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INTRODUCTION

Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient North Africa, concentrated along the lower

reaches of the Nile River in the place that is now the country Egypt. Ancient Egyptian civilization

followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced with the political unification of Upper and Lower

Egypt under Menes. Ancient Egyptian civilization lasted for more than 3000 years and showed an

incredible amount of continuity. That is more than 15 times the age of the United States, and

consider how often our culture shifts; less than 10 years ago, there was no Facebook, Twitter, or

Youtube.. Egypt’s stability is in stark contrast to the Ancient Near East of the same period, which

endured an overlapping series of cultures and upheavals with amazing regularity.

Intermediate Periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of

the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age. Egypt reached the

pinnacle of its power in the New Kingdom, ruling much of Nubia and a sizable portion of the Near

East, after which it entered a period of slow decline. During the course of its history Egypt was

invaded or conquered by a number of foreign powers, under the command of Alexander the Great.

The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its good agriculture in the Nile River

valley. predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops,

which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. With resources to

spare, the administration sponsored mineral.

The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians that become a great help for todays

generation and some are still have been using and that include the quarrying, surveying and

construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids, temples,

and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation

systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known planked boats, Egyptian
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faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty, made

with the Hittites. Even some of their traditional cultures have been also performed in school

activities and performances not just in Egypt but in other countries that have studied their ancient

Egypt history.

The civilization of Egypt obviously did not spring fully formed from the Nile mud;

although the massive pyramids at Giza may appear to the uninitiated to have appeared out of

nowhere, they were founded on thousands of years of cultural and technological development and

experimentation. “Dynastic” Egypt sometimes referred to as “Pharaonic” after “pharaoh”. Egypt’s

impact on later cultures was immense. You could say that Egypt provided the building blocks for

Greek and Roman culture, and, through them, influenced all of the Western tradition. Today,

Egyptian imagery, concepts, and perspectives are found everywhere you will find them in

architectural forms, on money, and in our day to day lives. Many cosmetic surgeons, for example,

use the silhouette of Queen Nefertiti whose name means “the beautiful one has come” in their

advertisements. Egypt civilization become part of our great history, we are all part of everyone nor

everybody’s country histories even though we haven’t became part of it but still we continue to

believe and embrace the culture and traditions by every performance we make in school.
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GEOGRAPHY
In ancient times, the Egyptians called the desert the "red land", distinguishing it from the

flood plain around the Nile River, called the "black land". These colors reflect the fact that the

desert sands have a reddish hue and the land around the Nile turned black when the annual flood

waters receded.

The desert and the Nile River emerged millions of years ago when the ancient sea that

covered most of Europe and northern Africa (45 million years ago) shifted, forming the

Mediterranean Sea basin. This happened when the earth's plates moved, creating the Himalayas

and the Alps. Over thousands of years, the Nile River evolved into its present shape, surrounded

by the Eastern and Western deserts.

The Upper Nile is divided into three tributaries: the White Nile, the Blue Nile and the

Atbara River. The White Nile flows from Lake Victoria, Lake Edward and Lake George, and the

Blue Nile originates in the Ethiopian mountains. The Atbara River flows from the Ethiopian

highlands and meets the combined White Nile and Blue Nile just north of Khartoum. Before the

river enters the Mediterranean Sea, it divides into four smaller tributaries in the delta region.

The northern region of Egypt is bounded by two deserts, the mountainous Eastern, or

Arabian, Desert and the sandy Western, or Libyan, Desert. Nomadic tribes continue to roam these

desert regions as they have done for centuries, stopping at oases to replenish their water supplies.
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Around 5000 B.C., when the climate became more arid, nomadic groups retreated to the

Nile Valley, creating the first urban settlements. These communities were concentrated in the

North and the South. As a result, Egypt became known as the "Double Land" or the "Two Lands"

of Upper and Lower Egypt.

The two lands were united in 3100 B.C. by the legendary King Menes. He established a

new administrative city where the Nile River branches out into the delta. In ancient times it was

called "White Walls" or Mennefer; the Greeks called it Memphis. It remained the capital of Egypt

for over 3,500 years. Although there is no archaeological proof that King Menes existed, the

famous Narmer palette that depicts two images of a king, one wearing the crown of Upper Egypt

and the other the crown of Lower Egypt, is thought to depict King Menes. King Menes and King

Narmer may have been the same person, the first king of Egypt.

Dualities, such as desert and river valley, Upper and Lower Egypt, life and death, were an

important organizing principle of the Egyptian's world view.

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POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE

The politics of Egypt is based on republicanism, with a semi-presidential system of

government, established following the Egyptian Revolution of 2011, and the resignation

of President Hosni Mubarak. The President of Egypt is elected for one six-year term and the

Parliament is unicameral and unbiased. The President can appoint up to 5% of the total number of

seats in Parliament, and can also dissolve it. Parliament can also impeach the President. Egypt was

traditionally ruled by royals until 1952, but the first freely elected President was in 2006[citation

needed]. The Parliament of Egypt is the oldest legislative chamber in Africa and the Middle East.

The government of Ancient Egypt depended on two important factors; the pharaoh and

agriculture. The Pharaoh was a vital part of the the Egyptian government and he appointed the

other officials during most periods. The highest officials took their orders directly from the king.

Agriculture was the foundation of Egypt's economy and government.

History of Ancient Egypt's Government

Before the Old Kingdom

Scholars have found few government records from before the Old Kingdom Period.

Evidence shows that Egypt was a united kingdom with a single ruler, which indicates that the first

pharaohs must have set up a form of central government and established an economic system.

Before the Persian Period, the Egyptian economy was a barter system and not monetary.

People paid taxes to the government in the form of crops, livestock, jewelry or precious stones. In

return, the government maintained peace in the land, saved food in case of famine and conducted

public works.
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Barter trade system

The Old Kingdom

Ancient Egypt's government became more centralized during the Old Kingdom. Building

large stone pyramids meant the pharaoh had to make changes to the government. Pharaohs from

Dynasties Three and Four maintained a strong central government and they had almost absolute

power.

Earlier pharaohs created a strong government that allowed them to summon large work

forces. They appointed their high officials, and they chose members of their family. These men

were loyal to the pharaoh. The government then let the pharaoh gather and distribute enough food

to support huge numbers of workers, which allowed them to build large stone pyramids.

The famous pyramids at Giza

During Dynasties Five and Six, the pharaoh's power lessened. Government positions had

become hereditary and the district governors, called nomarchs, grew powerful. By the end of the

Old Kingdom, nomarchs were ruling their nomes (districts) without the oversight of the pharaoh.

When the pharaohs lost control of the nomes, the central government collapsed.
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The Intermediate Periods

Modern scholars place three Intermediate Periods into the timeline of Ancient Egypt's

history. The Old, Middle and New Kingdoms were each followed by an intermediate periods. All

three of these had unique characteristics, but they have two common features. Each represents a

time when Egypt was not unified, and there was no centralized government.

The Middle Kingdom

The Old Kingdom's government served as a base for the Middle Kingdom's. The pharaoh

made changes, including the addition of more officials. Titles and duties were more specific which

limited each official's sphere of influence.

The central government became more involved in the nomes and had more control of

individual people and what they paid in taxes. The pharaoh tried to limit the power of the

nomarchs. He appointed officials to oversee their activity and he weakened the nomes by making

towns the basic unit of the government. The mayors of individual towns became powerful.

The increase in government officials led to the growth of the middle-class bureaucracy.

Officials based taxes on an assessment of cultivable land and the flooding of the Nile.

During periods of low flooding, officials reduced taxes, while the government levied a poll tax on

each citizen, which they paid in produce or craft goods.

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People paid taxes in produce

The New Kingdom

The pharaohs of the New Kingdom continued to build their government on the foundations

of earlier governments. One change they made was a decrease in the land area of nomes and an

increase in their number. During this period, the pharaohs created a standing army and created

military positions. Before this, the pharaohs formed armies using conscripted people.

The 19th Dynasty saw the beginning of a break-upin the legal system. Before this dynasty,

government appointed judges made decisions based on evidence presented to them. During this

period, however, people began obtaining verdicts from oracles. Priests read a list of suspects to the

state god's image, and the statue indicated the guilty party. This change represented an increase in

the priesthood's political power. It was open to corruption.

After the New Kingdom

During the Late Period, the pharaohs reunited Egypt and centralized the government. When

Persia conquered Egypt, the new rulers established a monetary economy. The Persian monarchs

made Egypt a satrapy, and appointed a governor to rule. The regional administrative system was

kept in place. The Greek and Roman Empires later imposed their governmental systems on Egypt,

also keeping some aspects of Egypt's regional government.

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Ancient Egypt Government Officials

Egypt had many different government officials. Some operated at national level, while

others were regional.

The vizier was the most important person after the pharaoh. Each pharaoh appointed

his/her vizier, who oversaw the judiciary system and the government administration. The vizier

sat in the high court, which handled serious legal cases, often involving capital punishment. Egypt

usually had one vizier; sometimes there were two, who oversaw either Upper or Lower Egypt.

Another important position was the chief treasurer. He was responsible for collecting and

assessing taxes. The treasurer also monitored the redistribution of the items brought in through

taxes. He had other officials under his command, who helped collect taxes and keep tax records.

Some periods also had a general. He was responsible for organizing and training the army.

Either the general or the pharaoh led the army into battle. Sometimes, the crown prince served as

the general before ascending to the throne.

Overseer was a common title in the Ancient Egyptian government. They managed work

sites, like the pyramids, and some also watched over granaries and monitored their contents.
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Scribes formed the basis of the Egyptian government. They wrote official documents and

could move to higher positions.

Ancient Egypt Government Documents

A lot of the information scholars have about Egypt's government comes from tomb

inscriptions. Government officials either built their own tombs or the pharaoh gave them one. Their

tombs included inscriptions detailing their titles and some events from their lives. As an example,

one official's tomb had a description of a time he greeted a foreign trade embassy for the pharaoh.

Stela of Minnakht, chief of scribes

During the New Kingdom, some pharaohs gave their officials tombs, which helps identify

those who served specific pharaohs. They also reveal changes in the government's high officials.

Many pharaohs appointed officials from the bureaucracy, and some appointed men who had served

in the military.

Scholars have also found law documents, including detailed cases of tomb raiders. They

mention the steps the government took to punish them and try to prevent further raiding.

High officials sealed documents detailing property transfers. They maintained control of

any property that was brought into a marriage, even if there was a divorce. Both men and women

could file for divorce, though it was easier for a man to obtain it. In the event of a divorce, the man

had to compensate the woman and the government insured the people followed these rules.
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Government in Thebes

Egypt's central government moved when the pharaoh changed his/her capital. The central

officials worked out of the royal compound. Thebesserved as a government and religious capital

for centuries.

When Thebes was Egypt's capital, the mayor of Thebes held a position of power.

Thebes

Certain high officials were buried in the Valley of the Kings, yielding a few significant aspects,

such as the position they held and whom they served. Moreover, there are mentions of honors

granted by the pharaoh, who certainly valued the official, given that he was granted a tomb in the

royal cemetery.

The pharaoh sometimes had a funerary temple built for one of his officials in the Theban

Necropolis. They also granted favored officials land revenues to provide goods for their funerary

cult.
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ECONOMY

As in all ancient societies, agriculture was the main economic activity. The harvests in

Egypt were richer than in most other countries at the time, allowing for a larger percentage of

urban dwellers and diverse forms of production. Hence the cities, temples, the wealth of the state

and the ability to equip armies for campaigns against countries producing products that Egypt had

in short supply.

The main crops of Ancient Egypt were wheat and barley, as well as lettuce, beans,

onions, figs, dates, grapes, melons and cucumbers. Flax was grown by many farmers, and then

used for the production of linens.

There was no typical money system in Egypt. Products were bartered, and workers were paid

in wheat, barley and, occasionally, in craft products like pottery, clothes etc. But barley could be

defined as a type of money, since it was easy to use as payment. For example, if a peasant might

pay with barley for a refined product, like a new garment, and then the seller would in his turn sell

that barley to obtain other products.

Crafts were produced in small shops. Their wares included linen textiles, pottery, bricks, tools,

glass, weapons, furniture, jewellery, perfume, rope, baskets, mats and writing material. Egypt also

had a substantial output of mineral products, like limestone, sandstone, granite; copper, gold, tin

and gems.

Trade was important to Egypt, and goods were exported to and imported from countries around

the Mediterranean Sea, Aegean Sea and the Red Sea. Silver, iron, cedar logs and horses were

imported from the Levant. Ivory, copper, cattle, leopard skins and spices were imported from

Nubia in the south.

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The main exports from Egypt were gold and other minerals, wheat, barley and papyrus sheets.

FESTIVITIES

The gods of the ancient Egyptians were always apparent to the people through natural

events. The sunrise was Ra emerging from the underworld in his great ship, for example, and the

moon was the god Khonsu traveling across the night sky. When a woman became pregnant, it was

through the fertility encouraged by Bes or Tawaret, and the Seven Hathors were present at the

child's birth to declare its destiny. Sycamore trees were sacred to Hathorand the home was

protected by Bastet. There was no need for anything like a weekly worship service to pay homage

to these gods because they were worshiped daily and nightly through various rituals during which

individuals participated in the work of the gods.

The Nature of Egyptian Festivals

Communal gatherings for worship took place during festivals, and as the Egyptians set a

premium on enjoying life, there were many of them throughout the year. These festivals (known

as heb) allowed people to experience the god intimately, give thanks for gifts that were given, and

make requests for divine favors. Egyptologist Margaret Bunson writes:

The purpose of most of the festivals was to allow the people to behold the gods with their

own eyes. Particular images of the gods, sometimes carried in portable shrines, were taken out of

the templesanctuaries and carried through the streets or sailed on the Nile. Stations of the Gods

were erected throughout the various cities in order to provide stages for the processions. Oracles

were conducted on these festivals as the images of the deities moved in certain directions to

indicate negative or positive responses to the questions posed by the faithful. (90)
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These public gatherings also helped to maintain the belief structure of the culture in that

everyone who attended was encouraged in the traditional understanding of how the world operated:

through the will of the gods as interpreted by the priests and implemented by the king.

Religious Practice in Egypt

There were no religious services in Egypt corresponding to worship services in the present

day. The priests served the gods, not the people, and their job was to administer to the gods' daily

needs, recite hymns and prayers for the souls of the dead, and engage in rituals which ensured the

continued goodwill of the gods to the people.

A deity was thought to live in the statue housed in the inner sanctum of that god's temple,

and the high priest was the only person allowed in its presence until the position of God's Wife

of Amun was elevated during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (2040-1782 BCE). At this time, the

female priestess in the role of God's Wife of Amun became the counterpart to the high priest and

assisted in caring for the statue in the temple of Karnak at Thebes.

Although people would come to the temple complexes to offer sacrifices, offerings, receive

various forms of aid, and make requests, they did not enter the temple to worship. Common people

were allowed in the courtyard of the temple complex but not in the interiors and certainly not in

the god's presence. As noted, people performed their own private rituals in communion with the

gods, but collectively, their only opportunity for worship was at a festival.
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The Ancient Egyptian Festivals

The Egyptians observed national and local festivals annually. There were many such

celebrations but those listed below are among the most important and best-documented. In some

cases, the details of what went on at these gatherings have been lost, but for many, they are known

in great detail. The festivals marked the progression of the year, notched on the staff of time

by Thoth, and the year would end in the same celebration with which it had begun; thus

emphasizing the cyclical, eternal, nature of life.

Wepet-Renpet Festival: The Opening of the Year - This was the New Year's Day

celebration in ancient Egypt. The festival was a kind of moveable feast as it depended on the

inundation of the Nile River. It celebrated the death and rebirth of Osiris, and by extension,

the rejuvenation and rebirth of the land and the people. It is firmly attested to as initiating in the

latter part of the Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2613 - c. 3150 BCE) and is clear evidence of the

popularity of the Osiris cult at that time.

Feasting and drinking were a part of this festival, as they were for most, and the celebration

would last for days; the length varied depending on the time period. Solemn rituals related to the

death of Osiris were observed as well as singing and dancing to celebrate his rebirth. The call-and-

response poem known as The Lamentations of Isis andNephthys was recited at the beginning to

call Osiris to his feast.

PARTICIPANTS WOULD LESSEN THEIR INHIBITIONS AND PRECONCEPTIONS

THROUGH ALCOHOL AND EXPERIENCE THE GODDESS INTIMATELY UPON

WAKING TO THE SACRED DRUMS.

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Wag Festival: Dedicated to the death of Osiris and honoring the souls of the deceased on

their journey in the afterlife. This festival followed the Wepet-Renpet, but its date changed

according to the lunar calendar. It is one of the oldest festivals celebrated by the Egyptians and,

like Wepet-Renpet, first appears in the Old Kingdom. During this festival, people would make

small boats out of paper and set them toward the west on graves to indicate Osiris' death and people

would float shrines of paper on the waters of the Nile for the same reason.

Wag and Thoth Festival: A combining of the Wag Festival with the birth of the god Thoth

and centered on rejuvenation and rebirth. This festival was a set date on the 18th day of the first

month of the year. Thoth was worshiped as the god of writing, wisdom, and knowledge - among

other attributes - and associated with the judgment of the dead by Osiris, thus linking the two gods.

Thoth's birth and Osiris' rebirth were joined in this festival from the latter part of the Old Kingdom

onwards.

Tekh Festival: The Feast of Drunkenness: This festival was dedicated to Hathor ('The Lady

of Drunkenness') and commemorated the time when humanity was saved from destruction by beer.

According to the story, Ra had become weary of people's endless cruelty and nonsense and so sent

Sekhmet to destroy them. She took to her task with enthusiasm, tearing people apart and drinking

their blood. Ra is satisfied with the destruction until the other gods point out to him that, if he

wanted to teach people a lesson, he should stop the destruction before no one was left to learn from

it. Ra then orders the goddess of beer, Tenenet, to dye a large quantity of the brew red and has it

delivered to Dendera, right in Sekhmet's path of destruction. She finds it and, thinking it is blood,

drinks it all, falls asleep, and wakes up as the gentle and beneficent Hathor.
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According to Egyptologist Carolyn Graves-Brown, the festival began in the Middle

Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE), was most popular in the early New Kingdom (c. 1570-1069 BCE),

fell out of favor, and was then revived in Roman Egypt. Graves-Brown describes the central part

of the festival as depicted on a 'Porch of Drunkenness' in the Temple of Mut at Karnak: "It seems

that in the Hall of Drunkenness, worshippers got drunk, slept, and then were woken by drummers

to commune with the goddess Mut [who was closely linked with Hathor]" (169). Participants

would lessen their inhibitions and preconceptions through alcohol and experience the goddess

intimately upon waking to the sacred drums.

Opet Festival: One of the most important festivals in which the king was rejuvenated by

the god Amun at Thebes. It was observed during the Middle Kingdom but grew in popularity in

the New Kingdom of Egypt, where, in the 20th Dynasty, it was celebrated for twenty days. During

this festival, the priests would first wash and dress the statue of Amun and then carry it out of the

temple and through the streets of Thebes which were lined with people waiting to see the god. The

statue was then transported to Luxor, by foot in earlier times, and later on a barge. Once at the

temple of Luxor, the king would enter the presence of the god in the inner sanctum and emerge

forgiven of sins and rejuvenated to continue his reign.

As at other festivals, the state supplied the people with food and drink, distributing bread,

sweets, and beer while the crowds waited their turn to ask the god a question. The statue of Amun
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would answer these questions through the agency of the priests who would either interpret the

god's answer or 'tip' the statue one way or another to indicate a positive or negative response.

Hathor Festival: Held annually at Dendera, the main site of Hathor's cult, this festival

celebrated the birth of the goddess and her many blessings. It was similar to the Tekh Festival in

many aspects. This festival dates from the Old Kingdom and was among the most anticipated. The

cult of Hathor was extremely popular and, just as with the festival for Neith, the celebration was

well-attended wherever it was held. As with the Tekh Festival, participants were encouraged to

over-indulge in alcohol while engaging in singing and dancing in honor of the goddess. There may

also have been a sexual component to the celebration similar to the Tekh Festival, but this

interpretation, while not at all inconsistent or incredible, is not universally accepted.

Sokar Festival/Festival of Khoiak: Sokar was an agricultural god in the Early Dynastic

Period in Egypt (c. 3150 - c. 2613 BCE) whose characteristics were later taken on by Osiris. In the

Old Kingdom, the Sokar Festival was merged with the solemn Khoiak Festival of Osiris which

observed his death. It was a very somber affair in its early form but grew to include Osiris'

resurrection as well and was celebrated in the Late Period of Ancient Egypt(525-332 BCE) for

almost a month. People planted Osiris Gardens and crops during the celebrations which honored

the god as the plants sprung from the earth, commemorating Osiris' rebirth from the dead. The

planting of crops during the festival no doubt dates back to the early worship of Sokar.

Bast Festival: This was the celebration of the goddess Bastet at her cult center of Bubastis

and another very popular festival. It honored the birth of the cat goddess Bastet who was the

guardian of hearth and home and protector of women, children, and women's

secrets. Herodotus claims that Bastet's festival was the most elaborate and popular in Egypt.

Egyptologist Geraldine Pinch, citing Herodotus, claims, "women were freed from all constraints
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during the annual festival at Bubastis. They celebrated the festival of the goddess by drinking,

dancing, making music, and displaying their genitals" (116). This "raising of the skirts" by the

women, described by Herodotus, exemplified the freedom from normal constraints often observed

at festivals but, in this case, also had to do with fertility.

Herodotus places the number of attendees at the festival as over seven hundred thousand,

and although this may be an exaggeration, there is no doubt the goddess was one of the most

popular in Egypt among both sexes and so could be an accurate number. The festival revolved

around dancing, singing, and drinking in honor of Bastet thanking her for gifts given and asking

for future favors.

Nehebkau Festival: Nehebkau was the god who bound the ka (soul) to the khat(body) at

birth and then attached the kato the ba (the traveling aspect of the soul) after death. The festival

commemorated Osiris' resurrection and the return of his ka as the people celebrated rebirth and

rejuvenation. The festival was similar in many respects to the Wepet-Renpet Festival of the New

Year.

Min Festival: Min was the god of fertility, virility, and reproduction from the Predynastic

Period in Egypt (c. 6000 - c. 3150 BCE) onwards. He is usually represented as a man standing

with an erect penis holding a flail. The Min Festival was probably celebrated in some form starting

in the Early Dynastic Period but is best attested to in the New Kingdom and afterwards.
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As at the Opet Festival, the statue of Min was carried out of the temple by the priests in a

procession which included sacred singers and dancers. When they reached the place where the

king stood, he would ceremonially cut the first sheaf of grain to symbolize his connection between

the gods, the land, and the people and offer the grain to the god in sacrifice. The festival honored

the king as well as the god in the hopes of a continued prosperous reign which would bring fertility

to the land and the people.

Wadi Festival/The Beautiful Feast of the Valley: Similar in many ways to the Qingming

Festival in China and the Day of the Dead in Mexico and elsewhere, the Beautiful Feast of the

Valley honored the souls of the deceased and allowed for the living and dead to celebrate together

while, at the same time, honoring Amun. The statues of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu (the Theban

Triad) were taken from their temples to visit the mortuary temples and necropolis across the river.

People visited with their departed loved ones at their tombs and brought bouquets of flowers and

food and drink offerings. Egyptologist Lynn Meskell describes the focus of the celebration:

The Beautiful Festival of the Wadi was a key example of a festival of the dead, which took

place between the harvest and the Nile flood. In it, the divine boat of Amun traveled from the

Karnak temple to the necropolis of Western Thebes. A large procession followed and the living

and dead were thought to commune near the graves which became houses of the joy of the heart on

that occasion. (cited in Nardo, 99-100)

Images of the deceased were carried in the procession so their souls might join in the

festivities and were left in the tombs when the festival was completed. As Meskell notes, "in this

way a link was forged between celebrating the gods and the dead in a single all-encompassing

event" which brought the past into the present and, through the eternal gods, on into the future.
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The Beautiful Feast of the Valley was among the most popular in Egypt's history and was

celebrated from at least the Middle Kingdom on.

Sed Festival: Usually given as the Heb-Sed Festival, this celebration honored the king and

revitalized him. It was held every thirty years of the king's reign in order to ensure he was still in

harmony with the will of the gods and physically fit to rule Egypt. The festival began with a grand

procession held in front of priests, nobles, and the public. The king would need to run around an

enclosed space (such as the temple complex at Saqqara) in order to prove he was fit and, in later

eras, would fire arrows toward the four cardinal directions as a symbol of his power over the land

and his ability to bring other nations under Egypt's influence.

The festival probably dates from the Predynastic Period in some form but is certainly

attested to from the reign of King Den (c. 2990-2940 BCE) of the First Dynasty. The name comes

from the deity Sed, an early wolf-god (sometimes depicted as more of a jackal), who was originally

among the most important gods, associated with the strength of the king, justice, and balance (and

so linked with the goddess and concept of ma'at). Sed was eventually absorbed by Wepwawet

and Anubis and superseded by Osiris who, by the New Kingdom, had taken Sed's place in the

festival. As with all the great festivals, the state provided the people with food and beer for the

duration.

Although only supposed to be celebrated after the first 30 years of the king's reign (and

every three years afterwards), the Heb-Sed was sometimes observed earlier and is often referred

to as the king's jubilee. The length of a king's reign was once dated, in part, according to the

observance of the Heb-Sed until it came to be understood that some kings initiated the festival

earlier than the 30-year mark if they were in poor health (and needed the gods' rejuvenation) or for

other reasons.
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The Epagomenae: The Super-added Days. These were the five days at the end of the year

added in order to bring the Egyptian calendar of 360 days in line with the solar year of 365.

According to the myth, when Nut became pregnant by her brother Geb at the beginning of the

world, it so enraged Ra (Atum) that he decreed she would not give birth on any day of the year.

Thoth, however, played a game of senet with the moon god Iah (Khonsu) in which he gambled,

and won, five day's worth of moonlight. He took this moonlight and created the five "super-added

days" which Nut could give birth in.

THE EPAGOMENAE WERE THE FIVE DAYS AT THE END OF THE YEAR ADDED

IN ORDER TO BRING THE EGYPTIAN CALENDAR OF 360 DAYS IN LINE WITH THE

SOLAR YEAR OF 365.

On the first day, she gave birth to Osiris, on the second Horus the Elder, on the third Set,

on the fourth Isis, and on the fifth Nephthys. These days were considered a potent time of transition

by the Egyptians who saw them as either auspicious or ominous depending on the deity born on a

given day. The third day, when Set was born, was thought especially unlucky, and Plutarch reports

that business was not transacted on the third day and people would fast until evening.

The Epagomenae were not festivals, although observances could be conducted and, no

doubt, rituals were performed in temples, but still are counted among others because they formed

the transition in the cycle of the year between the old and the new. Following the Epagomenae,

the Wepet-Renpet Festival was again observed and a new year was begun.
 23

CULTURE AND TRADITION

Egypt has a rich history and culture dating back thousands of years, starting with the

Pharaonic culture, then Christianity and Islam. Egypt is among the earliest civilizations. Its culture

has been affected by many other cultures and ethnic groups who either lived in or invaded the

country, creating a melting pot.

The way the cultures blended together might be difficult for foreigners to understand, but

once you do understand and appreciate the traditions, the experience in Egypt will be like none

other.

Warmth and Hospitality

Egypt has amazing natural, historical and cultural attractions, so tourism is one of the main

sources of income, especially before the revolution. Egyptians are friendly, open to other cultures

and known for their good hospitality, so do not be surprised if people invite you to their homes

and insist that you accept the invitation.

Egyptians also like to help people. It is very common if you ask someone for help or

directions, they will call others to also help and make sure you get what you need or where you

need to go.

Family

When it comes to family affairs, family is very important for Egyptians so they pay special

attention to family values and relationships. This great blend between family members encourages

children to live with their parents until they get married and then start their own families.
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Therefore, marriage rates are high and families encourage and financially support their sons and

daughters to get married.

Usually the responsibilities are divided so home and childcare are the main responsibilities

for women, while men are responsible for supporting the family financially.

Since family members are so connected, they deeply mourn the death of a family member.

It is customary to wear only black for at least 40 days after a family member passes, and this

duration can last up to a year. This is one of the traditions inherited from the grand pharaohs, and

it is considered inappropriate to show any sign of happiness during funerals. In contrast, Egyptians

like to throw big wedding parties, where they invite all family members and friends and hold big

feasts.

Celebrations

Speaking of parties, Egyptians love celebrations. Close and extended family members and

friends gather during holidays and special celebrations.

Due to their love of food, all celebrations include sharing special meals prepared for the

occasion. Women usually take pride in their ability to cook several dishes and compete among

themselves for who makes the most delicious dishes. Restaurants are one of the most flourishing

businesses as Egyptians like to try new cuisines and they appreciate a good meal.
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Religion

Religion plays a big role in the life of Egyptians, and it is intermingled with daily activities

of Muslims and Christians living in Egypt. You can see this clearly during Ramadan, Eids and

Christmas, where festive spirits are everywhere.

Mosques are around every corner, so walking down the streets of Egyptian cities, you can

hear the call to pray during the five prayer times per day.

Although Egyptians use the Western calendar, they refer to the Islamic calendar for Islamic

religious holidays, and Ramadan is the most important month in the year. During this month,

Muslims fast from sunrise to sunset, focusing on praying and doing charity work. Streets and

homes are decorated to celebrate the occasion and special meals are prepared.

Summary

Egypt’s long history, tourist attractions and geographic location make it an ideal destination

for business and tourism. But before you visit or develop an Arabic translation strategy for doing

business in Egypt, it’s important to understand the culture and traditions and what impacts them.

Egypt has been prey to many invaders throughout history, and recently, due to economic

and political problems, but Egyptians have a strong sense of humor and they find humor in

everything, including themselves. This is what keep us going despite all hardships.
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CONTRIBUTIONS

The contribution of Egypt to the world civilization is noteworthy.

The method of writing, literature, art, architecture, religion, science of the Egyptians had

compelled the people of the world to raise their eyebrows.

Art of Writing:

To express the thinking of their mind, the Egyptians invented art of writing. Although from

the very beginning they were not acquainted with the alphabets, still then they were able to express

their idea through different pictures. So, their writing was popularly known as ‘Hieroglyphy’ or

‘sacred writing’ because those were written by the priests.

At first, the Egyptians used pictures and then they used around 2000 pictographic signs. In

due course of time their number was reduced and limited to 700 only. At last they invented 24

alphabets. They engraved those alphabets on stone. The ‘Rosetta Stone’ preserved in the British

Museum in London is its classic example. Later on the Egyptians used pen and paper

Paper, pen, ink and inkpot:

On the banks of Nile, a plant named ‘Papyrus’ was plentily available. The leaves of Papyrus

tree were joined through gum and the long roll was prepared. By polish such rolls were glazed. In

a Papyrus roll of twenty to forty feet length and five to ten inches breadth the Egyptian wrote their

idea. The modem name ‘Paper’, perhaps, has been derived from the term ‘Papyrus’.

They took juice of plants and prepared ‘ink’ by mixing gum and water with it. In several

cases they also prepared ink by missing gum with black particles found from kitchen house or

lamps.
 27

They sharpened the edge of the steam of a plant and prepared ‘reed pen’. By dipping the

pen inside the ‘ink pot’ they wrote on Papyrus. At last, pieces of Papyrus were rolled and preserved

inside the earthen pots. Writing was indeed a noble invention of the Egyptians.

Literature:

The ancient Egyptians had created immortal literature. They composed literature

concerning astrology, metallurgy, weaving and cooking. Besides, they also reflected legends,

adventures, thrilling experiences, religious thought etc. in their literature. Among their prose

writings, ‘The tale of two brothers’, ‘The tale of Sinuhi’, ‘The legend of the doomed prince’ and

‘The story of the ship-wrecked Sailor’ were very famous. Their religious literature contained books

like ‘The Pyramid Text’, ‘The Coffin Text’, ‘The Book of the dead’, ‘A dialogue between the

disgusted Man and his soul’, ‘The Maxims of Ptahotep’ and ‘Hymn to Aton’ (written by

Akhnaton).

Science: Calendar:

The ancient Egyptians were very good astronomers of their time. Looking at the cloudless

clear blue sky, they could predict about the solar and lunar eclipse, flood in the river Nile, time of

sowing seeds etc. They could also know about the movement of Planets and Stars. They had

prepared a ‘Calendar’.

They divided a year into 360 days and 12 months, each month consisting of 30 days. Each

day was divided into 24 hours or two parts and each part consisting of 12 hours. At the end of

every year, they added 5 days more only to be spent in feast and merrymaking. Julius Caesor had

adopted this Calendar Pope Gregory XIII adopted this calendar with a little modification. The

Egyptian Calendar is the first recorded event of human history.

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Mathematics and Geometry:

The ancient Egyptians exhibited their talent in the field of ‘Mathematics’ and ‘Geometry’.

They were very efficient in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. They had acquired

knowledge in triangle, quadrangle, square, rectangle etc. for measuring the land.

They utilized their mathematical and geometrical knowledge in building the Pyramids. The

oldest treatise on Mathematics ‘Ahmes Papyrus’ has been found from Egypt which speaks the high

mathematical and geometrical knowledge of the ancient Egyptians.

Medical Science:

The Egyptians acquired deep knowledge in medical science. From their old library two

books concerning medical science have been discovered. Edwin Smith has translated these books.

From that translation it is known that the Egyptians knew about different diseases and also knew

how to cure them.

They had idea regarding surgery. They could also preserve dead bodies by applying

chemicals. The physicians of Egypt also knew the use of castor oil. It will not be wrong if the

Egyptians are termed as the ‘Father of Medical science’.

Art and architecture: Pyramid:

The Egyptians have immortalized their name in the annals of history due to their art and

architecture. Pyramid is the classic example of it. The tomb of the Egyptian Pharaoh is known as

Pyramid. The people of Egypt believed that after death, the soul returns back to the body. So they
 29

preserved the dead body of the Pharaoh by applying chemicals in it. This preserved body of the

Pharaoh was known a ‘Mummy’. It was covered with cloth and kept inside a coffin.

That coffin was again kept inside a stone box named as Sarcophagus which contained small

holes. The Egyptians believed that the soul can again enter into that body through these holes. That

box was placed inside a room in the middle of the Pyramid. In the walls of that room the life history

of the Pharaoh was written.

The wife of the Pharaoh, his servants and slaves were killed and kept inside the room with

food, water, cloth and jewels. It was believed that the soul could recognize these things and again

return back to the dead body of the Pharaoh. By covering this room, the tomb of Pharaoh or

Pyramid was built by stone, bricks and limestone. It has been rightly told regarding the Pyramid

that “All the world fears time, but time fears the Pyramids”.

Among the Pyramids of Egypt, the Pyramid built by Pharaoh Josher at Sakara is the oldest.

The famous and largest Pyramid of Khufu was built at Gizeh. This is regarded as one of the Seven

Wonders of the World. This 481 feet Pyramid is built over 13 acres of land. 2,300,000 pieces of

stones were used in it.

The weight of each piece of stone is 2.5 tons. Nearly twenty years were spent for building

this Pyramid. In fact, Pyramid immortalizes the Egyptians in the annals of world history.

Temple:
 30

Temples were another classic example of the Egyptian architecture. The Pharaohs built

temples to please gods and goddesses. The Karnak temple at Thebes is world famous. This is the

largest temple of Egypt. Its length is around two kilometres. This temple rests on 12 pillars, each

having 79 feet height.

The temple walls are filled up with the war scene and achievements of the Pharaohs and

its top, with hieroglyphic writings. This temple was meant for the worship of Amon-Ra or Sun-

god. The temples at Luxor and Abu Simbel were also very nice.

Sculpture:

The ancient Egyptians were skilled sculptors. Among their Sculptures, Sphinx was very

famous. This gigantic stone statue is a remarkable sculpture having the body of a lion with human

head. The Great Sphinx stands at the doorstep of the biggest Pyramid at Gizeh. It represents the

head of Pharaoh Khafare of Amenhotep III. Its grave facial appearance and a ray of laughter make

it unintelligible before the viewers. Besides the Sphincs, the Egyptians built huge images. The

great statues of

Amenhotep III at Luxor, Ramesis III, his queen and family deity Amon- Ra at Abu Simbel

are regarded as great statues of the world. Innumerable statues, animals, birds, ivory, wood and

terracotta testify to the fact that the ancient Egyptians were skilled sculptors.

Religion:

Religion played a vital role in the life of the Egyptians. From the beginning they believed

in Polytheism They worshipped around 2200 gods and goddesses. They attached divinity in
 31

creatures and worshipped them. Their crocodile god was famous as ‘Sibek’. The cat god was called

‘Pashat’ and jackle god was named as ‘Anubis’.

The Egyptians regarded ‘Ra’ as the God of the universe. His son ‘Osiris’ was famous as

the ‘Lord of Egypt’ and also as Justice of the departed soul. His wife ‘Isis’ was the goddess of

fertile soil. ‘Horas’, the son of Osiris was the god of poor and destitute. There was an influential

community of priests in Egypt to worship these gods and goddesses.

Pharaoh Akhnaton or Amenhotep IV brought a revolutionary change in the field of

religion. He introduced ‘Monotheism’ in Egypt. He proclaimed that there was only one God and

he is ‘Aton’ or ‘Sun-god’. The priests of Egypt had described ‘Ra’ or ‘Amon-Ra’ as a dreadful

god. However, Akhnoton declared ‘Aton’ as omniscient, kind, father-like and an incarnation of

mercy.

He further told that Aton had made the world beautiful and created mankind. He

prohibited the worship of ‘Amon- Ra’ in Karnak and Luxor and introduced the offers like fruits

in vegetables of animal sacrifice. That is why the priests considered him as their enemy. His wife

Nefertiti helped him in the glorification of monotheism.

 32

After Akhnaton his son-in-law Tutankhamen also popularized monotheism in Egypt. After

him, polytheism was again introduced in Egypt. The ancient-Egyptians also believed in life after

death. That is why they built Pyramid. Osiris was sending a man to heaven or hell after judgement.

The Egyptians also believed in deeds. The result of good deeds led a human being to heaven and

bad deeds, to hell.

Philosophy:

The ancient Egyptians had also attained celebrity in the field of Philosophy. Ptahotep was

the greatest philosopher of that time. He was the provincial ruler of Memphis. In his famous book

entitled ‘Instructions to Ptahotep’ he had given many advices for regulating the life. Much before

Confucious, Socrates and Buddha Ptahotep had discussed the philosophy of life.

Postal Service:

The people of ancient Egypt were aware about the postal system. The study of Papyrus

leads historians to believe that the people of that land were sending message. In an ancient Papyrus

it has been written— “Write me through the bearer of the letter”. This conclusively proves that the

Egyptians were well aware about the postal service. It will not be wrong if the ancient Egyptians

are described as “The father of modern postal service”.

Historiography:
 33

The Egyptians were the father of ‘Historiography’. The historians accompanied the

Pharaoes to the battle field and recorded their achievements. The ‘Rosetta stone’ is its classic

example. By deciphering it the French palaeographer Champollion had discerned many facts

regarding the Egyptian civilisation. The history of different royal dynasties is known due to this

historiography. Thus, the ancient Egyptians were trend setters of history writing.

Agriculture and Irrigation:

In the field of agriculture the Egyptians also excelled. They were skilled agriculturists.

They had invented plough and hoe. By a device called ‘Shadur they could carry the water of Nile

to the canals which helped in irrigation. The chief crops grown by them were wheat, barley flax.

They also produced fruits like orange, date-palm, melon etc.

Navigation, Trade and Commerce:

The Egyptians first used boat in case of trade and commerce. Egypt became a centre of

trade in the entire Mediterranean region. In due course of time, they established trade relation with

Nubiya, Sudan Janjibar, Persia, Crate and Phonesia. They exported ivory, gold, the feather of

Ostrich and slaves.

They imported cattle, fish and wine from Asia; Precious red stones from Persia and copper

from Senai. By utilising navy for the first time, the Egyptians have enriched the human civilisation.

Craftsmanship:

The Egyptians were also expert in craftsmanship. They knew the art of melting together

copper with tin to make bronze. They made brick, cement and plaster of Paris. They also

manufactured glazed pottery and coloured glass. They were also apt in the carving of wood. From
 34

Papyrus plants they made ropes, mats and sandals. The Egyptian workmen developed the art of

enamelling and varnishing. Thus, their skilled craftsmanship was widely recognised in the world.

System of Administration:

The Pharaoes of Egypt were administrations of superb calibre. They were very powerful.

They commanded respect from their subjects. In many cases divinity was attached to the Pharaoes.

They discharged efficient administration due to the help of ministers, provincial administrators

and royal officers. This efficient administration was recognised all over the world.

Infact, the contribution of Egyptians to human civilisation was immense. Egypt, the ‘land

of Pyramid’ allured the attention of millions due to its splendid art and architecture. In the field of

writing, religion, science, administration trade and commerce etc. the ancient Egyptians had left

their indelible marks on the sea shore of time.

 35

CONCLUSION
Therefore, I conclude that In comparing Ancient Egypt and modern day people, I found a

few similarities and differences in their every day lifestyles. Things like religion, government,

social class, writing, and their job specializations. It was surprising to me to find out that the ancient

Egyptians way of leaving was somewhat like ours. Of course there are heavier differences, but still

they were very modern for their times. Also I am in strong belief that we learned many things that

are in our culture today from Ancient Egypt. In the category of job specialization the Egyptians

had no real big corporations like we do today, but much simpler jobs. Some examples of their jobs

are: artisans who were skilled craft workers, brick layers who built monuments and city walls,

soldiers who defended the community, merchants who sold goods at there market place, and their

entertainers were singers, dancers, and storytellers. In their society these were their jobs because

they worked under a king and the making of individual profiting came later. So basically all the

money was worked through there king. Some similarities of their civilization and ours is pretty

much all the jobs listed above are the same ones we still have today, but instead of kings we work

under bosses of individual corporations. We have also advanced our jobs a bit since then but the

roots of our jobs come from those of the ancient Egyptians. The Ancient Egyptians religious beliefs

were very different then that of our own. They were Polytheistic, meaning that believed in their

religion that there were many gods and not one supreme god. They had separate gods for things

like war, the sun, embalming and they also believed that the pharaohs were gods. The entire

civilization believed in the same thing, unlike America where we have many types of religions

spread through the states. Also their priests and high religious figures were favored by the gods

more then the average person.

 36

Without the Egyptians, we would not be the people we are today. The amount of knowledge

that has been provided from Ancient Egyptian times has shaped our modern day world inside and

out. Without the help of ancient Egypt inventions we don’t what will happen afterward in this

future were we working on some of those invention became part of todays technology but just

more upgraded. One of it is Their technology included the ability to build large construction

projects such as pyramids and palaces, simple machines such as ramps and levers, and a complex

system of government and religion. One of the most important inventions of the Ancient

Egyptians was writing. Early in Egyptian history the dead were buried with special grave offerings

in small ditches in the desert, which was similar to other early civilizations. As their civilization

progressed and developed, their religion and burial practices expanded. Centuries after the

Ancient Egyptians stopped creating lavish and extraordinary tombs, their past still leaves us in

awe. If it were not for the extra measures they took to preserve their deceased for the afterlife, we

would not have the opportunity to view and study who these people were. By examining their

remains we can determine how the people lived, what their diet consisted of, and what diseases

may have affected them. By studying the artifacts that were left behind in their tombs,

archaeologists and researchers are able to determine what resources existed during those times.

Many Egyptian burial rituals still exist in our present day society. Many still embalm their

loved ones and have them buried in a coffin within another tomb or mausoleum. Prayers are said

and wakes are held. At times, the deceased will also be buried with jewelry or items of sentimental

value. Some people also continue to visit the deceased at the cemetery to give offerings, such as

flowers.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Bunson, M. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt.(Gramercy Books, 1991).

David, R. Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt. (Oxford University Press, 2003).

Nardo, D. Living in Ancient Egypt. (Thompson/Gale, 2004).

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Strudwick, H. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt.(Metro Books, 2006).

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Shaw, I. (2003). The Oxford history of ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

A Festival Calendar of the Ancient Egyptians

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