2: An introduction to the properties of

engineering materials

Lecture 3
True stress-strain behaviour
Compression
Hardness

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Lecture outline

1. Learning outcomes

2. Why important

3. Deformation and ‘necking’ in the tensile test

4. Compressive behaviour

5. Hardness

6. Closing remarks

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1. Learning outcomes
At the end of this lecture you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe the phenomenon of necking in the tensile test.

2. Define true stress and true strain and be able to express the relationships
between these terms and their engineering counterparts.
3. Recognise how the response of a material differs between tension and
compression.
4. Define what is meant by hardness and be able to describe how this property is
measured and relate its value to tensile properties.

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2. Why important
• Engineering stress and strain are sufficiently accurate for much of the analysis
that we will encounter, however…

• For large extensions, e.g. very ductile materials or materials undergoing very
large elastic deformations (e.g. rubber) then an engineering stress-strain
analysis will incur significant errors.

• Compression and hardness are fundamental properties that we must understand

and be able to analyse correctly.

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3. Deformation and necking in the tensile test

From Callister, 7th edition, page 145

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‘True’ versus ‘Engineering’ stress

Beyond the UTS point (M) the engineering stress decreases

This is due to the onset of necking

necking leads to a
local reduction in area,
thus a local increase in
stress (true stress)

P
T 
A
From Callister P. 152
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‘True’ versus ‘Engineering’ strain
• Engineering strain is an approximation (which happens to be a good one for small
strains only).

• A more exact definition of strain is incremental, and uses the current length:
dl

dl
d 
l
l

• In the limit:
dl
l
dl  l 
d 
l
→ 
T

 lo l
 ln  
 
 l0 
• Finally

as
l

l0  d l
 1    then   ln 1   
l0 l0 T

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Illustration: distribution of strain along gauge length

► Thus,   ln 1    is not valid past the necking point

T

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True versus engineering stress

Ao

lo dl

A P (tension)

 Elastic strain occurs with increasing volume (except if n=0.5), but plastic strain
occurs at approximately constant volume (n=0.5).

• If we assume that the elastic strain << plastic strain (often a good assumption)
i.e. assume volume is conserved, then:
l l0  d l

A0l0 l0 l0
A 0 l 0  Al  A 
l P Pl
Thus T     1   
A A0l0
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Final note on true strain (add to notes)

• If
A o lo  A l (constant volume assumption)

• Then

 l   Ao 
   
l
 o   A 

• Thus

 l   Ao 
T  ln    ln  Eqn 3.4 (where A is measured at neck)

l
 o   A 

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Use and limitations of equations for stress and strain

~2 .y Necking Fracture

P l P
  ,   ,  t

Ao lo A

 T  ln 1   

t   t   1   
 Ao 
 T  ln  
t    A 

strain

Note:
(i) Defs of ,  and t=P/A are always valid.
(ii) Eqns (3.2) and (3.3) in notes only valid up to UTS (i.e. onset of necking).
(iii) Eqns (3.3, and 3.4) have additional limitation of the const. vol. assumption.
(iv) For small strains, t~ and t~

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Illustration: true vs engineering - data for hot-rolled steel

►True strain in neck can

be much higher than
eng. strain at high
strains

► True stress can also

be much higher than
eng. stress

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4. Compressive properties
• Apply compressive load rather than tensile.

• Properties are similar to tensile properties

BUT

• Compressive loading leads to an increase in cross-sectional area, so it is stable,

unlike tensile loading which is unstable. This implies that necking does not occur
in compression.

• Defects which ‘open up’ (or grow) in tension leading to premature failure ‘close
up’ in compression. (Important in ceramics and for fatigue loading, see later in
course).

• So most materials are stronger in compression than in tension!

• An important exception is wood: ….(find out why)

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Compression: force-displacement behaviour

force
tension

F
displacement

compression
A l F=0

F A0 l0

very high compressive loads

possible…why?
F=0
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Compression: true stress versus displacement or true strain

Much of the apparent difference in

tensile-compressive behaviour T
is due to thickening of the specimen.
This is corrected by plotting true tension
stress

displacement or T

Reflection of tensile
curve
The tension-compression curves should
mirror exactly if true stress is plotted
against true strain

compression

► But ultimate failure stress is higher in compression- cracks don’t open up!
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5. Hardness
• Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a material to abrasion or indentation.
Can be used as a quick, approx measure of tensile strength.
– Hardness tests are simpler and cheaper to perform than tensile tests!

• Tests use an indentor, to which a load is applied, deforming a small region of the
material plastically, e.g. Brinell

apply known force measure size

e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson, Ohio State University) 16
Brinell and Vickers hardness

Side view Top view Formula

1. Brinell Hardness
Hardness=force/ area of indent
Ǿ=D P

Ǿ=d
2P
HB 

D D  D  d
2 2


2. Vickers Hardness
P
d1
P
HV  1 . 854 2
d1

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Illustration: correlation between hardness and tensile strength

► for steel alloys

UTS ( MPa )  3 . 45  HB

► Valuable as hardness tests are

quick and cheap to do.

From Callister, 7th edition, page 160

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6. Closing remarks
• Relevant additional reading

– Callister Chapter 6, §6.7 (true stress and strain), 6.8 (recovery) and 6.10 (hardness)

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