CHAPTER
5
EXPLORATION,
SAMPLING,
AND
IN SITU
SOIL
MEASUREMENTS
341 DATA REQUIRED
estzation of the underground conditions at a site is preequiste 10 th
: alko neceseiy to cbt
xploraton, which usally range fom about 051
onstruction costs, oaly fo find aller constuction has start
‘he practice not recommend ‘oa
ofthe adjacent structures is an indicaon, but certainly no gurantee, ha bese
is satisfactory. With the
considerable urban renewal
contol the underground condo
meters in any diretion.
12 The elements of «se investigation depend heavily om the project but
Information to determine the spe of foundation required (shallow or dee
Information to allow the geotechnical consultant to make a recommenda
onthe allowable load capacity ofthe foundation.
ficient datalaboratory texts to make setlement prediction
Location of the groundwater table (or determination of whether ti in the
5 Information 20 tha the identsention and solution of canstrvetion problems
(Shooting and dewatering or rock excavation) can be mide
6 Idenieation of potential problems (stlements, exiting damage, et) concer
ing adjacent property.
Identifeation of environmental problems and tei sottion
adions are contemplated. The current sity ofan exiting trace nay eq
remedial measures may be undertaken based on new found information or the
1 part ofthe exlontion rogram may lnciode onsite monitoring, both
followed. Where the excavation reveal conditions requiing Jegn changes
cost to 8 minimum. Pesconsrucion monitoring ol buildin perfomance
pees co te I review of the design procedures and builds a data base for feture work
to ob Unfortunatly, few owners are wing to make tis investment or even allow
Bop je Property entry should the foundation console be wiling fo wader the cot
While the primary focus of his ehaper son sit exploration for biking
iss and othe stevtures where te cost per unt of ara is high compact site) many of
{he methods are applicable o roads, scelds, and water, sewer, pipe and power
lines and otber extended sites Extended ite exploration i stl fo estab line
si ‘nd grade, lone groundwater lee nd rek in, eine zones of poor-quality
as stare fol and establish borrow pi a
‘eer
‘asian Ea sor
qeetg) 32 MerHODs OF EXPLORATION
et Tae condition ‘The most widely wed method of subsurface investigation for compact ites and
ie, thatthe most extended sts is boring holes ito the ground from which samples may be
eas and. vith callected for eter visual inspection or laborstory testing, Several procedures are
vo quality ‘ommonly used to dil dhe hols and to obtain the sol samples, These wl be taken
ion within a fe ‘pin more deal aer,
(Generally we may categorize the sie exploration atin Table 31 where (ot prior st knowledge) decision i m
exploration methods for sample recovery}
Dee ‘roy
‘est-—or in the usual case use w combination,
“Table 32 lists the wie variety
1960 this ist would only have included
‘mechanical cone (CPT) tite and the vane
lee
sun or ensued snp ecole te ai optinnay berg
de whether oat doa st Sagat
latino at ee ono ce “me” mn er hse
ty of in situ tests currently available. Prior 1) q
the sanded pension (SPT aap
Siar an pt ad ets Most otal 82
Schr hehe ee cope nie pat sean ee a
thes ch te sca oes ean moves os te eagalf_ oc
cee ae only se lp
parameters)
‘mechanical cone, Many ofthe tet meth
"ymbee of users and some listed ar litle beyond the deveopenent sane,
however, since needs are often sen aad
requiring an almost instant solution. From this lit one has several choc
any of the desired engiesring. dg
‘A summary rach a hiss well,
‘making an in sit determination of The more widely wed in sit tet methods given in Table 3.2,
in some deta. Fo information on those ess wily ed andr sll sooty
leylopmen, the reader i refered tothe ce reference (which sontang oa
serene ls). Abo of interest would be the ASCE Geatahnal Set
Prblcation No 6: Use ofn Situ Tests n Geotechnical Engnerns ni’
wl be desig
33. PLANNING THE EXPLORATION PROGRAM
The prpos of te exploration program ito deteming, within practical imi
‘ratiletion and engincering properties of the sols undeifing the a
Principal properties of interest wll be the strength, deormatin’ a tard
‘harass. The program should be planned so tht the musanons wenn
‘information can be abtsned at minimum ost
Ti may be more economic to provid a conservative building design than)
expend large sums on an elaborate exploration and tesing poties OF mea
hand, sufient exploration should be undertaken 56 that the foviony
Consultant isnot ia the postion of making an expensive recommen
Drotee aginst uncertainties which could have been eteaed ye nen
rogram It should be understood ta a recommendation made sy top
the consultant when an adequate exploration has been underlay
ohesolishighly erat thee should on
seneral picture ofthe underground condition
be conservatively Based on
of etic ie iavoled if an
Ta planning the program the foundation consultant must have god knox
edge of current and acepted methods ofboth field exploration af Keeney
testing and thee lmitations. A competent conslnt wil aie feo ay
understanding of equipment faction and soll behavior to make sajtrene
{hat nonstandard equipment or ‘est methods can be wed imietarh nea
esd information
iy besuficient boring to exabish
8. An exteasve boring (and lab
Bropetes ofthe poorer soll. Again « quest
ncesve number of borings are taken unde thy
1 planning the progr
um full advantage should be taken of any exstig
information inching the ge
otechnical consultants’ own data bas [or heat
is obviously most help io have doe st exploration on adjust sad
‘nthe general are. It will also be most advantageous to have mene eon at
ings if this is apart of the detailed ste exploration follower then ee
feasibility study. Even if the consultant doesnot have «data be eye a
considerable underground information may exit pariclasy menan
‘arious publi ad uy ofc, the owner es, oF the flee theceeeer neha
tet who has reiained the geotechnical constant In any cas the eggs ald
be med for a corration and extension ofthe exiting data bee ell eae To
tan undeveloped area where no data base curently shine
the program iin fact
exploratory ‘The more widely used i stu est methods given in Table 32 willbe descr
in some detail. For information on thos lee widely used andor al somewhat g
evelopment, the reader i referred 1 the cited reference (which contains lp
reference lst) Albo of interest would be the ASCE Geotechaical, Space
Publication No, 6: Use of in Siu Tests in Geotechnical Engineering (1986).
33. PLANNING THE EXPLORATION PROGRAM
‘The purpose ofthe exploration program isto determine, within practical iit th
stratification and engineering properties of the soll underlying the site Tap
racial properties of interest wil be the strength, deformation, and hyde
‘haracentis. The program shouldbe planned so that the maximum amount of
Information can be obtained a minimum cox.
may be more economical to provide a conservative building design than
expend large sums onan elaborate exploration and testing program. On the othe
hand, suficient exploration should) be undertaken so thatthe foundation
consultant is not inthe postion of making an expensive recommendation ta
protect against uncertainties which could have been detected by a resonabl
rogram. It shouldbe understood that a recommendation mede simply to prot
"he consultant when an adequate exploration has boea undertaken isnot eh
thesolishighly enats, thee should only be suit borings to eablisha
ener picture of the underground conditions. An extensive boring and labo
‘tory testing) program is at justified in eta ois ad the final desig should
be conservatively based of the properties of the poorer sols. Again question
of ethics involved If an excesive number of borings are taken under these
Tn planning the program the foundation consultant must have a good knowl
‘ge of eurent and accepted methods ofboth fed exploration and laboratory
‘esting and their limitations. A competent consultant wll also have sole
Understanding of equipment function and sol behavior to make adjustment 30
‘hat nonstandard equipment or est methods can be sedi necesry, to obtain the
desired information
Tn planning the program full advantage should be taken of eny existog
‘information, incding the geotechnical consultants’ own data base or the are.
is obviously most helpful to have done sit exploration on adjacent sites ora lea
inthe genera ars. I wll also be most advantageous to have made the inal bor
ings if this i a part of the detailed ste exploration follow-up from an care
feasibility study. Even if he consultant does not havea data base to work fom
considerable underground information may exit—partculary in urban eat
various public and uly oes, the owner les, othe fils o the engineer arch
tect who has retained the geotechnal consulta. In any case the borings boul
be used fora correlation ad extension ofthe exiting database ial pone Th
fan undeveloped area where no data base curently exists the program bin fact vi be dec
Fil somewhat
Prcortins aig
pectnical§
Bi (980)
pst i
fa the se Ty
fo acd bya
[Binur amouatal
fg desien thang
‘im On the ot
Fe foundation
(iy reason
‘simply t prota
Hes snot eta
fis estaba
‘eg and lan
fal doen shoud
hain quero
Aes ‘under thaw
ea good know
{and isborta
have sulin
todjuments
to obtain tl
(ot any existing
feforihe are.
fete inital bo
to work frome
ibn areas
einer archi
ores shoul
Ball posible a
‘eam i in fat
‘The actual planning ofa subsurface exploration program inchs some ll
ofthe following steps
1, Assembly of all eailable information on dimensions, columa spacing. type and
tse of the structure, basement requirements, and any spect architectural
considerations ofthe proposed building Foundation regulations inthe loc
building code sould be consulted for any special requirements For ries the
soil engineer should have acess (0 ‘ype and span lengths as well a pie
Toadings. This information wl indicate any settlement limitation, and can be
ised fo estimate foundation loads
Recomalsane ofthe area. This may be in the form of fel tip tothe sit
‘nhich ean reveal information on the type and behavior of adjacent structures
uch as cracks, noticeable age, and possibly sticking doors and windows, The
ype of local existing strctore may infuence, to a considerable extent, the
exploration program and the best foundation type for the proposed adjacent
frvture Since nearby exiting strutores must be talntaned in an "asi
Condition, excavations or construction vibrations will have to be catflly
Controle. Ersion in exiting cuts (or ditches) may ako be observed, but this
information may be of ited use in the foundation analysis of buildings, For
ighways however, runof potters aswell ar oil steticaton tothe depth of
the erosion or eu, may be observed, Rosk outcrops may give an indication of
the presence or the depth of Bedrock
"The connaissance may also be i the form of study of the various
soures of information avaible, some of which ae
Geological! maps. Either US. goverament or state geological survey maps
Agronomy maps. Published by the Department of Agriculture (state of
Aerial photographs. May require special traning oiterre sol dat, but
terrain fates are easly rocognized by the nonspeciaist
Waterwel logs (and ol well
Hydrological dave, Data costed by the US. Corps of Engineers on
streamflow data, ie elevations, and lod levels
Slate deparments of transportation soll mamas.
Stare wiversty publications. These are usually engineering experiment
station publications. Inlormation can be obtained fom the sate university iit
{snot known whether a state study hasbeen undertaken and published
A preliminary site imsestigation. I this phase afew borings are made or ates pit
‘s opened to establish in a general manner the satiation type of solo be
expected, nd possibly the location of the groundwater table, One ot more
borings should he taken fo rock, of competet strata ifthe inal borings
Indicate the upper soll is loose or highly compressible. This amount of
‘exploration is wualy the extent ofthe sit investigation for small structures A 34. SOIL BORING
Hand Tools
feasibility exploration program should include enough site data and samp
fecover) to approximately establish the foundation design and ident) the
‘Consrutton procedures, Construction procedures (sheeting racing, back
Slurry well fock excavation, dewatering ete) can represeat a very sigiea
part of the foundation cost and thould be ideatied as carly as practical
Tt s-common at this stage fo limit the number of good quality samp
recovered and ly heavily on strength and sllement correlations vsing inde
propertis such as iuid limit lastety index, and penetration test die
Together with unconfined compression tex on samples recovered during
pestration testing
4. A detailed site tncstigation, Where the preliminary site investigation hag
“stashed the easly of the project, more detailed exploration programs
‘ndertaken. The preliminary borings and data are used usa bass fr locating
{diol borings, which should be confirmatory in nature, and determining
the addtional samples required It sould be noted that if the si is elaine
uniform in statfeation, a ater onde spacing of borings at locations close
‘real superstructure cements should be made. Oa occasion additional borings
wil be required to delineate zones of poor soi, rock outeops ls, and othe
{reas which can influence the design and onstrction ofthe foundation
Sufient addtional sl samples shouldbe recovered to refine the desig)
and for any construction procedure required bythe contractor {0 install the
{oundation. Ths should avoid an excessive (uncertainty factor) bid for the
from unanticipated sol conditions discovered when the excavation b opened
exploratory holes into the oil may be made by hand tool, but more commoaly
mounted power tools are used
“The calest method of obtaining atest hole was to excavate ast pt using a pik
and shovel. Beenuse of economies, the cuent procedure i 10 use power
‘rcavaion equipment such asa backhoe to excavate the pit and then to use hand
tools o remove a block sample or shape the site for in stu testing. This the best
method at present for obtaining quality undisturbed samples or samples for testing
"other then vertical orientation. For small jobs, where the sample disturbance
hot etic hand or powered auger (Fig. 3-1) held by one or two persons can Be
ted Handaugered hols canbe dil to depths of about 38™m, although depth
treater than about 8 to 10m ae usually no practical. Commonly the depths ean
{o $m as on roadway, airport or smallstructure investigations 0
eran
ep
ie, b
IMoented Power Drills
‘oe umerous borings to greater depths and to collect samples that are
tndlsurbed, tbe oaly practical method ist use power-dven equipment. Wash
roving sa er used to deseibe one ofthe more commoa methods of advancing 2
holla the ground. A hol started by diving eosng (Fg 32) 10 depth of
315 m. Casings spy pipe which uppors the ol, preventing i om avi
The casings cleaned out by means af a chopping bi astened to the lower end of
the del od. Water is pumped through the drill rod and exists at high veloc
tivough holes i the bie Te water rss between the casing and dil rd, carrying
upended soil particle, and overflows at the top of the easing through a T
Connection into a contane, rom which the effluent is recigolated back through
ne dil od. Te hole is advaneed by rang, rotating, and dropping the bi into
he sol atthe bottom ofthe le Dil rods und if necessary casing, are added a
he depth ofthe boring increases. Usually 6m or les of easing i required at hole
site, This method is quite api fr advancing oles all but the very hard si
Strata. Wash borings widely wsedin South Ameria, Altca and Asi, but ery ile
in Noxth Americ 8 present
Rotory driling another method of advancing tet holes, Tht method uses
rotation ofthe dil bt with the simultaneous application of pressure to advance
thehole Rotary dings the mor apd method of advancing hoes in rock unless
its bealy fissured: however ican also be used fr any ater typeof oi Driling
tnd may beusedin sols where theses ofthe oe tend a cave ia. The ding mod
‘usualy a water solution of thixtropiccley euch as bentonite’) with or without
tthe admires, whic freed into the sides ofthe hole by the rotating dil
is provides sufblet sength in coajusaton with the hydronic presute of the
mud suspension (p= lt 12 glem?) apna the solo that it maintains the ok
The mul presture also tens to eal of the water fw into the ole rom any perme
ble water bearing strata, Variour dil heads are avalabl, uch as auger heads for
shallow highway end borrow-pit exploration, ending hess for sol and rock, and
oring bis for taking coer Irom rock, as well as fom concrete and asphalt
pavement
Coninvovsfight augers witha rotary dail are probably the most popular
method of soil exploration a present (ig 33) in North America and Europe. The
igh act esa stew conveyor t bring the soll fo the surface. The method is
fpotcale inal soil elthough in saturated sand under several et of hydrostatic
pressure the send tends flow ata the ed etons othe auger, requiring wash
‘own prior osatpling- Borings up o neatly 100 man be made wit these devices,
leyening on the driving equipment, soil and auger siz. The augers may be
SHoestem ot sol, withthe holow sem ype generally peeered as penetraion
tesing o ube sampling maybe done through the stem. Borings do not have to be
(ood aig contituou-fight supers for obvious reasons, and this isa decided
economic advantage over other boring methods. Comtinuous-fght augers are e
Bs
ronson aur 0 Mose MES 123
Inspection ofthis st of auger diameters indicates that a wide range of tube
sample diameters may be uted. Tube samples aze genealy limited to about
00 mm diameter however, to obian the best lance betwee sample quality and
the cot of dling the bok
“The actual hole diameter wil be on the onde of 12m larger than the auger
sive. In practive a cfting bead isataced 1 a auger fight, and wih or without a
head plus depending on the si andthe Roles advanced, At the desired dept the
plug removed (uscd) and a penetration test performed andor a tube sample
covered. IF pg not used, sol cuttings that have accumulated a he bottom
have to be removed eo tha the text can te made ora sample recovered. Caution
‘Should be exeresedin removing the plug Below the water able since a diference in
Ivater level inside and outside the auger stem may create a temporary quick
‘Sond in the bos sol unl the water evel stabilizes, Auge igh are added
required andthe hol s advanced to a depth domed adequate for he purpose of
the exploration,
Pereusson dling is til another method of forming a hole. En this method
the dil sited, rotated ight, and dropped ont the bottom ofthe ole. Waters
‘related to bring the soil euttings to the pround surtace; casing i required as wel
‘6 pup to cculate the water
ING
The most important engineering properties required for foundation design are
strength, compresbily,and permeability, Reasonably good estimates ofthese
EEmpes which ean be obtained with moderate dificult is nearly impossible 0
fbiain a truly undisturbed sample of sil so im general wage the tm
idigcurbed" means a sample where some precautions have been taken 10
minimize diturbance or remolding ert In this context, the quality of an
undaturbed™ sample vaner widely between soi laboratories. The following
represent some ofthe fctors that make an undisturbed sample ard to obtain:
1. Sample aay nlaaded ofthe in stu confining pressures, with Some unknown
resting expansion, Lateral expansion oceurs int the sides ofthe borehole so
that in situ teste Using the hole diameter ax 4 relerence are “disturbed” an
tusknown amount. This the reason K fl tess are so dieu.
2. Samples collected from otber than tests pit are disturbed by volume displace
tment ofthe tobe, or other collection device which has some ite volume to
fase grain placement when pushed or driven into the soi. The presence of
fravel greatly aggravates sample diurbance,
3. Sample rion on the sider of the collection device tends to compress the
Sample during weovery. Most simple tubes are or shouldbe) swaged so that
the ettng ede fs slighy smaller than the inside tube diameter to rede the
side ftion 124 roxxosni ana BeRON
44 Unknown changes in water content depending on recovery method
presence or absence of water in ground or borehole
5. Los ofhydrostatc pressure may cause gat bubble void to form inthe sa
6 Handling and transporting sample fom the site 10 the Inborstory
tranaering the sample fom sampler to testing mache
1. Quality and atitde of dling crew, laboratory technicians, and the supe
cgineee,
|& Wosking environment. On very hot or oold days samples may dehydrate
freeze if mot protected on ste Worker attitudes may deteriorate i tempera
tis close 1o impossibe to obtain “undisturbed” samples of cohesinles mata
for strength testing. Sometimes samples of reasonable quahy can be obtina
sing thiaoralled piston samplers in medium. to fine-grained sands. In granl
material, and in all dense material, samples with minimal disturbance ai
‘obiained only with extteme difcuty. Dilation oovure in dense sands at g
‘combination of volume displacement of the sampler nd any pice of gavel wig
fateh onthe cutting edge to give i larger apparent volume, Some stems a
‘ben made to recover cohesioness materials by Irezing the soi, rezing © 2p
around the sample (but aot the sample) or injecting aspbalt which isla
dissed from the simple, but most commonly thin-walled piston sampler
‘ed fo obtan “undisturbed” samples A survey of frcaing methods and a
analysis ofa recent atemp ie given y Singh eta (1983.
‘test pit may be used to recover a quality sample bu the large amount of
hand work wll make tifcul to justify the expense The devices shown in Figo
can te used to recover disturbed samples from a boring for visual classic,
Sieve analyses, and chemical tet
The primary use of "undisturbed" cohesionles samples to obtain the un
weight or Felative density, The weight of soln the known volume ofthe Sample
allows a reasonable determination of unit weight, and even i the sample bas been
Inter disturbed by tansporting it fom the ste to the laboratory. Am attempt
transfer a cobesionless sample from a tube to testing machine for strength
determination isnot likely to meet with moch success A sample rebuilt inthe
laboratory to the in stu weight i lacking in both natural cementation andl
anisotropy which are significant factors in both strength and. pees
‘stimates. Some laboratories are ofthe opinion tit atsotrope simples can be
built to duplicate in sta and thatthe samples can be “aged” to ttover some
‘natural cementation. Even assuming this ean be don, few projects could justi the
expense forthe small incense n condence level obtained.
Since it & neatly imporsble to recover “undisturbed” samples ‘om
cohesionless deposits, dens, stength, and compressibility estimates are usually
obtained fom penetration texts or other in sity ithods. Permeability may be rartonmnos sours ism season wnannpaoes 12S
[fo the laboratory ee
fosand the oper
——
i —
fps my dehycrate,
Monkesonless mate
fatty con be obtain Msn se
oe ——
Feet crural GQ == IE
oe _ SSS
FOURE4 Spel smping ook 0) Stpamp sampler
oes of rave wi
some stems hg
Pera tecing« al
Bea which ic
fps. sper a
fig methods anda
t
Fate rg amount
Pics stownin Fg
rina’ casitestiog
1s pumping ain hr 3 ame
timated from well paping test, oF approximately, by bling the boring and
Shseving the tine forthe water level toe some amount
Disturbed Sampling
Disturbed samples ate adequate to locate suitable borrow where compaction
characterise and index tests foe classfeation are usally sunt. In this case a
large-diameter auger (asually oly shallow depts) maybe used so that bags of
representative sll maybe obtained for laboratory compaction fests, ive analyses,
fd the Aterbeg limits ti
Recognising the dificult, and resulting expense, of obtaining undisturbed |
samples its commnon practice en most foundation projects to rely on pensation
tents and recovery of disturbed samples for obtaining eximate of the soil
Condition. The standard penetration tet of Sex. 37 is most commonly wed, since
‘sturbed sampl is tecovere, but oer types, particulary cones, ae also widely
sed. The later devices donot recover a soi sample.
Figure 3 lsat the sompling spoon also called spi spon) commonly
sed, smade up of diving shoe to evar a reasonable serve ie from driving
ft the soil and Bartel The barel consists of apiece of ube split (pit spoon)
lengthwise wth «coupling on the upper end to connect the dil od to the sufe
Tnerts (ee Fig 50) are axed when samples of thin mud and sand are to be
bitchin eal
Dono somo
feast
ice for el
{St uate
fel once al
(i rma
Bon sla cant
(eo cwe some
Bescon nib oe
Bed samples foal
Votimates are usualy
Prameabity may be |
secovered Ina test the samplers diven nt the soil a measured distance, with the
blows recorded. The sampler ie then lightly twisted to shea thes atthe base of
‘he tube and withdrawn. The shoe and coupling are unscrewed and the two halves
of the bare are opened to expose the sample. Onsite unconfined compres ge
tests ae routinely made on any cohesive semples recovered. The diviag shox wal
thickness of Fig 35a indents any sample recovered by this devie are likely 10
De highly distro
Representative samples from the sil on the sampler bacrel ace stored in
sample jas and retirmed tothe labortery fr inspection aad easifation, The
fed ecnician marks the jar id with the job snd boring number, sample depth
These ja samples are usually lage enough to provide sufcient material for
the Auerberg limits and astral vater content. In routine work these index
‘ropes used with corelation ables and charts, ogster with gare suficient to
‘ele the foundation type estinate the allowable bearing capacity, and make sme
Kin of probable secemeat estimates. This s particularly true if the soli sil
shove the water table, or overconslidated and fsured where ts dificult 1
Push a thinalld sample tbe and/or obtain an intact sample for compression
tes. The penetration number (a measure of revstance) i usally sficent for
making both strength and settlement estimates in coesioales soil: Where the
sotehnical consultant has had sunt experience to ull a reasonable data
base, sreagh/setementprdietions made inthe manner are quite squats for
about 85 to 90 percent of foundation work
Tis that other 10 to 15 percent ofthe work which causes geotechnical
the engineer Recognizing both the diel of obtaining a quality sample an of
trying to return tothe, condition for laboratory testy in sta tests described in
later sections may be wsed. This is parclarly tru for important sutures
founded on ine to medium sands and where very sft cotesive andor organic sis
tare present Only thin seam ofthese later sols may be sfient to cause reat
problems, In any cas, unless competent lower strata ae close enough to decide 2
Viable foundation alternative immediatly, some testing of (or) these poor oils
Wl be required
‘As the fled boring progresses and sof layers are encountered in the zones
Which may infvene the foundation selecton/design, undisturbed samples are
"sully taken so that consolidation and more refined laboratory strength tess can
bemade Ifthe sols extremely sot or experience indicates in sit test should be
sade (and the necesary equipment is avilable), only afew “undisturbed” tbe
samples for consolidation tess should be taken. Asa genera utube sample for
consolidation tests shouldbe atleast 12 am larger than the consolidation ing.
Practice, « 76mm tube sample is often collected for use inthe 64mm (2a)
diamierconslidomete. Sometines 3 Sbsmm tube sample is used with « 45am
(1875%n) diamter consoldometer, but ths practice is not resommended Tube
samples larger than 761mm can be obtained but i much larger than 109 mn 8 ‘Undisturbed Sampling
premium may be charged forthe extra dilng effort and tube eost—paricua
or tans steal tubes to contol rut
Recovery of “undisturbed” spies in cobeive soil is aocomplished by replac
the split spoon on the dri od with specially constructed thiaowall (16 to
1uge) seams sta tubing which shouldbe pushed, buts sometimes driv,
ube length ino the soit. The tube slightly rotated, or a special euting device
tached, 10 cut the sample of. Friction hold the sap athe ube asthe sam
is withdrava; however, there are also special vale or piston (Fi.
‘ents which wsea pressure diferent! (uction) to eal the si
‘special sampler termed fll sampler (Fig 0) was develop
(bee Hvorley (1549, p. 269}, Kjeman (1948)} 10 overcome two, pring
deficiencies ofthe usual sampling tubes and piston samplers. These dflenen
short sample length and sdefeetion betwoen wal and sol tis ored into
sampler. Reducing se rtionZequics using short sample tubes Ione sin «el
suspected of being. particulary troublesome, it may be necesery to (al
continuous samples, This i not pracsial with samplers of say 1 maximal
length because ofcoatiaully pulling the dil rods co atach «new tube The al
sampler is « means of reovering simples 10 to 29m in leat with mim
Fretion eect. The interested reader should consul the cited releences forex
deals, but esenialy the sampler operates by Sit pacig it om the bottom of hl
borehole Next iti pushed into the nik 24 the sample enters the tube i
surrounded by 16 ol (iin metals alu 1 te wide by 31019 mm
Strips which cary the saniple up the tube ition between soi and fos resi
reducing the compressive strest inthe sample as the length of recovered samp
increases inthe tbe,
Liners which ae simply thin-walled tubes plod inside the sampler bar
portion ate sometines used, The sample scold, the exterior bare opened
{nd the liner containing the sample is removed
though sample disturbance depends on fctors such as rate ofpeaetaton
whether the cuting free is ebtained by posbing or driving and presence of gavel
italso depends on the ratio ofthe volume of sl diplacoment to the volume of th
collected sample exprested stn area aio Ay
pi-p}
100 )
where D, = ouside diameter of tube
(= lnsde diameter of cuting edge
Weltdesigne sample tubes should have an area ratio of lest than about 10 perce ‘bin thin-val tube has an A, of about 13 percent 8 compu
[the widely wed
Example 3.1)
a term wed in estimating the degre of disturbance ofa cohesie ap
rock core sample i the recovery rato Ly
th of recovered sample
th of recovered sample q
recovery ratio of 1 (ecovered length ofthe sample = the Tenth sampler wal
RASS ing the stratum) indeates that, theoretically, che sample dd! aot becom
er so om faction on tbe A recovery rato greater than 1.0 would od
sreerrng of th sample from rearrangement of stones, rots, removal of preloay
for other factors
vate Baal analysis, however, engineering judem
1s the ress of ets on “undisturbed” samp
neat must be relied upon
exteapo eso the prediction of al
behavior
Sottin, Using ia menos
SAD fim Te cal 1D of thea sil as
aad deen on the ample asthe tubes posed it
abstton nt Eq (1 ges
vl
36 MARINE SAMPLING
“Tne cuteat interest in ofbhor
ther purposes ts well hase
SSmpies. Obviously marine sampl
Get han land sampling The pre
feibly obtain sa general overview
Conjunction with conventional onsho
onstruction, primarily for energy recovers but
fads demand for & means to obtain underWaeh
ting Boing to be orders of magniide MOH
Sat state of arts such that about al ne cl
of the subsurface conditions. This is usd i
ore methods (such ae pile deving or foot
Seat to make afoundation design, Usually ples are driven to refusal or bear
see resp taken aval vals. Aste desig database improves 9
‘atonal methods of design wil surely be usd
"There ate a number of methods for samp
are in he resatch stage, but one of the more popular methods uses mount
ae in al arling equipment ona boot or barge specially modified fr
carve and dls through a casing exending tothe osan for. Tht method
Parresed considerably inthe Gul of Mesico and along the shallower water al
vets pcntal tives on both the AUantc and Pacific coasts, Penetration, vi
hd preuremete ets can be made inthe borings
in docper water, alferoative methods are 0
ing soils rom the ovean for hil
sd including submarine pet 38 computed
ance of & cohesive
ie ath sampler
ample didnot oot
ban 10 would ind
seroval of pel
stb ied upon
ibe prediction of
ie te
fle obain OD = 2g
athe D of he aig
it he) ia
cra secovery bat i
Wo obtain undenw
of magitude
at about al one
Fein. Thine wd
Psp driving o foot
frst, or bain
{teas improves,
fom te ocean oor
Fpl modified ford
itor This method
Fettaiower waters al
beting submarine
vessels and proectieaype devices which are lowered t0 the
Inechanisms commanded from the surface may be ed to foe
the soi sing the weight ofthe veel or device for sree
‘may contain gas or explosive charge to propel» sample
thing the weight ofthe ftal device as 2 teaetion
The most promising method for deep water ems 10 be to esabsh 4
connection ence about and th oan for tung casing wig re
alow or wave action. A sample tubs wih drive wight atacheg eee
om apart and
ames) The
ssemblag i then seated onthe sol inthe borehole (aftr cleaning it of loo
tuttings)Next the sample i driven adstanoeof 150m to vat ton undisturbed
Sel with his blow count also ecordd (unless the system weight inks the sampler
S0 no XY can be coutted The blow count for ach of the next two 150mm
increments i wed asthe penetration count unless the Inst increment cannot be
completedcither from encountering rock ofthe count execs 50 In this case
the Blow count for the last 308 mm is computed and sed for N
SPT testing prior to about 1967 (according to ASTM) only required the
sampler to be seated and then driven 305 mm. This could reduce the N count
realy 80 percent since the frat 150 mm of requied seating produces substemial
fretio resistance on the sampler fo the next 305 mm. Sadly, many curent SPT
éertelations are based on N values from this ear procedure
The boring log shows “zfusal” and the testi halted if
1. 50 blows are required for any 10mm increment.
22.100 blows ate obtained.
4. 10 successive blows produce no advance
The boring log may show a ratio as
70/100 or 50/100
indicating that 7 (or 50) blows resulted in a penetration of 100 mm (4) but this
isnot an ASTM reauirement Excessive equipment wear. as well suet eu
deiing meterage results when blow counts are high, Standardization of ful at
100 bows allows al the diling organizations to standardize cost so that higher
blow counts result in & negotiation for higher costlength of boring or regu
some ype of coring operation
Prior to~and afler—ASTM standardization it was regulary observed that,
W values in adjacent borchols oom using diferent equipment a adjacent les
were not reproducible. Besne of wide SPT use this problem received mush
atention—fist by Gibbs and Holt (957) who considered overburden pressure
‘nd leath of dil rod were the principal eases of nonreproductiity. BeVoad this
not much was done unil de Mello (1971) present a comprehensive ierature
survey which started a focus onthe desing energy [Schmertmann (1975)
Discrepancies canbe caused from items such a using a warped/ wor driving
shoe, pushing a rock (usualy detected by an experienced drier) and allowing 4
‘tick condition inthe hole bostom by to rapid withdrawal of auger o bit pl. of
ftom a dflerentil water ve between GWT and i ole or stem of oll auger).
This later is voided by atention tothe ASTM standard The sats ofthe deve
shoe can be ensured by regular inspection, and especialy ater ard driving
This leas the input devng energy and its dspation around the sampler
Into the surrounding si asthe principal actors forthe wide range in N vale
Te should be evident thatthe blow count would be diety related to the Avving energy which is thooretcally computed as follows
ean
and subttuting Eq, () into Ea. (@) we obtain
w
(gh) = We
where = weight or mass of hammer and h~ height of fll This give, for
andard 635 kg hater and h~ 762m (30a, the heretical input devil
coer of
= 635 x 9807 x 0762 = 4745 (3,499)
=39-R
Energy measurements show thatthe acta! input diving energy to th
sampler to produce penetration bas been found to range from about 30 to 8
ferent by Kovacs and Salomone (1982) and from about 70 to 100 percent
Riggs ea. (1983). I appeats these diserepancis ars from factors such as
1. Bguipment from diferent manufcturer, There area large variety of ding
rigs incutren! use however, the rotary auger of Fig. 3-34 withthe safety hare
2 Drive hammer configurations of Fig. 3-7—the anvil aso seems to have some
intucnce onthe amount of energy input co the sample.
3. Whether
(ihe hammer wses an automatic trip with the drop beight h contcolled
(&) a vope-athcad (low speed power takeoff pally) system is used (ee Fig
48) with, dependent on
i diameter and condition of rope
it diameter and condition of cathead (usty, clean et nd whether using
125 or 200 min diameter—200 mm is common in North Ameries)
i. number of turns of rope around catbead as Tf 23, et. I appeas
thats sominal 2 turns optimum and in wide se. There may be some
influence on wheter the rope polled from the top (1 turns) or from
the bottom (2} turns) ofthe ethead
the actual op height at which the operator eleases the rope to allow
the hammer fee al. Riggs (1986) sugess the operator commonly
‘veritsan average of SO mm (actual drop height ~ 810mm) This eu
ffom the operator pulling the rope int the soning cahead (Fig. 34)
td viswaly observing the Ht to'a mark (ee Fig. 7) on the guide rod
fd then rkasing the rope back toward the eathead soit loosens and 1 This 30, for
‘rica inp ving
93
ing every, oth
fom about 30 to
(Oto 100 percent by
factors such a8
oe varity of dig
{hth safety harm
seers to have som
{ah controlled i
em is ued (2 Fig
od whether wig
‘orth Ameria)
23, ete Tt appeass
There may be some
(1 tums) or fom
8 he rope to allow
‘operator commonly
10mm, This resi
geathead (Fig 34)
7) on the guide rol
30 loosens aod
allows the hammer to fill Reston time and mark visibility results in
{his overt. The operator commonly obtains 40 to 50 blowin
44. Whether a inersused inside the split barrel sample, ide riton increases the
Arvin resistance (end N) and iss without thelner (shown in Fig 3-5) Tis
common practice otto use a liner Also it would app that values should
be larger for sis with OCR > I (and larger relative density D,) than for soils
normaly consolidated,
Overbutdenpressure~ soil of the same density wil gve smaller N vals is
smaller (as near the ground surfs). Oversize boreholes onthe order of 13010 18 reece aero
210 mm wil algo reduce N unless a rotary hollow stem suger is used wi
fuger left in cose contact with the soil in the hole bottom, Deg
‘emenation may als be significant in giving higher N counts in cementdy
‘which may have ite overburden pressure
Length of drill rd~above about 10 m the rod length doesnot seem ei
however, for shorter lengths and N < 30it is This fc was fis examina
Gibbs and Holts (1957) and later by McLean et al (1975) and other
Schmertmann (1979) who wsed a computer model to analy the luca
rod length as wel as other factors such as sampler ressance
From te several recent studies ced (and their reference ists) i has
suggested thatthe SPT be standardized to some energy rao &, whith shoul
computed as
= Stal hammer enery to sampler Es
. input ener, E, oo
‘There are proposal to compute By based on the measured hammer velo
limpet with than ora the mestred energy inthe dri od jst below the
Would appear, however, that using the theoretical value given by Ey (fol
‘would be preferable ae it not equipment dependent
Since there is wide seater in and the rein blow count V when
reasonable to expect there should be a unique N for the wil at some dept i
nergy ratio value By. To this way a Gril ig with, s3y, B= 49 wou
ajustment othe standard Ey compute approximately the same N count ra
Gril rig with E, = 70. Thee ae several current suggestions forthe vale of
Standard eneray rato Eg a follows
5000S (we 8) Sehmemane fm Roberton a (ORD
The author will use 70 since the more recent data using current dil
quipment with a safety or an automatic hummer and with drier attention
[ASTM D 1586 dtalls inden this ilo tothe actual energy ratio, ob aia
North American practice Ifa dierent standard energy rio By s spel
however, isa teva exercise to convert tothe diferent base as wll be sho
folowing
Thestandad blow count V9 canbe computed from themeasuredN aol
Ngg= Gy N 5m Xs a Xe ger is wed wit Where Ng = adjusted N using the subscript forthe Ey and thet indicate it has
bouom. Deze been acjusted,
atin cemente Cy=adjustnent Tor overburden presure computed (see Liso and
Whitman (198) as:
asst examine)
15) and olber
sys the influence
is kt kPa for kglem?
m= 1 9576 3
‘init has a
YE. which should
‘The value ofp the sefeence overburden pressure which has been some
what arial taken at 2k ot kg
ne adjustment ctor fom (and computed as shown) Table 33
100 «
‘Note that large values of, dcreese the blow count N nearly nearly, that i
gs Gives N= 20 and Eg ives N= 10; however, using the “standard” valu of
Ese Gives an N valve for ue in Eq, @-3) of N= 13 for ether dil rig We obtain
ths by noting thatthe energy rao x blow count should bea constant so
bamner velit
jue blow the an
en by Ea (efor By
Bax Ny= Bax Ms ©
sroovot N when
at some depth iti
ood to a sande
B= 45 would
ne count a ome
foe che value of te
wre Et aN on)
Sine we will we E, =70 this gives, in pera
ie
For the previous example of Fy = 20 we obtain
5
45
XN giving m= 8 @0)
Ie we conyerted Ny to Nog we have
Sing current ding a
dr attention
‘alo B,obained it
tio Ey is spoil,
‘605 wil be shows
=15_ which i tanger as prdited by Ea. (@))
Using the reationship given by Ea (e) we can readily convert any energy rato to
ny other base but we do have to know the energy ratio at which the Blow count
trae obtained inal.
asured Wasfollow
) 138 roan
Factors, for Eq. (-3t
Tei evident that al y,= 1 for the eat ofa small bore hole no sampler Kinet
length of dil rod over 10 m (30) andthe given dil ig has E,~ 7. In this cal
the only adjustments for overburden pressure using Cy, This observation is mae
sinc there are several epiions on corsetons
1. Do nothing which with current equipment and conditions may be neal
comet. This may have an advantage of detstinginrease of sol hens
With depth and upper variations may inate cementation gf OCR > 1
2. Adjust only for overburden pressure (ll = 1 and Cy = some value)
4 Use Eq. (3). This is probably the best method but requires cquipmeal
callration for &,-—both equipment and operator. It wll lo require relat 2 pert onal
hole, no sample tn
as, = 70 In this ca
“is observation smal
ions may be oss
ae of sol ties
ion of OCR > I
ut requires equiped
“il also require regula
recalibration of the individual dling sax to sccount for wear general
‘quipment changes with use, This prooadure will probably become mandatory
fe extrapolate N data soross geographic regions where diferent equipment
(Gnd Ese
Conventional practice ie to do an SPT every 1 or 2m (2} or Sf) afer
penetating the topsoil o starting the fist test at about | to IY m depth. For each
{Br there «sample reovery of about 460 mm (18 in) incding the seating depth
to provide visual profile of around 50 percent ofthe boring depth
‘Cobesionlss sample are visalyypected and a portion saved in gs jar
con which is marked jo, boring number depth, and fd N. Cohesive samples are
ttemed similarly except ge tte are routinely made—most often vsing pocket
penetometr (se Fig 3-9) for sever values with the average recorded. A small
ompresion machine ca be taken othe eld for 4, tests; however, boats of the
cre adjustment for strain (shown of Fig. 2-23) ths not commonly done. As a
Supplement in cohesive sols itis unual practice to take several thinwall tube
Samples or laboratory testing a8 necessary (and to verily the Belg)
"The original SPT was develope for sand: however, a present ts commonly
done ut the given depth fr al soils
Several cxampes wil strate the wse of Eq (3)
Required: What is te sanded" ased on
F4= Wank Eee C= (°S7)
= 114 fom Table 33 sample computation shown
Told £5 10m
T= 100, oul United States ratio no ne
vamp 33
ow
216 (only ges)
2.2 ut with ample nea ad, = 4.
10 (deme and en) n= 1.05 HrvoRnON see. AND NAT su ASHES LA
mp 34
Sune a sample 32 but = Sy; = 10KPs; 205mm boll set age,
hate eon = 6
Nae Bisa ar
38 SPT CORRELATIONS
The SPT has ben use in correlations for unt weight relative density D,, angle of
intemal freton @, and undrained compressive strength 4, For reasons it the
preceding section these willbe of questionable vale partic! sine many were
‘egpested prior extensive study ofthe large mumbo variables afecng the
‘lus. The data shown in Table 3-4 for Dy sad relate roughly to Ny and for
borehole depths onthe order of 4 to 6 m a for spread foundations
TABLE Epica vals for gD,» and unit weight of granular soils bused on the SPT.
bout 6 m dep and norm ‘aluesn Table shouldbe wed ction, tower, a umber ig
Intra ND and such a aging satura comectation, wae, ng
soil grains, what relative terms such as fine, medium and coarse constitute, a
4 telainsip for and D, was proposed inde by Mesh 9S
Skempton (1986) shows that A and B tend tobe site dependent with a rangeig
for ive sols from 15 to about Si and in B from 0.306 to 0.204 (onthe Ny
This spread is such that using an average valve for A and B is somewhat
however, the average
B
with im KPa. For about 6m depth we obtain Niy/D? = 60 which i
85 a guide in designating the N values for normally consolidated san
Table M4
‘Skempton (1986) also suggested adjustments for OCR > 1 as
= 32.4 0286p, a
4+ BCcxr, os
where Coc th ratio ofthe mean normal elective testes (as wed fr tral
presen Chap. 2)
forthe normally and overcosolidated cses to obttin Coon
14 2Ksoon
aeons
Use any of Eas. 218) through (225) to obtain the lateral earth pre
coaicents K,
CCorrciations fr N vay have been given inthe form of
where the coeficient tends 1o beste dependent: however, value of
been used (Le, for N~ 10, q, = 28 kal}, Corelations for Nand conssene
cohesive deposits (sot sill hard, et) ae given in Table 35,
‘With current practie of recovering samples and routinely inspecting th
‘nd performing on st tess with a pocket penetrometer, strength correla
are not recommended. Consistency correlations are very poor anyway boca
‘atiations in OCR, aging sample water content, presence or absence of del
“uid, locaton of GWT, and generally variability of sol deposits,
2
310
“ tase number ofl
fon, water, angular
by Meyer (19th
dent with a range
10s (on the Nie
(628 is somewhat a
os
02 = 60 whichis
‘conolidated sind
R> tas
6
(as wed for tana
seroranon mer, 00 war0 sou emer 16)
Comsistoney of strated cobesve sist
Site ces ge wen gd
x ‘ey en ome pce
49. DESIGN N VALUES
Early recommendations were to use the smallst N value in the boring or an
average ofall the value, Current practic is to use an average N but in the zone of
interest For example fra spread footing the 2one of interes is rom about one
hal he footing with B above the estimated Bae loation toa depth of 2 blow,
Weighted averaging using depth increment = Nis urvally preferable 19 an
For pls theres merit in averaging the N count or any given stratum unless
itis go thik (a eative term), where one or more subdivisions might be we,
‘The average Wi (or other base value) can then be computed fom the
average Nand strats daa, o individual Ny values ean be computed and then
Prior to about the mid-sntis value were adjusted when taken blow the
seater abl however, current practice not to apply water able corretions. fone
‘eto ue values to obtein the stresestruin moduli, which generally increases
with depth, reat cares required in adjusting N, For exampl using Cain Ea 3)
Would modify any toa value coresponding to.a depth producing 9
95.76kPa (2ksf) and eliminate most of any appuret depth eects On the other
hand, fw want unigue value of fora zone of say, 2B beneath a spread footing
we should use Cy with the several W values and average the els
OTHER PENETRATION METHODS
There are a number of ether penetration methods in use of which the cone
penetration test ofthe nea section appears be the next most widely use ater
the SPT.
Figure 310 isa Swedish weight sounding method used in preliminary site
studies. The dvie i pushed to @ depth and weights added nt begins to sl: tum ito the ground. The weight and numberof hallcurs to advance 1 m are
(eebaded I's weight of 100g Joes ot start the device ii turned by hand with
{he alfturn eorded for 100 kg. The so types elated tothe weight versus tr
thot (sof si, medium clay, le) This test Sometimes used in Europe and
Japan but not moch elsewber.
igure Aliya dynamic coe penetrometer. Cone dimensions and shape
‘aries omc but the more common shape with typical dimensions i shown. A
Tne cig commonly 50k fling 00 mm) is wed to advance the cone, Some
‘Shurgurtions alow the dive cod tobe pled leaving the cone in place. The test
fas uppicton in hard or gravely sil Tis tet snot used inthe United States
but has considerable popolrity elsewhere.
‘Data usualy number of Blows to advance the cone in increments of
Trgore 3:12 are 6? cones used in very gravely soils Data ae collected
Sdentcal tothe SPT and the same diving weight and height ofall are usually wed
‘The Palmer and Stuart (cone) is used some ia the United Kingdom snd
ccasinilly lewhere
igur13 ira hand beld penetrometer developed by the US. Waterways
Experiment Station. "The devise hes application at shallow depts o to check the
‘hus ofpread fotngso the bas oflarge dlameter drilled pers. Lean also be used
to find local soft ares where compaction conto is exered
“These devises and variations on them ae deicebed inthe two Proceedings of
European Sympostans on Pencnaton Testing (Stockholm (1978), Amsterdam
(9
PENETRATION TEST (CPT)
The CPT isa simpletest that is becoming very widely usd in ew ofthe SPT for
tat days and fine to medium coarse sands. The test does not have any
pplication in gravels and stffhard clays The testis performed by pushing the
‘Standard cone (according to ASTM D 3441 with a 60° point and base diam
537mm with cronesectton area of 10cm?) into the ground ata rate of 10 to
SDmmiy The test may be penodicaly halted to attach 11m rods to extend the
dept however some push soafgurations allow extra length of rod fora nearty
‘continous push
‘Data coleted is the dp resistance 4, and sleeve friction resistance q, and
cause of the lage quantity of data‘on a continuous push clestronic data
awison cquipmencs usally used Thirmay bein the form of strip reorders or
{iat signals fed into a microcomputer. The microcomputer bas an advantage i
that small sales requ for most strip chart records can be avoided
“There sala five cone configurations eurreny being se:
1. Mechical—the eacies type often calle the "Dutch cone” since it originated
inthe Nethedands, A typ later configuration wih a frition sleeves shown
on Fig. 3 pt ua (al
esse 4, and
alow measur
int resivanel
Pirstion pickup
shock xo that he
(1985)
to measure th
tet is usual
very hard sols or sock are not encountered forthe depth of inteest.The ets als
‘ery rapid when eletronic data acquisition equipment i wed,
Data from the CPT is tsed to establish allowable bearing capacity and for
pile design, Data may be used to corroborate other testing methods and ean be
Used fo approximately clasfy sis inthe range in which the tests applicable
Daa generally requires supplemental informatio fom othe exploration methods
(Gorings and sample recovery for laboratory ets and visual inspection) since there
is usually substantial seater ia the penetration recor.
‘Typically the point resistance and seve friction are used fo compute a
fection ratio fas
n= Bx 100
Sands usually have a friton ratio fe <1 percent; clays are lager and peat may
have afe> 5 or 6 percent 18 room ana AN ORC
‘typical dataset is shown on Fig. 315b as obtained from an electric ong
ting stip recorders and. continuous logging With a mechanical con til
procedure sin steps axon Fig. 314b wherein position | the cone is seated: posing
FTadvances the cone tip to measure qs position 3 advances the fiction sleeve i
‘measure qs and position 4 advances both sleeve and tpt measure 4, = 4. + gg
‘Ths prosedre gives check on g, which can be computed 8 4: a ~ 41
compare wth tht from position 3 The rition ratio i computed using Ba. C.
‘Cone data may be dietly used in design—usually the parameter of inttag
is some multiple af 1s sometimes wed in correlations 10 relat othe desig
propery of interest such sy elative density D, for sands and tothe unérane
Shear stength for eabesve sols or soll clatifcation (Fig. 3-16) Iti ala
Converied fo equivalent SPT N values All of these corrationt have song
Following; however, there fa substantial scatter and alternative verfcation shoul
be used whenever possible (auch as borings with sample recover).
The cone bearing resistance qe has been related to the undrained she
strength using an approximation ofthe bearing capacity equation ofthe ne
‘hapter 1o ideally q a8 an “ultimate bering strength” and
and solving for,
9]
Js a
fh By
rans
fath/
A sits Fitey ay /
Ce ey,
{tA rom 20 ec cong
Inecssical coe ty
tooeis sete: postog
Fie ction eee
Dmeasure a = 4. + ge
fed as «4 a
puted ing Ba.
parameter of tea
forelste co the desig
fd (othe undrsingd
(ig 316) 1s ale
froltons have somal
the verfction shou
the undrained shea
‘egoton of the net
4
oy
where p.= ye = overburden presure at point where q, is measured as pre
‘ously defined and used fad in units of.)
Nc cone faetor (or constant fr that sila that point) and has been
found to range frm about Sto 7S, however, most values are i the
10 to 30 range with values between 15 and 20 commonly ated
Figure 317 san approximate corclation which might be wed.
Aas etal (1986) suggest adjusting q for pore presure to a otal valve
computed as
where a= a area ratio which depends onthe cone type (gap behind cone and
locaton of piezometer Fig 14a has a gap behind the cone)
sr measured pore presure as previously defined
With tis adjustment the undained shear strengths is computed as
6%)
Here Nar isthe coe factor ain the previous equation but wih the T subscript to
identify the adjustment ing ogy. Tis claimed that wsing gy area reduces the
seater in the cone bearing and inthe sone factor). Aas etal (1986) report CCohesionlss Soils
results ofthis adustment for a numberof cays where the seater was suiceny
reed thatthe following equation (author interpretation) can be usd
81,
Thus fora clay with a plasticity index Ty
botwoen 132 and 172.
in general one should obtain several tube sampes and obtain 5 vals to
establish te likely values) of Nz of Nee tne factors suchas OCR. ran sz, any
Unit weigh, cementing. aging. ee, are sghifcant variables, For morally
Consolidated clays of low snsitity (ay S,< 4) and Ip 30 vals of Ny ofan
Band Nur of 14 may be saisactory
c
7 cg
0 we Would expect Ney = 152 4 206
Figure 318 isa conaton for relative density D,. This gure sepresents the
thors comporite of two revisions by chmertmann (978) and ltr compariey,
‘OcK et by Scena ne eter Was suing
Dean bewsed
G19)
obtain valves t
[OCR grain zs and
thles For normally
{value of No about
fore represents the
td later comparison
‘otnOn rune Axo mason weasRBues 181
by Vit and Mitchell (1981). This figure isto be used with Fig. 2-24 0 estimate
‘he angle of internal fection for sands as identi Figure 3-190 and ae
relations for to sien by Begemann (1974) and Robertson and Campania
(0983), These gures represent several recommendations or are the ret of several
Previous tal correlations. Figure 3-196 only applies for normally consolidate,
uncemented sands For sands with OCR > I the angles tend to be one to wo
egres larger There isa problem with cemented sands, however, where some work
indicates that cementation may give very lage increases ing without the same
tendency io increase. This means that forall pratl purposes cemented sand
has a significant cohesion interoep.
Ifyou use parameters rom correlations, use as many correlations s practic
and ifthere sno large seater, average thereat I there ea large etter ve
‘consideration to obtaining samples otherwise, you have a considerable exereae
ginerng judement
Since there sa large data ase of SPT cortelatons, some effort has been
directed to oblaining a correlation between q. and N. Figure 3-20 gives a
‘elationship between the ratio Nan the mean grain sie. The mean grin size eine 8 the Dag size from a sieve analysis (6 Fig, 2b which shows Dao =
5mm for the “poorly graded” soil OF the several parameters studied, rl
Sie has been found to give the Jest seater inthe ge versus telaonsip
Rogue Estimate ange of ine ton
Solaion. (= 8 1135 85
2P (ete preas)
0 poeta curves and down and ob = 36518
shove D, = 10 and iace maxinum b= 1tduccan tin, = 1s Fg 2b
We could ue = (which is igh i i somewhat doubl whether the
1 woul peobaly ao se over 4 autos
an F inn, recs nah
Di relasonship,
Pot obin 9 ~ 3458
‘pLonne vrs. AND aT son wea SS
Fig. 16 an ote the pt it the sty and Zone and ites rom tbe
From Fig 317 extn = 18 (sing out jas made asst or a i ead
Sit we would expect an Jn te order 10 o es) With ti eta we ca se
$12. FIELD VANE TESTING (FYT)
The vane shear tet is substantially wed method to estimate the in situ unrined
shear stength of very soft sensitive, Baesrined soil deposits, Strictly ii the
consolidaed-undraned shea strengths, which is obtained inthe vane seat test
since the test starts rom the current contlidated ae (une of curs, ther has
‘boxn a recent increase in overburden pressure a rom a il),
The testis performed by inserting the vane into the soil and applying
‘orque. The vane may be inserted rom the bottom ofa borehole or pstied without
sthole by using a vane sheath sila to cone penetration text with the vane thea
extended telow the shes forthe atual test Equipment details vary somewhat
however, the vane device shown on Fig. 321ais ity typical witha traue applied
through the reduction gears shown so the rate is at about 1 to 6° per minute with
provision to measure the ange of rotation (hich can be computed according 10
8 = "7116 fom mechanic of material andcan become quite large when the depth
“tothe vaneison the order of6t0 10m). Is neces tomeaseor ells for
the tiction (both soil and bearings) inthe torque rods so this can be ducted fom
‘he otal peak torque (see Fig. 218) 0 obtain the shear strength torque, Also tis
commento crank the vane to fair, then continue cranking for 10 to 12
revolutions to remold the sil at the vane rest a period and then make &remolded
‘ane shear testo obtain the remolded torque The vane torgve T (corrected fr friton) is imply
(#20) an
To sca(Sh
Where dy k= diameter and height of vane blades and usually hid = 2
constant for type of eyinder end shear assumed by use
or uniform end shear (usutl assumption)
=} for parabolic end shear
foe teangular end shear
The vane may be rectangular or tapered (ASTM D 2573) When hd = 2and a = 3
Eq. (11) splifes in terms of undrained shear vane strength to
oamer
62)
@
and with d and inconsistent units
‘Similar to tbe SPT the vane teste made every 0.75 to 1m of depth
The vane shea test requies some interpretation. AL present it peneally
assumed that the i 25 ales too large for design. Bjerrum (1992) back
‘computed a number of embankment failures on soft clay and proposed |
313) 7
Femina topmdintieroedchurethg 30h hare nchsclane Dares ll
high-on the order of2. Walker (1985) found reasonable correlation beeween
snd iaaal laboratory tests (and also notes the test becomes dificult t depths
much over 10m),
‘Anisotropy isa significant ator inthe measured v. design also, Tis
obvious that a vertical vane Blade wil shear a cylinder of sell whose edges are
Perpendicular tothe horizontal bedding plane while the ends will hear cular
§eas tht are parallel Another significant factor is how to use the vane seat tat
to detect the effects of OCR > 1
Te is evident that one cannot use the vane shear test alone for a site
exploration, but it may be a usefl tool in conjunction with other borg and
‘sample ecovery so that ast specific correlation can fit be eaablshed and then
the vane test sed to make an economia elargement of the data Bae \
313. THE BOREHOLE SHEAR TEST (BST) intrest. Nex the shear head is cacy srt into the hole othe point wher
the shear strength sto be measured.
"The test proceeds by expanding the seratd liner halves into the si
applying prsure fom the surface through ping spstem. Next the cinder
‘Pulled wih the pling load and displacements rsorded. The expansion pressure
‘cand the pling load canbe converted to the shear strengths io make plot sil
Fig 22th fo obtain tein sito strength parameters and c
Figure 33 illustrates theese details ofthe test whic was developed Oh
rR Handy at lowa State University around 1967 and is sometimes called th
Towra Borehole Shear Test” The est undoubtedly isa drained shear test wher th
sols latina feo-draining snc the drainage pth rom the sear head eration
short if the tests peformed in the displacement range of about 05 mm/min 0 och point whe
ves nt the sol by
Naat the evlinde
fapasion pressure
Po makes plot are
hearts whore th
ear head serrations
ut 0S mm mina
34
THE FLAT
sont -
Bor avi. Aer
ino 975.
les, This ate may be too fast, however, for saturated clays and Demartincourt and
Bauer (1983) have proposed adding pore presure transducer othe shear heads
and motorizing the pull (wich was intaly done by and cranking with eduction
searing). With poe pressure measurement iis posse to obtain both total and
‘Secive stes parameters from any borehole shear tet
‘The est isappicable for al ine-rained sols and may be done even where a
trace gravel present It has prucular appeal ia good quay boteboe can be
produoad and for modest depth in liew of “undvtrbod” sample recovery and
Taboratry testing
DILATOMETER TEST (DMT)
“This tat consist of inserting the dilatometer probe of Fig. 3-24 tothe depth of
interest 2 by pushing or driving. The CPT pasting equipment can be used for
insertion of the device and in sis where the SPT Nis greater than 33 to 40 the
device ca be driven or ped from the bottom a a predriled borehole sing SPT
100) and if samples for rock quality of
Strength testing are required i wil be necessary to replace the soil il with
‘ling equipment. OF couse, i he ook Is lose to the ground surlce i wil
recesary 10 ascertain Iie represent a competent rock siatum oF i only
Suspended boulders). Whete rock i involved, i is useful to have
brckground in geology. A knowledge ofthe area pology will be uf to de
fock strata vers suspended boulders whose size can be. approxi
determined by probing (or driliag) Tor he outline. A knowledge of ea geology
tlzo scl both to delineate the type of rock and probable quality (a 5
Substantially fractured ffom earth movements, ete). This may save consider
‘expense in taking coe samples rnc thee quantity and depth ar Both depe
on anticipated Iype and quality of the rock
Rock cores are necesary if he soundness of the rock is to be esa
however core sale than those rom the AWT core bit (Table 6 end tb
up inside the dri haret. Larger cores alo havea tondency to break uP (rt
inside the barel and degrade) especialy ithe rok i soft of fred. Dri
small holes and injecting colored grout (@ water-cement mixture) int the
‘in sometimes be used to recover relatively intact samples, Colored gout out
the fesure and with some care the cocngs from several adjaceat borings can
sed fo orien the curt)
‘Unconfined and hiph-pessre cial tests can be performed on reso
cores to determine the elastic propertizs of the rock. These test are performed
Picts of sound rock from the eore simple and may wie much higher compres
Strength in aboratry testing han the “tetve™ strength available rom tbe
ras similar to reali sured ly.
Figur 3-32 illustrate several commonly sed dri bits, whic are attached
a pose of hardened sel tube (casing) 06 to 3m long. In the dling operation
Tat and easing rotate while presure is applied, thus grinding a groove around
"ype standard designation and sles fr rock dil easing
(Gare and bist feos: ly ol
Meo: dil wi
food one wl
Mech to ave a
fil bs tefl 0
Eiht apron
ie rare sc
Be cal Go
fy se cons
hr both dep
hiro be estab
ibe 8) tendo
ft break up (
Sor Sssoed Dil
Colored grou out
Gincent borings ca
selcmed on
tes are performed
‘sabe fom the
‘which are atacad
£ eiling operation
wa groove around
‘core. Water under pressure i forced down the bare and into the bit to carry the
rock dust out ofthe hole se the water is cicalated.
“The recovery-ratio term wed ear also is signifcane for core samples. A
recovery ratio ear 10 usualy indicates good-quality cock. Ia badly sued or
Soft rocks the recovery ratio may be 05 of les.
Rock quality designation (ROD) san index or measure ofthe quality of
rock mass [Stagg and Zienkiowier (1968)} wed by many engineers ROD i
‘computed from recovered cove samples
RQD oa
Teagth of core advance
For example core advance of 1500 mm produced a sample length of 1310 mm
consting of dust, gravel and intct pier of rock, The stm of lengths of pices
OO mm or lrg (pices vary Kom gravel to 280 mam) in length is 890 mm The
recovery ratio Ly ~ 1310/1500 = O87 and RQD = 89/500 = 058,
The rating of rock quality may be used to approximately establish field
redvetion of medulus of elasisity and/or eompresive stength and the olowing
may be wed esa guide Depth of Rock Cores
There are no fst rules for rock core depths. Generally one shoul! core ap
mately a follows
1. A dep suficently to fcate sound rock ort
jointed toa very great depth,
2 For heavily loaded members such as piles or died piers « dept
approximately 304m below the location ofthe base. This is to eheck thal
sound” rock does not have discontinuities at a lower depth in the
Local building codes may give requirements fr coring; however, ore
they give allowable bearing pressures which can he used if one can some
ascertain the rock quality without coring
"Adjacent core holes can be used obtain relative rock quality by compa
«rosshoke seismic wave veloc in sty to laboratory values on ntact sample
| {he eld value lexi indicates features ad jointing inthe rock mass be
holes, Downhole and surface methods are of litle value in this procedure sg
and separating the 80 is
part ofthe wave travel en the overlaying 4
Impossible with any coadenee
3418 GROUNDWATER TABLE (GWT) LOCATION
Groundwater affets many element of foundation design and onstreton so
GWT should te established as accurately as posible i is within the pr
construction zone other it sncesary only to determine where it 0
this ater ease the Ioction within +0.3 to 05m is usually adequate
The GWT is generally determined by messuing to the stablized water
inthe borehole after suitable time lapse often 240 48b ate, nso wit
permeability, such as sands and graves, 24h is adequate forthe water ler
Stabilize unless the hole hasbeen somewhat sealed with deling mod. In sis
low permeability such assis, ne silty sand, and clay, it may take several aya
several week forthe GWT to stabilize
In neary all cases ifthe GWT isto be accurately located itis physic
measured by lowering a weighted tape down the hol. In theory we might
319 NI should core appr
at iti rated al
led piess a doth
hiss check that i
pth in the ste
however, more oil
Fone can somehay
quality by comparing
son tat same
ing the 0 neat
construction so
is within the prob
ne where i not Fa
adequate
Stabilized water kel
set. In sol wit il
foe the water level i
ing mud In ie wl]
>eory we might
319 NUMBER AND DEPTH OF BORINGS
Hrionnos suerens Aso Ba so Means TL
1. Plot dase of stration S with dept its posible to elably compute S.A
eet plot of water content may te ust but for S= 100 percent my can
ocreate asthe void ratio decteses rom overburden pressure.
2 Filth ole and bali out. fe Baling a quantity, observe if the water lvl in
{he oles rising or fling. The rue level is between the bailed point where the
water was fling and the bailed depth where its hing. Ths method implies a
Tasge permeability so that t would be more practical to simpy bal the hole
move to the ext hol locaton and let the water be stabizing while other holes
se ile,
(One may spply a computational method however, this quires caping the
hole and taking periodic depth measurement tothe water tale as done for dee
‘measurements and since no one (othe author's knowiedge) computes the depth
the method is no Tonge ive (bat may be obtain rom the previous editions of
this textbook).
Soil strength (or bearing pressure) ie usully reduced Below the water table
Foundations below the water table willbe uplifted by the water presure and, of
‘ours, some kind of dewatering scheme must be employed ifthe foundations eo
‘be constructed "inthe dy
There is no clear-
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