Assignment No 1

Social Interactionism
Name of Group members: Zara Abbas Bukhari, Muneeba,
Asma Ur Rehman, Sabahat Shaheen, Hira Wazir

Semester: M.Phil. - I

Instructor: Dr. Fakhira Riaz

Course title: Language and Linguistics

Department: English

Date of submission: 01 Nov. 2017

Introduction

The presented work has focused upon the Social Interactionist Theory of Language
Acquisition. The theory has been explained in the light of general definitions given by different
linguists along with its background. The major contributions of the prominent social
interactionists towards the development of social interaction model of language learning has
also been highlighted. The comparative analysis of social interactionism with other theories of
language acquisition has been done in order to highlight the significance of it. Towards the
end, the applications and implications of the social interactionism has been given.

Background

About 2 million and 300,00 years ago, homo sapiens become distinct from other species
and one major difference between human beings and other organisms in this universe is the
language. It is hypothesized that language developed as side effect in response to the
development of human mind but other linguists oppose this idea and say that human beings
have this innate ability to acquire a language. In the start of 20th century, when linguistics - the
scientific study of a language emerged as a separate discipline, the different theories of
language acquisition also put forward by different theorists. According to Paul (2009), there
are three broad areas in which the language theories can be grouped and these are
environmental, cognitive and social.

Paul (2009) while quoting Lund (2003) states that the environment theories can be put
together under the framework of behaviorism. Behaviorism has been presented by B.F
skinner and his colleagues according to which language learning is a part of habit formation.
We imitate the things in environment and we also learn language. While the cognitive theories
of language are influenced by the work of Noam Chomsky according to which the language is
learnt with the help of mind. All rules of language are present in the mind of child then he can
construct his sentences with the help of rules present in mind. According to Paul (2009), the
social theories are the combination of social and cognitive models. According to
social theories, the social environment is important for the development of language.

Paul (2009) while acknowledging different linguists claim that there are different approaches
within the interactionist framework. The term interactionism, used in cognitive or social-
interactionist models implies that there are a number of factors—for example,
cognitive. linguistic, and social—that are critical for the development of an individual.
Interactionist theories incorporate tenets from both environmental or behaviouristic
and cognitive-linguistic approaches. This is considered to be a balanced perspective;
however, the nature of the balance depends on the specific focus of the model. Within the
interactionist framework, there are three broad approaches: cognitive- interactionist,
information processing, and social-interactionist.

Definition of social interactionist theory of language acquisition

The theory that language is acquired from an interaction of a human’s innate

biological capabilities to acquire language with exposure to language in the environment
in which the child is developing. (Lambert, 2011)

Explanation

According to Lambert (2011), the interaction theory of language development is a

compromise between the nativist theory and the behaviorist theory of language development.
The interaction theory recognizes that both environmental and biological factors are
important in language development. Within this theory of compromise are theorists who are
closer to one end of the extreme than the other. However, all interactionists believe that
language acquisition occurs as a result of the natural interaction between children and
their environment, more specifically, their parents or caregivers. For example,
interactionists believe that language is a byproduct of children’s social interactions with
the important people in their lives.

According to Paul (2009), social-interactionist model emphasize the role of language

interactions. The language learning process is facilitated by the critical functions of language—
for example, for social communication interactions and making sense of the world in which we
live. Social-interactionists assert that language has a unique, rule-governed structure.
However, they argue that these structures develop (i.e., emerge or result) from the social
functions of language as evident in human interactions. The development of more mature
linguistic functions permits the growth of more sophisticated human interactions. Social-
interactionists view language acquisition as a complex, reciprocal dynamic interplay
between the child and the social-linguistic environment.

According to Bergmann (2007) social interaction theory assumes that children acquire
language through social interaction, with older children and adults in particular. This approach
holds that children prompt their parents to supply them with the appropriate language
experience they need. Thus, children and their language environment are seen as a
dynamic system: children need their language environment to improve their social and
linguistic communication skills, and the appropriate language environment exists because
it is cued by the child. According to this approach, the ways in which older children and
adults talk to infants play a crucial role in how a child acquires language. In many Western
societies, speech to infants (so-called child-directed speech) is slow and high pitched and
contains many repetitions, simplified syntax, exaggerated intonation, and a simple and
concrete vocabulary.

Work of Vygosky

A Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) worked to generate the social development
theory. Vygotsky highlighted the importance of social interaction. It was highlighted in relation
to language learning. His view was that cognitive development is greatly influenced by social
interaction. His belief was that cultural and biological development does not occur in isolation,
was central to his theory (Driscoll, 1994). Until this work of his was published in 1962, the
West wasn’t aware about it.

A model of human development named as the sociocultural model was developed by Lev
Vygotsky. He believed that in children, there are two stages of all cultural development. In
the first stage, a child by observing interaction among other people develops a behaviour.
This means that a child develops in him an ability to communicate by observing
communication among adults.

In the second stage, Vygotsky theorized that when a child tends to solve a problem while
interacting, his learning increases, or he learns best. Eventually, a child becomes capable
of problem-solving on his own but at first, he is led by an adult. This is a fact because a
child begins to respond to an adult because of an adult talking at the child. Then the child
eventually moves from gurgling to baby talk and then to more correct and complete
sentences.

Vygotsky Social interactionism theory asserts the themes of the More Knowledgeable Other
and the Zone of Proximal Development regarding social interaction.

More Knowledgeable Other

 Anyone with higher ability level or better understanding in relation to the learner in a
particular task, process or concept is known as More Knowledgeable Other. A teacher, older
adult, or coach is normally considered as More Knowledgeable Other but a younger person,
even computers and peers also count in this. Partners must essentially be on different
developmental levels and the higher-level partner must be aware of the lower’s level.
Interaction will be less successful if partners are not on different levels or one among
them dominates (Driscoll, 1994; Hausfather, 1996).

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Vygotsky regarded the lifelong process of development was reliant on the social
interaction and that cognitive development is the results of social learning. He named this
process as the Zone of Proximal Development and described it as the distance between
actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving ability of an
individual under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (Vygotsky’,
1978). In other words, a task can be performed by a student under adult guidance and peer
collaboration that can’t be achieved alone. The gap between what is known and what can
be known is bridged by the Zone of Proximal Development. Vygotsky claimed that learning
occurred in ZPD.

The connections among people and the cultural context in which they act and interact in
shared experiences, was Vygotsky’s focus (Crawford, 1996). According to Vygotsky, tools
which are developed from culture such as speech and writing, are used by human beings
to mediate their social environment. Child develop these tools to initially serve solely as
social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believe that higher thinking skills
result from the internalization of these tools. Vygotsky’s believe contrasted with Piaget’s,
who observed that in the preoperational stage the egocentric speech disappeared in the young
children as they reached concrete operational stage. He viewed this speech to be a transition
from social speech to internalized thoughts (Driscoll, 1994). Thus, he believed the existence of
language and thought to be impossible without each other.

Work of Bruner

Jerome Bruner, the proponent of constructivist view, is also a social interactionist.

Constructivism has its foundation laid in Vygotsky’s Social Interactionism Theory. Bruner
reacted against behaviorist model of language acquisition but seems to be rooted in the study
of cognitive development. Bruner’s main contributions towards the social interactionist
theory include the concept of discovery learning, the spiral curriculum and the concept
of scaffolding.

In his research on The Cognitive Development of Children (1966), Jerome Bruner proposed
some modes of representation. By modes of representation, it means the ways or the formats
in which the child manipulates the information. There are three modes:

• Enactive representation mode (action-based)

• Iconic representation mode (image-based)

• Symbolic representation mode (language-based)

Enactive

This very first mode which involves encoding action based information and storing it in child’s
memory. The child learns about the world through actions on physical objects and the outcome
of these actions.

Iconic

This mode states about information stored visually in the form of images. Here, learning can
be gained through the use of different models and pictures. It is often better to show diagrams
or illustrations to learners so that these may accompany verbal information.

Symbolic

In this stage information is stored in the form of a code or symbol, such as language. This is
the most adaptable form of representation because actions & images have ended up on a fixed
relation. In this stage, learner develops the capacity to think in abstract terms.

Symbols are flexible in the way that they can be manipulated, ordered or classified according
to the requirement of the situation. The user does not get constrained by actions or images. In
the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, etc.

Bruner’s contribution towards the social interactionist theory is considered very important. He
presented the concepts of discovery learning, the spiral curriculum and the concept of
scaffolding
Discovery Learning

The Process of Education (1960) by Bruner states that students are active learners who can
construct their own knowledge on the basis of some idea or concept. This can be done by
organizing and categorizing information using a coding system. According to him, the most
effective way to develop a coding system is to discover it instead of being told it by the teacher.
The notion of ‘discovery learning’ states that students construct and build their own
knowledge for themselves.

Spiral Curriculum

Bruner (1960) also explained the concept of the spiral curriculum. It gives an idea to move
from simple terms to complex ideas. This concept of Bruner involves the exposure of
learners to a variety of simpler things at initial level and then information should be
structured in such a way that complex ideas should be introduced at later levels.
Therefore, subjects would be taught to the learners at levels of gradually increasing difficultly.
Teaching this way should lead the learner to be able to solve problems by themselves.

For Bruner, the purpose of education should not be to impart knowledge but to provide
the learner a facility to think and be skillful in problem solving. Education should be
given in such a way that leads to develop symbolic thinking in children.

The role of the teacher should not be to teach information only by rote learning, but instead the
teacher should facilitate the learning process by only paving a guideline. This means that a
good teacher will design such lessons that will be helpful in discovering certain elements. To
do this a teacher must provide students the information they need. The use of the spiral
curriculum can be proved helpful in aiding the process of discovery learning.

From Bruner’s point of view, important outcomes of learning include not only the concepts,
categories and problem-solving procedures, but also the ability to invent and produce the things
for oneself. For this purpose, the aim of education should be to create independent and creative
students. For best motivation towards learning, the interest of the learner exceeds all other
factors.

Both Bruner and Vygotsky focus on child's social environment. Both seem to agree that
adults should play an active role in guiding the child's learning process. Bruner, like
Vygotsky, emphasized the social nature of learning. They are of the view that that other
people should help a child develop skills through the process of scaffolding.

Scaffolding

The concept of scaffolding is almost related to Vygotsky's notion of the zone of proximal
development and it is somehow common for the terms to be used interchangeably. By
Scaffolding, it means involvement of helpful and structured interaction between an adult
and a child with the aim of helping the child achieve a specific goal of language
development. Scaffolding describes young children’s oral language acquisition. Children
are helped by their parents and society when they first try to start speaking. In this
process, they are provided with the instinctive structures to learn a language.

Comparative analysis of Social interactionism with other language acquisition theories

Bergmann (2007) compares and contrast the approach of Active Construction of Grammar with
that of social interactionism. According to the proponents of Active Construction of Grammar
children actually invent the rules of grammar by their own self. Likewise, social interactionists
also believe that children have this innate ability and they must develop rules as they have a
predisposition to learn language. Paul (2009) also explains that cognitive-linguists view
children as active processors of language. Because of language's specialized nature, children's
development is guided by maturation. The input of significant others is important because this
input triggers (sets in motion) the innate structures. However, social interaction theorists
place a great deal of emphasis on social and the kind of input that children receive, instead
of assuming that simply exposed to language use will suffice.

Social interactionism differs from behaviorist model because of the fact that it believes
that language is acquired through social interaction and not just reinforcement which is
the case in behaviorism. According to Paul (2009) behaviourists view children as passive
processors of language information. In behaviourist approach, the development of
language of children is guided mainly by the stimuli and actions (e.g., reinforcement) of
significant others, particularly parents. In essence, the input and actions of significant
others are totally responsible for children's language development. But social
interactionist focus on turn taking and other pragmatic functions (e.g., those associated
with speech acts), and they assert that children's utterances elicit a response from parents
(particularly mothers) and vice versa. The social interaction is dynamic and enriching
because parents provide the language stimuli necessary for children's language growth.
Relative to the competence/performance issue. Social interactionists believe that the
linguistic competence of children can only be competence (i.e., understanding and use)
within a social context.

Paul while quoting Bohannon, 1993 states that the social interactive approach assumes
that language development is the result of acquiring grammatical rules. The child is also
assumed to bring a number of innate predispositions to the language learning situation that
constrain children in their search for linguistically relevant distinctions. On the other hand, the
environment is believed to be almost as constrained as the children, in order to supply children
with the types of language experience necessary for development. Language development is
viewed as an orderly, although complex, interactive process where social interaction
assists language acquisition and the acquisition of language allows more mature social
interaction.

It can be inferred from the foregoing discussion that social-interactionists believe that both
nature and nurture contribute to the child's acquisition of language. Social-interactionists
assert that some experience and training are necessary for children's language to develop.
It is also argued that the innate mechanism, by itself, cannot explain children's mastery
of language.

Applications and implications

Vygotsky’s ideas have been widely applied in the field of education. The implications of these
ideas in the field of L2 teaching therefore, are well founded.

Task-based approach towards language teaching is clearly based on the principles of social
interactionism. TBLT is a sort of proper teaching method, encourages the social
interaction in the class room. According to Saied and Yusef (2014), TBLT inspires the
scaffolding of tasks, the negotiation of meaning, the flexibility of group work, and student-
centred atmosphere which are all included within the principles of interactionist approach. As
this theory focuses on the importance of social and collaborative aspects of learning. It focuses
on how the learner accomplishes a task and how the interaction between learners can scaffold
and assist in the L2 acquisition process.

A collective ZPD is formed, by collaboration and interaction among peers, from which each
learner can draw from as a collective pool. Ellis advises teachers to give more attention to the
properties of task that aim to promote communicative efficiency as well as L2 acquisition.
According to Nunan (1988 cited Seedhouse, 1999), task-based contexts “stimulate learners to
mobilise all their linguistic resources and push their linguistic knowledge to the limit” The
central focus of task-based approach is on the role of interaction and collaboration among peers
and how learners scaffold each other through interaction, a point that is essential in Vygotsky‟s
concept of learning.

According to Saied and Yusef (2014),. Teacher-centred teaching methods leads to the inability
of the students in conversational and productive skills. However, interactionist approach, as
the basis of TBLT can promote students to engage in productive activities both inside and
outside the classroom. Also, teachers should encourage oral discussions in their classes
through which students can interact freely, express their ideas and take responsibility for
their own learning. Either in small groups or whole-class discussion, teachers can do
much to create an interactive classroom.

Vygotsky encourages teachers not to concentrate too much on teaching concrete facts but
to push their students into an abstract world, which serves as a means to assist learners
to develop multiple skills that will enable them to deal with complex learning tasks.
Learners’ personal voice is important in this regard, because emphasis merely on the facts and
repetition of accepted ideas, will only produce dull and uninspired students. This implies that
students should be taught how to create, adjust their strategies and assimilate learning activities
into their own personal world.

The importance of meaning construction in the act of learning (reflecting Vygotsky‟s: claims)
is an important topic in L2 classroom interactions. In the process of teaching, reading and
writing, interaction of L2 students with texts in classrooms employs a recognition of the
meaningful interaction between L2 and texts in classrooms. It employs the notion that focus of
the teachers should not be on mastering the skills but enhancing their competence in L2.
Zimmerman (1997, as cited in Theory in The Second Language Class Room), Too much
focus on skills would deprive learners from meaning construction, competency, fluency
and flexibility while dealing with texts as readers and writers.

Students will develop a convergent type of thinking that will lead to the hindrance their abilities
to deal with tasks that require complex thinking. This, in turn, could retard students’ abilities
to develop multiple skills required for their success in their academic life. It is advocated that
once the focus of teaching is on meaning construction, students would be able to
assimilate, internalise and integrate the new information with the information they
already possess, and thus understand the new information better and add personal values
to it. Sociocultural theory believes that true learning occurs when the learner actively
transforms his world and does not merely conform to it.

The concept of ZPD is a challenge for second language teachers. According to Shayer
(2002), it involves the teachers to know about the limits of their students and teach to the
limits of their ZPD. Interaction between learner and teacher leads to the determination
of learner’s ZPD. This interaction helps teacher to determine precisely what the learner
can achieve alone and what he/she needs assistance to achieve. Shayer claims that mere
cognitive level matching leaves the children’s ‟mental development stagnant, but on the other
hand, Conceptualising too high above students‟ ability may lead to frustration and
disappointment and that therefore it is the teacher’s role to create the balance.

The concepts of scaffolding and mediation, discussed in social interactionism are very essential
in L2 contexts. They imply that explicit instruction in L2 learning is still needed. For example,
there is an outcry against emphasis on teaching grammar in L2 classes. It is advocated that
despite much time spent on teaching grammar, texts produced by L2 students are
ungrammatical. (Zamel 1985; Miller 1996). Even though this is a fact acknowledge by many
including L2 learners, it would be a mistake for people to think that these learners will
acquire the language the way children acquire their L1. Second language learners need
coaching and explicit instruction in order to appropriate the fundamental skills of L2.
Lack of such skills as Carson and Leki (1997) claim, can hinder their progress and
improvement as competent readers, writers and language users. In L2 context, there is still
a need for learning tasks and stages to be graded to facilitate easy understanding and
knowledgeable persons (teachers, instructors) to take L2 learners through different layers of
knowledge and understanding before being left on their own. These are tasks they cannot
handle independently, particularly at the early stages of their learning. Other important
implications of interactionist perspectives is for material developers and textbook designers.
(Saeid and Yusef 2014). They have to avoid the mechanical drills by replacing them with
meaningful activities, tasks; exercises as well as games all intended to encourage
interaction and oral skills among the students in the classroom. Finally, teacher training
courses play an important role in familiarizing teachers with the principles of collaborative
learning and motivating them to opt for interactive practices in their classrooms.
Conclusion

Social interactionist mainly Vygotsky and J. Bruner view language development as a product
of social interaction between the developing child and linguistically superior adult. Social-
interactionists assert that language has a unique, rule-governed structure; however, these
structures develop (i.e., emerge or result) from the social functions of language as evident
in human interactions. Language acquisition is said to be a complex, reciprocal, dynamic
interplay between the child and the social-linguistic environment. It is argued that both
nature and nurture contribute to the child's acquisition of language. The application of
social interactionism can be seen in Task-based approach towards language teaching
which is clearly based on the principles of social interactionism. Social interactionism
seems to be the most representative or most predominant social theory.

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