and builders of today

that, any contemporary architectural problem can be solved by means of
artificial systems, which is not true. In all vernacular traditions, buildings
have been built (and are still being built) with an awareness about the
limitations that are being posed by the climatic conditions of the location
(Helena Coch 1998).

As appropriately stated by the researchers and architects especially

environment. So, it is possible to live in harmony with nature without wasting

the opportunities and giving harm to the nature unless its principles are taken

Built environments should respond to climate in all respect to go in

harmony with the nature. The climatic conditions can keep the building alive
or cause damages on it as wells as to its environment. It has a major effect on
the performance of the building and its energy consumption and ultimately on
the mental well being of the users. So the process of identifying,
understanding and controlling climatic influences at the building site is
perhaps the most critical part of the building design.

Nazife Ozay (2004), has mentioned three general benefits achieved

through climatically responsive design, as:

Reducing energy consumption.

 31

Using natural resources instead of the artificial ones such as

mechanical systems.

Providing more comfortable, healthier and sustainable living

spaces.

He emphasizes that in a climatically responsive design,

architectural solutions varies from time-to-time, according to the
socioeconomic, cultural, political and technological factors. It is also proved

-style, religion and

environmental factors are the major aspects shaping up these houses.

since the formal characteristics, sensory qualities, relation to site and

landscape, response to climate, relation to culture and human behaviour,
effectiveness in communic

Helena Coch (1998) mentions that there are several ways to solve
the same climatic problems by different methods, according to the influence
of different cultures which are in perfect balance with nature. In one way, the
heat from solar radiation is fought by means of thermal inertia and darkness,
and in the other it is negotiated by means of multiple screens against the sun
and subtly controlled ventilation. She also states that this has given rise to
architectural cultures which have withstood the advance of many generations
of users.

It is interesting to observe how practically identical architectural

models are developed in similar climates with highly different cultures and
very distant geographical locations.
 32

It is even more interesting to find special architectural solutions that

transcend from one place to other and from one culture to another, and are
used with subtle variations to solve very different climatic problems.

Singh et al (2008), in their study highlight that Energy efficient

building has the potential to reduce carbon emissions by 60% or more, which
translates to 1.35 billion tons of carbon. So, they declare that climate
responsive building design has become a necessity rather than an option for
energy conservation and carbon emission reduction. For sustainable solutions,
environment and traditions are not supplementary to each other but are pre-
requisites.

According to Gulten Manioglu & Zerrin Yilmaz, high density

settlement reduces the overall exposure to intensive solar radiation like High
walls, narrow streets, evaporative cooling, Semi-open elements, Rooms partly
constructed into ground, materials with a high heat capacity, which was
established in their study of a traditional dwelling as an example in Turkey- a
Hot and Dry Region.

In the extensive study carried out by (Singh et al 2008), on the

traditional architecture of north-east India, it is found that Bioclimatic zone
specification of a warm and humid climatic zone shows that high humidity
and excessive rainfall are the prime factors that influence the comfort
conditions inside the built space.

And they conclude that social structure, economic and energy

consumption are the major influential parameters that laid down the
constraints for residential building design. It is very clear that social and
 33

economic status have a great influence over the quality of life as these decide

Feifei Sun (2013), in his study on Chinese Climate and Vernacular

Dwellings declares that The vernacular housing is a rational response to the
climate in terms of material, passive techniques and local environment: they
have functioned well and housed Chinese people for thousands of years.

Vernacular dwelling forms are numerous and reflect the regional

and local climate with surprising efficiency. These climate-responsive
building forms, materials and techniques were used for centuries to achieve
comfort and they influenced the local inhabitants to adopt environmentally
friendly life-styles, and to behave more adaptively.

2.4.3 Thermal Performance of Vernacular Dwellings in the Context

of Sustainability

Creating a thermally comfortable environment is one of the most

important parameters to be considered when designing buildings. Thermal
Comfort is defined in the ISO 7730 standard as: "That condition of mind
which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment".

Thermal comfort is defined by ASHRAE Standard 55- the

condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment.
The thermal environment is those characteristics of the environment which
affect a person's heat loss or gain (Avinash Gautam 2008).

The study of thermal comfort is very important because it is

correlated not only with occup
consumption.
 34

Thermal comfort varies because of social conditions, acclimation to

geographic locations, and culture. Thermally comfortable buildings respond
to these variables to create comfortable conditions for users.

Studies and researches have proved that traditional vernacular

architecture which has evolved over time after trial and error method, has
high thermal performance and provides a comfortable indoor conditions
without the use of any mechanical devices and it uses less energy than
contemporary architecture.

Fathy (1986) clearly states that the successful solutions from

vernacular architecture to the problems of the climate did not come from
deliberate scientific reasoning but from countless experiments and accidents
and the experience of generations of builders who continued to use what
worked and rejected what did not.

according to individual, race, climate, habits and customs, etc. Ye et al (2006)

buildings to provide thermal comfort with a minimal expenditure of energy

through an extensive field study conducted on a thermal environment and
adaptive model in Shanghai. The results have shown that under same climatic
conditions, the range of comfortable temperature for HVAC buildings is
entirely different from that of naturally ventilated buildings.

They also mention that the study in Naturally Ventilated buildings

suggests how to set indoor temperature values in HVAC buildings which
could help designers to judge whether heating and cooling techniques are
appropriate for the climate under consideration.
 35

Gianluca Rospi et al (2012) declares through their study on

rgy and microclimatic performance of Mediterranean vernacular

vernacular architecture are the main sources for the thermal behaviour of the
structures. They have studied examples structures from Sassi district of
Matera and the Trulli district of Alberobello in Italy and found that the
comfortable indoor temperature in these structures is mainly due to the great
thickness of the perimeter load-bearing walls by a dry double-wall made with
a cavity filled with loose material from the working of the stones themselves
and roof, which dampens the large fluctuations of external temperature.

Lin Borong et al (2003), in his study on the Thermal Performance

of the Chinese traditional vernacular dwellings in Summer derived two main
conclusions:

The strategy of the design is to consider the sun shading and

insulation in the first place and there are various methods of
shading and insulation.

Natural ventilation is just an auxiliary facility for a better

indoor thermal environment.

They further add that, in summer, the design strategy is to restrain

the ventilation during the daytime and to boost it at night with thermal
pressure induced ventilation.

Sadhan Mahapatra et al (2009) have done a detailed study on

buildings of North- identified that the indoor temperature

swing is much higher in cool and humid climates compared to the same in
 36

warm and humid and cold and cloudy climates which are well within the
permissible limit. This is due to low insulation level and low thermal inertia
of walls.

They further state that occupants have enhanced control over indoor
environments in the vernacular houses because they have the flexibility to
control their personal and environmental conditions in the form of different
adaptations.

They have also concluded that the dry bulb temperature can be
effectively used to represent the comfort temperatures as it is understood
widely by common people in comparison to operative temperature and mean
radiant temperature.

According to Foruzanmehr & Fergus Nicol (2008), vernacular

architecture is more adaptable to the environment as the traditional builders
used knowledge passed from generation to generation to ensure that their
buildings could modify the impact of a hostile outdoor environment.

The traditional principles include physical functionality, beauty,

low-energy use, comfort, durability and affordability make the structures to be
well adapted to local climate conditions and are often considered an
appropriate base for environmental design (Foruzanmehr & Fergus Nicol
2008).

2.5 SUMMARY

The generic sustainable design principles that exist in the

vernacular dwellings of tropical countries are studied in this research. This
research mainly focuses on the cultural studies of architectural spaces with
 37

specific reference to vernacular dwellings as suggested by Amos Rapoport,

the climate responsive features and the passive design strategies adopted, and
the thermal performance of the vernacular dwellings.

The architectural and thermal performance of various case studies

in different bioclimatic regions were studied to understand the sustainable
character of the vernacular dwellings.