650 MCQs of

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

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1. Anatomy is the science of the structure of the body.

2. Anatomy deals with the study of structure of different organs and body parts of human.
3. The word is derived indirectly from the Greek anatome, ana, meaning "up”. tome, meaning "a cutting".
4. Regional Anatomy is the branch of anatomy that deals with the study of any specific part of the body
5. Systemic Anatomy is the branch of anatomy that deals with the study of any system of body is called systemic
anatomy.
6. Cross- section Anatomy is the branch of anatomy that deals with the study of cross-sectional part of human body.
7. Gross Anatomy is branch of anatomy, which deals with the study of structure of human body parts by naked eye
mean that without any microscope or lenses.
8. Histology is the branch of anatomy, which deals with the study of microscopic parts/cells.
9. In the 19thcentury, light microscope was invented
10. Embryology is the branch of anatomy, which deals with the study of embryo.
11. Cytology Is the branch of anatomy that deals with the study of structure of cell and its components.
12. That part of body which is present in front or near to abdomen is called Ventral / Anterior
13. Ventral& Dorsal terms are used for body cavities
14. The part of body which present near to back side is called dorsal or posterior.
15. The part of the body which is present towards upper side is called superior.
16. The part of the body which is present towards lower side is called inferior.
17. The part of body that is present near to the medial line is called medial.
18. Lateral is the part of body is present away from the medial line.
19. The line, which divides the body in to two equal mean right and left parts is called medial line.
20. Any part which is away from the surface is called deep.
21. Any part, which is present nearer to the reference point, is called superficial
22. The part which is present nearer to the medial line and towards the lower side is called proximal
23. Bending movement in which angle between two bones decreases is called flexion
24. Extending movement in which distance between two bones increases is called Extension
25. In microscopic anatomy or histology we study the structures with the help of microscopes.
26. Histology deals with the study of microscopic details of tissues that make human body.
27. Cytology is the branch of anatomy that deals with the study of structure of cell and its components.
28. Embryology is the branch of anatomy which deals with the study of embryo
29. Radiology is the study of the structure of human body that includes the use of several imaging techniques
30. Anterior and posterior describe structures at the front (anterior) and back (posterior) of the body.
31. Superior and Inferior Describe a position above (superior) or below (inferior) another part of the body.
32. Proximal and distal describe a position that is closer (proximal) or greater distance (distal) from the trunk of the
body.
33. Superficial and deep describe structures that are closer to (superficial) or further/ greater distance from (deep)
the surface of the body
34. Medial and lateral describe a position that is closer to (medial) or further/ greater distance from (lateral) the
midline of the body.
35. The line which divides the body into two equal mean right and left parts is called medial line.
36. Inferomedial is the part of body that present near to the medial line and towards the lower side.
37. Two parts of body that present at the same side of body is called Ipsilateral
38. Two body organs which are present opposite to each other is called contra lateral.
39. Flexion and extension refer to a movement that decreases (flexion) or increases (extension) the angle between
body parts.
40. Abduction and adduction refers to a movement of limb away (abduction) or towards (adduction) the medial line of
the body.
41. Elevation and depression refers to movement of bones toward upper side (elevation) or toward lower side
(depression).
42. Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion refers to decrease in distance (Dorsiflexion) or increase in distance
(Plantarflexion) between foot and leg.
43. Eversion and inversion refer to movements that tilt (move into a sloping position) the sole of the foot away
(eversion) or towards (inversion) the medial line of the body.
44. Upper limp consist of Forearm, Arm and hand
45. Fore Arm starts from scapula and ended to elbow joint
46. Fore Arm consists of single long bone which is called humerus
47. Humerus is long bone in upper limb
48. Arm consists of Radius and ulna
49. The lower limb consists of thigh bone, leg, knee and foot.
50. Leg technically starts from knee to ankle.
51. Leg consists of two bones which are called tibia.
52. Tibia is attached to the toe nearest to medial line.
53. Fibula is away from medial line
54. Tibia is large bone and bear whole of the weight
55. Fibula is small it is attach to muscles.
56. Patella is also called knee cap.
57. Patella connects femur and tibia
58. Foot consist of Tarsal, Metatarsal, Phalanges
59. Vertebral column consists of 33 irregular bones. These bones are classified in to 5 different regions.
60. C1 _ C7 (Cervical Region)
61. T1 _ T12 (Thoracic Region)
62. L1 _ L5 (Lumbar Region)
63. S1 _ S5 (Sacrum Region)
64. Coccyx 3 Bone (Coccyx Region)
65. First seven vertebrae are called cervical vertebrae it helps for flexibility in work.
66. Next twelve vertebras are considered as thoracic vertebra.
67. Pelvic girdle is also called as hipbone. It is consist of two coxal (hip) bones.
68. This coxal bone is also called ossabone.
69. In child hood coxal bone is devided in to three parts, Ileum, Ischium, Pubic bone
70. The digestive system composed of a long muscular tube called gastrointestinal tract (GIT) or alimentary canal
71. Liver, Gall bladder and pancreas are supporting organs or GIT
72. The upper respiratory tract is consisting of the nose, pharynx (throat) and associated structures.
73. The lower respiratory tract is consisting of the larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.
74. Nephron is basic structural & functional unit of kidney
75. Cells are the smallest functional units of the body.
76. Cells grouped together to form tissues.
77. Different tissues are grouped together to form organs,
78. Organs are grouped together to form systems
79. A cell consists of a plasma membrane
80. Watery fluid of cytoplasm is called cytosol
81. Organelles are small structures with highly specialized functions
82. Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane is outer covering of cell.
83. Plasma membrane is 7.5 to 10 nanometers thick.
84. Plasma membrane is composed almost entirely of proteins and lipids.
85. Cytoplasm is jelly-like substance that surrounds the nucleus of a cell.
86. Ectoplasm --- near to the cell membrane
87. Endoplasm --- near to the nucleus
88. Cells are the smallest units of life.
89. Cells group together with one another based on similar structure and function to form tissues.
90. Tissues provide the numerous functions of organs necessary to maintain biological life
91. The study of tissues is called histology
92. The human body is composed of four basic types of tissues; epithelium, connective, muscular, and Nervous
tissues.
93. These tissues vary in their composition and their function. A basic understanding of the role of each tissue
makes understanding the specific functions easier.
94. Epithelium forms the coverings of surfaces of the body.
95. Epithelium serves many purposes, including protection, adsorption, excretion, secretion, filtration, and sensory
reception.
96. Classification of epithelium is based on the shape of the cells and the arrangement of the cells
97. Simple Cells are found in a single layer attached to the basement membrane
98. Stratified Cells are found in 2 or more layers stacked
99. Pseudostratified is a single layer of cells that appears to be multiple layers due to variance in height and location
of the nuclei in the cells.
100. Transitional cells are rounded and can slide across one another to allow stretching.
101. Cuboidal cells have a basic cube shape
102. Columnar cells are tall, rectangular or column shaped cells
103. Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells
104. Simple epithelium consists where absorption, secretion and filtration occur.
105. Simple epithelial tissues are generally classified by the shape of their cells.
106. The four major classes of simple epithelium are simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar and
pseudostratified.
107. Simple squamous epithelium cells are flat in shape and arranged in a single layer.
108. Simple squamous epithelium cells found in the walls of capillaries, linings of the pericardium, and the linings of
the Alveoli of the lungs.
109. Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer cells that are as tall as they are wide.
110. The important functions of the simple cuboidal epithelium are secretion and absorption.
111. This epithelial type is found in the small collecting ducts of the kidneys, pancreas, and salivary glands.
112. Simple columnar epithelium is a single row of tall, closely packed cells, aligned in a row.
113. Simple columnar epithelium are found in areas with high secretory function (such as the wall of the stomach), or
absorptive areas (as in small intestine)
114. Pseudo stratified epithelium can also possess fine hair-like extensions of their apical (luminal) membrane called
cilia.
115. Ciliated epithelium is found in the airways (nose, bronchi), but is also found in the uterus and fallopian tubes of
females, where the cilia propel the ovum to the uterus.
116. Stratified epithelium differs from simple epithelium by being multilayered.
117. Stratified epithelium found where body linings have to withstand mechanical or chemical insults.
118. Stratified epithelia can be columnar, cuboidal, or squamous type.
119. In keratinized epithelia, the most apical layers (exterior) of cells are dead and lose their nucleus and cytoplasm.
120. Keratin makes the epithelium waterproof, and it is abundant in mammalian skin.
121. The lining of the esophagus is an example of a non-keratinized or moist stratified epithelium.
122. Transitional epithelia are found in tissues that stretch
123. Anatomy Is the study of body structure.
124. Physiology Deals with body function.
125. Physiology studies the normal mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of animals and plants.
126. Cell is a basic structural and functional with of body.
127. Cell consists of two major parts. Cytoplasm and Nucleus
128. Types of cell are Nerve cell, Muscle cell, Connective cell and Immune cell
129. Composition of cell: Water 65-80%, Proteins, Electrolytes, Lipids and Carbohydrates
130. Cell membrane/plasma membrane is outer covering of cell. It is very thin in nature about 8-10 nanometer.
131. Structure of cell is lipid by layer in nature in which carbohydrates are sandwich and proteins are also emended
in it.
132. Cell provides the passage of the water-soluble substances.
133. Cell act as transported by attaching to the cell membrane proteins.
134. Cell Permit the passage of ions and molecules outside the cell.
135. Cell protects the cell organelles.
136. Some carbohydrates in plasma membrane are helpful for binding of hormones (insulin).
137. Cytoplasm is part which surrounds/ covers the cell nucleus. It lies near to the cell membrane.
138. Ectoplasm is near to the cell membrane
139. Endoplasm is near to the nucleus Composition
140. Cytosol is a clear fluid where all organelles are present.
141. The endoplasmic reticulum is a series of tubular portion in the cytoplasm.
142. Types of endoplasmic reticulum are Rough surface endoplasmic reticulum (Granular) and Smooth surface
endoplasmic reticulum (A granular).
143. Ribosomes are attached to outer surface of endoplasmic reticulum.
144. Proteins are synthesized by ribosome and then transferred to the endoplasmic lumen.
145. Smooth surface endoplasmic reticulum
146. Lipid biosynthesis and the intracellular transportation.
147. In liver there is a large quantity of smooth endoplasmic reticulum is present.
148. Rough surface endoplasmic reticulum plays a major role in glycogen metabolism.
149. Rough surface endoplasmic reticulum also helps in detoxification of various toxin and alcohol.
150. Types of ribosome are depending upon its function.
151. Endoplasm reticulum ribosome Protein Synthesis
152. Free floating ribosome Produce cytoplasmic proteins
153. Transcription: it is a formation of messenger RNA from DNA
154. Translation: Formation of proteins. It is occurred due to messenger RNA and Translational RNA.
155. Golgi apparatus is also called as Golgi body or Golgi complex
156. Golgi apparatus is membranous organelle.
157. Golgi apparatus is responsible for packaging and lysosomes formation.
158. Golgi apparatus form lysosomes.
159. Golgi apparatus form secreting cells.
160. Golgi apparatus modifies N-oligosaccharides.
161. Golgi apparatus is the site for carbohydrates and proteins.
162. Golgi apparatus is self-replicating the organelle, thread like membrane that synthesize high-energy phosphate.
Therefore it is called power house of cell.
163. Golgi apparatus has different size and shape. It is motile, localized inter cellular site for maximum energy. It is
wide 0.5 – 1um and length up to 10um.
164. Golgi apparatus are elongate in shape, like as cigar shape. These are single and branched.
165. Golgi apparatus composed of Proteins and lipids in lower quantity and small quantity of DNA or RNA are
present in it.
166. Golgi apparatus composed of two lipped bilayer protein membrane consisted of two parts, Outer membrane
and Inner membrane
167. A large amount of ATP is formed in mitochondria.
168. Nucleus is a control center of cell. It is responsible for all physiological biochemical and reproductive functions
of cells. It is mostly present in eukaryotic cells.
169. Nucleus of each cell is usually in spherical size and shape is 4-10mm in diameter.
170. Nucleus is made by nucleus membrane, nucleus plasma. Chromosomes and nucleolus.
171. Nucleus consists of water=80% and dry weight=20% in which DNA 18% and RNA 2% are present.
172. Nucleus is a control center of cell.
173. Nucleus controls the proteins synthesis by messenger RNA.
174. Nucleus helps in hereditary material transformation.
175. Nucleus controls the cell division.
176. Nucleus controls the activity of cytoplasm.
177. The skeletal system in an adult body is made up of 206 individual bones.
178. Bones are arranged into two major divisions, AXIAL SKELETON and Appendicular skeleton.
179. The axial skeleton runs along the body’s midline axis and is made up of 80 bones
180. Appendicular skeleton is made up of 126 bones
181. Skull is composed of 22 bones that are fused together except for the mandible.
182. Fused bones are separate in children
183. The bones of the superior portion of the skull are known as the cranium and protect the brain from damage.
184. The bones of the inferior and anterior portion of the skull are known as facial bones and support the eyes, nose,
and mouth.
185. The hyoid is a small, U-shaped bone found just inferior to the mandible.
186. The hyoid is the only bone in the body that does not form a joint with any other bone, it is a floating bone.
187. The hyoid’s function is to help hold the trachea open and to form a bony connection for the tongue
188. The malleus, incus, and stapes known collectively as the auditory ossicles are the smallest bone in the body
189. The sternum, or breastbone, is a thin, knife-shaped bone located along the midline of the anterior side of the
thoracic region of the skeleton.
190. The sternum connects to the ribs by thin bands of cartilage called the costal cartilage.
191. There are 12 pairs of ribs that together with the sternum form the ribcage of the thoracic region.
192. The first seven ribs are known as “true ribs”
193. Ribs 8, 9, and 10 all connect to the sternum through cartilage
194. Ribs 11 and 12 are also false ribs
195. Thirty three vertebrae form the vertebral column of the human body.
196. Cervical (neck) - 7 vertebrae
197. Thoracic (chest) - 12 vertebrae
198. Lumbar (lower back) - 5 vertebrae
199. Sacrum - 5 vertebra
200. Coccyx (tailbone) - 4 vertebras
201. The pectoral girdle connects the upper limb (arm) bones to the axial skeleton
202. The humerus is the bone of the upper arm.
203. Humerus forms the ball and socket joint of the shoulder
204. The radius and ulna are the two bones of the forearm.
205. The ulna is on the medial side of the forearm and forms a hinge joint with the humerus at the elbow. The radius
allows the forearm and hand to turn over at the wrist joint.
206. The lower arm bones form the wrist joint with the carpals,
207. Carpals are a group of eight small bones that give added flexibility to the wrist.
208. Each finger has three bones known as phalanges, except for the thumb, which only has two phalanges.
209. Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Formed by the left and right hip bones,
210. Pelvic girdle connects the lower limb (leg) bones to the axial skeleton.
211. The femur is the largest bone in the body
212. The femur forms the ball and socket hip joint with the hip bone
213. The patella forms in early childhood to support the knee for walking and crawling.
214. The tibia and fibula are the bones of the lower leg.
215. The tibia is much larger than the fibula and bears almost all of the body’s weight.
216. The fibula is mainly a muscle attachment point and is used to help maintain balance.
217. The tibia and fibula form the ankle joint with the talus.
218. The brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.
219. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain
220. Cerebrum is composed of right and left hemispheres.
221. The cerebellum is located under the cerebrum.
222. Cerebellum function is to coordinate muscle movements, maintain posture, and balance.
223. The brainstem includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla.
224. Ten of the twelve cranial nerves originate in the brainstem.
225. Hypothalamus is located in the floor of the third ventricle
226. Pituitary gland lies in a small pocket of bone at the skull base called the sella turcica.
227. The pituitary gland is connected to the hypothalamus of the brain by the pituitary stalk.
228. Pineal gland is located behind the third ventricle.
229. Thalamus serves as a relay station for almost all information that comes and goes to the cortex.
230. The skeleton makes up about 30-40% of an adult’s body mass.
231. Roughly half of the bone matrix’s mass is water
232. Living bone cells are found on the edges of bones and in small cavities inside of the bone matrix.
233. All of the bones of the body can be broken down into five types: long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid.
234. Long. Long bones are longer than they are wide and are the major bones of the limbs.
235. Long bones grow more than the other classes of bone
236. A hollow medullary cavity is found in the center of long bones and serves as a storage area for bone marrow.
237. Short. Short bones are about as long as they are wide and are often cubed or round in shape.
238. Flat bones do not have a medullary cavity like the long bones.
239. The frontal, parietal, and occipital bones of the cranium along with the ribs and hip bones are all examples of
flat bones.
240. Irregular bones have a shape that does not fit the pattern of the long, short, or flat bones.
241. The vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx of the spine as well as the sphenoid, ethmoid, and zygomatic bones of the
skull are all irregular bones.
242. Each end bone is called an epiphysis while the middle bone is called a diaphysis
243. The articular cartilage acts as a shock absorber and gliding surface between the bones to facilitate movement
at the joint.
244. Joints are simply the connective tissue
245. Joints are classification according to the nature of their connective tissue.
246. The connective tissue of solid joint is partially cartilaginous and partially fibrous
247. Blood is a type of connective tissue. It is composed of blood cells and an aqueous fluid known as plasma.
248. Blood consist of cellular part and non cellular.
249. RBCs (red blood cells) are also called erythrocytes.
250. WBCs (white blood cells) are also called leukocytes.
251. Plasma consists of fluid part (water 91%) and a solid part 9%.
252. Organic substances or blood are Proteins 7%, Albumin 4.5-5.5%, Fibrinogen 0.2%, Globulin 1.3-2%,
Prothrombin 0.1%
253. Non protein nitrogenous substances of blood are Urea, Uric acid, Creatinine, Arsine acid, Ammonia.
254. Non nurogenous substance of blood are Glucose, Cholesterol, Glucose, Phospholipids and Triglycerides.
255. Enzymes present in blood are Amylase, Carbonic Anhydrase, Lipase, Phosphatase.
256. Blood has bilirubin Pigments
257. Inorganic substances in blood are Sodium, potassium, Chloride, Chorine, Calcium, Bicarbonate, Iodine,
Magnesium and phosphorus.
258. All cells that comprise the blood are produced in the bone marrow.
259. The blood is a renewable tissue of the human body
260. Blood have a limited life span.
261. RBCs are red oxygen carrying. Hemoglobin containing non nucleated cells present in blood.
262. RBCs Count: Males: 5.4 Million / cumm, Females: 4.7 Million / cumm, Infants: 6.0 million / cumm
263. Mature RBCs do not contain mitochondria and nucleus. They contained HD.
264. RBCs contain Water=65%, Solid & semi solids=35%
265. Average life span of RBCs is only 120 days.
266. In neonate (body) RBCs have shopper life span (70 to 90) days
267. For energy of RBCs depend upon plasma glucose.
268. 1st: trimester (first three months of pregnancy) RBCs are produced from foetal life. RBCs are produced in the
yolk sac.
269. 2nd: trimester (three to six months of pregnancy) RBCs are produced mostly in liver in spleen and lymphnodes.
270. 3rd trimester (six to nine months of pregnancy) During the last trimester of pregnancy and after birth they are
produced from bone marrow.
271. Up to the age of 5 years all bones produces RBCs.
272. After the age of 20 bone marrow of long bones does not produce RBCs
273. After the age of 25 years RBCs are mostly produced in the marrow of membranous bones.
274. Vitamin B12 is essential vitamin. for DNA synthesis.
275. Vitamin C and folic acid both are important for erythropoiesis.
276. Protein (Amino acid are necessary for the synthesis of globin in the synthesis of 11b).
277. Intrinsic factor, Fe and some hormones are also essential for erythropoiesis.
278. In response to decreased blood oxygen, kidney release erythropoietin. This stimulates RBCs production in the
red bone marrow.
279. The count of RBCs is lowest during sleep and early morning hours and highest during evening.
280. RBCs count increases during an increase in external temperature.
281. RBCs count increases during an increase in external temperature.
282. High Poxia Increases the RBCs count.
283. Repeated X-Ray decrease RBCs production by depressing bone marrow actively. Function of RBCs
284. There are two principal types of megaloblastic, one is caused by lack of vit B12 and other is cause by
deficiency of folic acid.
285. In Aplastic Anemia type of anemia, the RBVs WBCs and platelets count are decreased due to bone marrow
aplasia or the lack of function of bone marrow.
286. Vitamin B12 is not absorbed in pernicious anemia.
287. Patient suffering from pernicious anemia are less sick than those suffering with folate deficiency anemia.
288. Folic acid deficiency anemia is the type of megaloblastic anemia due to deficiency of folic acid.
289. The deficiency of folic acid causes the slow DNA continues to form that accounts for megaloblastic anemia.
290. Iron deficiency anemia is the type of anemia it occurs when there is an inadequate amount of iron is present for
hemoglobin synthesis.
291. Hemolytic anemia means break down of Red Blood Cells.

292. In Hemolytic anemia type of anemia there is early rupturing of the red blood cells. And release of hemoglobin.
293. In Sickle Cell Anemia type of anemia there is an abnormal form of HB called HB-s which is caused by an
inherited genetic defect.
294. Sickle cell anemia is created with folic acid and the infection of treated with antibiotics.
295. Blood transfusion is advised when HB is falls to 5mg% in Sickle Cell Anemia
296. In the presence of anticoagulant the process of setting down of RBCs from the specimen of blood is known as
sedimentation.
297. The rate at which this settling of RBCs occurs is known as the erythrocyte sedimentation rate.
298. Size and shape or RBC affect ESR
299. Specific gravity of corpuscles affect ESR
300. Concentration of cholesterol affect ESR
301. Temperature: if the temperature is above 20C E.S.R will be increased.
302. Specific gravity: with high specific gravity RBCs sink more quickly.
303. Decreased viscosity increases the E.S.R.
304. Normal values of E.S.R in the first hour Western method Males = 5-10mm, Females = 10-15mm
305. Normal values of E.S.R in the first hour Win robes method Males = 0-10mm, Females = 10-15mm
306. Factors increasing the E.S.R Increase 02, cholesterol, a-globulin, fibrinogen, temperature above 20 C.
307. White blood cells (leukocytes) are mobile unit of the body protective system.
308. WBC classified in to two major groups Granular leukocytes (Granulocytes) and Agranular leukocytes
(Agranulocytes)
309. Granular leukocytes are developing from red bone marrow
310. The three types of granular leukocytes are Polymorphonuclear neutrophils, Polymorphonuclear eosinophils,
Polymorphonuclear basophils.
311. Agranular leukocytes are the second principle group of leukocytes. They develop from the lymphoid tissue
cytoplasmic granules are not seen:
312. Total number of WBCs: Average = 7000/mm3, Range = 4000-11000/mm3
313. Normal values of each type of WBCs are Polmorphonuclear neutrophils 5400/mm3, Polmorphonuclear
eosinophils 275/mm3, Polmorphonuclear basophils 35/mm3, Lymphocytes 2750/mm3, Monocytes 450/mm3.
314. Functions of WBCs:
315. Phagocytosis: This is a process by which neutrophils and macrophages engulf and destroy the bacteria viruses
and foreign particles
316. phagocytosis occurs by both neutrophils and monocytes when bacteria invade the body.
317. Lymphocytes from and fraction of serum globulin immune bodies are associated with globulin.
318. lymphocytes play an important role in the defensive mechanisms of the body.
319. Lymphocytes may be converted in to fibroblasts at the site of inflammation, helping in the process of repair.
320. basophils secrete heparin. This prevents intravascular clotting of blood.
321. Platelets (Thrombocytes) are small, nonncleated cells present in blood.
322. Platelets are small, irregular, round, or oval dise like cells.
323. Size of Platelets is 2-4 microns in diameter.
324. Their normal count of Platelets in blood is between 150,000 to 300,000/cu mm.
325. Life span of Platelets 4-9 days
326. Types of Platelets are Small (young) platelets (or active platelets), Large (old) platelets.
327. Platelets possess proteins, lipids (phospholipids. Arachidonic acid).
328. The principle functions of platelets in hemostasis.
329. Platelets are necessary for maintenance of vascular integrity.
330. Platelets repair small vascular injuries by adhering to basement membrane.
331. Platelets provide glycoprotein, their adhesion to collagen.
332. Platelets show slight phagocyte activity.
333. Coagulation or clotting of blood is the process of conversion of soluble plasma fibrinogen in to insoluble fibrin
substance to form a clot.
334. The formation of prothrombin activator is initiated by the interplay of two mechanisms, the extrinsic and intrinsic
pathways of blood clotting.
335. At least 30 commonly occurring antigens and hundreds of other rare antigens are found in human blood.
336. Two particular groups of antigens are more likely to cause blood transfusion reactions.
337. Antigens are present on the surface membranes of RBCs
338. Antibodies are humeral substances produced in response to antigens.
339. Agglutinins are antibodies (immunoglobans) which cause agglutination upon combing with corresponding
agglutinogens.
340. Rh factors are antigens present on the surface of RBCs which cause agglutination
341. Heart is a conical, hollow, muscular organ situated in the middle mediastinum.
342. Arteries are a series of blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (except pulmonary
and umbilical arteries).
343. The walls of arteries are constructed of three coats of tunica.
344. Arterioles are the smaller branches of arteries which deliver blood to capillaries.
345. Arterioles play a key role in regulating blood flow from arteries in to capillaries.

346. A change in diameter of arterioles can also significantly affect the blood pressure.
347. Capillaries are diffuse networks of blood vessels which connect the arterioles and venules.
348. Capillaries are found in almost every cell in the body.
349. The distribution of capillaries in the body varies with the activity of the tissues.
350. Venules are blood vessels that connect capillaries with veins.
351. Veins are a series of blood vessels which carry blood towards the heart (except pulmonary and umbilical veins).
352. Veins are composed of essentially the same three coats as arteries, but there are variations in their relative
thickness.
353. When a number of cells function as a single unit the whole functional unit is called a functional syncytium.
354. The heart is composed of two different syncytia, the atrial syncytium andyentricular syncytium
355. Automaticity is the ability cardiac impulses from the Sino atrial node (S.A. node) to all the cardiac muscle.
356. Refractory period is the time period during which an already excited cradle muscle cannot be re-excited by a
normal stimulus.
357. Refractory period is of two types Absolute refractory period and Relative refractory period.
358. Cardiac cycle is the period from the beginning of one heart beat to the beginning of the next heartbeat.
359. The cardiac cycle consists of a period of relaxation called diastole.
360. All 8 stages of the cardiac-cycle occur in only 0.8 seconds.
361. Ventricular systole takes 0.30 seconds to complete
362. Ventricular diastole takes 0.49 seconds to complete
363. Heart sounds are heard with the help of a stethoscope (discovered by Lenic).
364. Two Heart sounds sounds are normally hard during each cycle.
365. In some cases, one may hear a 3rd or 4th heart sound.
366. Heart sounds are made by the closure of the heart values
367. The first sound one hears is described as LUB.
368. First heart sound is produced just after QRS complex of ECG duration 0.15 secretaries.
369. 2nd heart sound is produced by the vibration associated with the closure of the semilunar valves (aortic and
pulmonary) just after the end of ventricular systole.
370. Murmurs are abnormal heart sounds produced when there is an excessive degree of turbulence of blood flow in
the heart chambers.
371. Electrocardiography is the technique of recording the electrical activity of the heart.
372. The 1st ECG machine was designed by Einthoven.
373. A normal ECG is composed of a “P wave, QRS complex and T wave
374. The QRS complex is often 3 separate waves.
375. The ECG can be divided in to 3 types of recordings which consist of complexes or waves, intervals and
segments.
376. Duration of P wave is 0.1second or less.
377. Amplitude of P wave is 2mm or less.
378. Voltage of P wave is 0.1-0.3 mV.
379. Duration of QRS complex is 0.11sec
380. Amplitude of QRS complex 0.5-1.6mm
381. Voltage of QRS complex 1mV
382. Voltage of T wave is 0.2-0.3mV
383. QRS-Interval duration is 0.08-0.10 second
384. QT- Interval duration is 0.40-0.43 second.
385. ST- Interval duration is 0.32 second.
386. Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by blood on the wall of blood vessels.
387. Systolic blood pressure is the maximum pressure exerted by blood on the wall of blood vessels which develops
at the peak of ventricular systole.
388. Normal systolic blood pressure is 120 mm mg.
389. Diastolic blood pressure is the minimum pressure exerted by blood on the wall of blood vessels during
ventricular diastole.
390. Blood pressure is lowest early in the morning and highest in the afternoon.
391. Blood pressure rises with age.
392. The systolic blood pressure at different ages Infancy = 80-90 mm Hg, Childhood = 90-110 mm Hg, Adult =
110-120 mm Hg, Elderly = 140-150 mm Hg
393. Obese persons tend to have higher blood pressure.
394. In resting conditions as in sleep, blood pressure is decreased.
395. In severe exercise the systolic blood pressure may rise up to 180mm Hg.
396. Standing causes an increase in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure.
397. Excitement or emotion may cause an increase in systolic blood pressure.
398. After digestion of food, There is a slight rise in systolic blood pressure. But the diastolic blood pressure falls due
to vasodilatation in certain vessels of the body.
399. The respiratory system consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.
400. From a clinical point of view, the respiratory system is divided in to the upper and lower respiratory tract.
401. The upper respiratory tract is consists of the nose, pharynx (throat) and associated structure.
402. The lower respiratory tract is consisting of the larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs.
403. The purpose of respiration is to supply O2 to the tissues and remove carbon dioxide.
404. Respiration can be divided in to four basic functional events
405. Expiration may be defined as the giving out of alveolar air containing excess of CO2 is expiration.
406. Tidal volume: Volume of air inspired or expired in each normal breath is 500ml
407. Inspiratory reserve volume: It is the extra volume of air that can be inspired forcefully, beyond the normal tidal
volume its volume is 3000ml
408. Expiratory reserve volume: It is the extra volume of air that can be expired forcefully beyond the normal tidal
volume, its volume is 1100ml
409. Residual volume: It is the volume of air still remaining in the lungs after forceful expiration. Its volume iis 1200ml
410. Pulmonary capacities are the sum of two or more than two pulmonary volumes.
411. Inspiratory capacity of lungs is 3500ml
412. Functional residual capacity of lungs is 2300ml
413. Vital capacity of lungs is 4600ml
414. Total lung capacity is 5800ml
415. The total amount of new air that moves in to the respiratory passages in each minute is called the minute
respiratory volume.
416. The normal rate of respiration in one minute is 12.
417. In childhood and old age vital capacity is less than normal adults.
418. In females Vital Capacity is 20% less than males.
419. Greater the height more will be vital capacity.
420. Vital capacity is greater at standing and less in lying or sleeping.
421. Vital Capacity decreased in pregnancy.
422. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from the area of higher concentration to the area of lower concentration
by random motion.
423. Alveoli are about 300 million of both lungs each alveolus has an average diameter of 0.2mm.
424. The membrane of the respiratory units through which exchange of gases take place is collectively called the
pulmonary or respiratory membrane.
425. The thickness of the respiratory membrane in some areas is as 0.2um with an average of 0.6um.
426. Partial pressure of oxygen in the alveolus is 104mm Hg,
427. Partial pressure of O2 in the arterial end of the capillaries is 95mm Hg
428. The partial pressure of O2 in interstitial fluid is 40mm Hg,
429. The diffusion of CO2 occurs in the opposite direction, of Oxygen.
430. Partial pressure of Co2 within the cell is 46mm Hg whiles its pressure in the interstitial fluids 45mm Hg. Thus it
diffuses from interstitial fluid.
431. Partial pressure of CO2 in interstitial fluid is 45mm Hg while in the arterial end of the capillaries, is 40mm Hg.
432. Partial pressure of CO2 in pulmonary blood is 45 mm Hg while in the alveolus. It is 40mm Hg.
433. The thickness of the respiratory membrane is inversely proportional to the diffusion of gases through the
respiratory membrane.
434. The grater the thickness of the respiratory membrane lowers the diffusion of gases.
435. The surface area of the respiratory membrane is directly proportional to the diffusion of gases.
436. The diffusion co-efficient is directly proportional to the diffusion of gases through the respiratory membrane.
437. Normally 97% of the oxygen transported from the lungs to the tissues is carried in chemical combination with
red oxygen carrying pigment (hemoglobin) while the remaining 3% is carried by physically being dissolved in
plasma.
438. Hemoglobin is an impotent oxygen carrying pigment.
439. The combination of hemoglobin is a reversible reaction as it forms a loose bond.
440. The greatest percentage of CO2 about 70% is transported in the plasma in the form of bicarbonate icons.
441. Chloride ions (CI-) enter from the plasma in to the RBCs.
442. Respiration is regulated by three different mechanisms, these are Nervous regulation, Chemical regulation and
peripheral chemoreceptor control system
443. This carbonic acid quickly dissociates in to H+ ions and bicarbonate (HCO3) ions.
444. The basic function of respiration is exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the body and
environment.
445. Acid-based balance is maintained through respiration
446. In expired air a large. Quantity of heat is lost.
447. Through expiration volatile substance such as ammonia, Ketone bodies alcohol and essential oils are excreted.
448. Blood pressure increases during the latter part of inspiration and early part of expiration.
449. The skin forms the external covering of the body.
450. Skin consists of two major layers of complete different type of tissue s.
451. Epidermis: the superficial layer is called epidermis.
452. Dermis: an under lying layer of fatty tissue separates the skin, from muscle of the body wall beneath.
453. Epidermis contains four types of cells, Keratinocytes, Melanocytes, Langerhans cells and Merke cells.
454. Dermis is composed of Papillary: a thin layer and Reticular: a thicker layer
455. The dermis is much thicker than epidermis and exceeds 4mm on the soles and palms.
456. The mechanical strength of the skin is in dermis.
457. The skin is the largest organ of the body.
458. The skin regulates body temperature by sweating.
459. This is the production of moisture by the sweat glands. The evaporation of this moisture enables the
460. The sebaceous gland excretes oil to lubricate and maintain the health of the skin.
461. Fat cell provides insulation and protection against trauma to the internal organs.
462. Perspiration is the process by which the sweat glands excrete waste materials.
463. Nerve ending in the skin allows us to feel heat cold touch. Pleasure pressure and pain.
464. The skin produces vitamin D in the presence of sunlight.
465. Heat is produced by one means metabolism of foods.
466. Some 80% or more of transfer of heat occurs through the skin
467. The digestive system in the human being is composed of a long muscular called gastrointestinal tract (GIT) or
alimentary canal and accessory organs.
468. The swallowing center is located in the medulla oblongata and lower pones.
469. The peristaltic wave passes from the pharynx to stomach within 8-10 seconds.
470. The gastric glands of the stomach secrete digestive juices
471. These mixing waves are initiated by the basic electric rhythm (BER) produced once every 20 second.
472. The stomach secretes gastric juices which act as digestive fluid.
473. The parietal or oxyntic cells of the stomach secrete HCL which acts as an antiseptic against swallowed
bacteria.
474. Water, glucose, alcohol and certain drugs are absorbed from the stomach: the parietal cells secrete intrinsic
factor which is necessary for the absorption of vit B12.
475. The movement of the small intestine as elsewhere in the GIT can be divided into mixing contraction and
propulsive contraction.
476. The longitudinal length of each Mixing contraction (segment contractions) is about 1.2cm.
477. Peristaltic waves helps in the passage of chyme through the small intestine
478. Peristaltic waves move at a velocity of 0.5-1 cm/sec
479. Polysaccharides are present in almost all non-animal foods particularly grains (starches)
480. The average dietary intake of carbohydrates in 280-800 gm/day which represents 50-60% of the diet.
481. During mastication (chewing), food is mixed with saliva
482. The daily protein requirement for adults is 0.5-0.7gm/kg of body weight and for children 1-4 years of age is 3-
4gm/kg of body weight.
483. The proteins found in the intestine come from two source
484. Endogenous proteins: 30-40gm/day are secretary proteins as well as the protein components of dead cells.
485. Exogenous proteins: these are dietary proteins. 75-100gm/day are taken in the diet as plant and animal
proteins.
486. Proteins digestion starts in the stomach where proteins are fragmented by the action of pepsin in to peptides.
487. Pepsin in the most important enzyme of the stomach which is active at a low ph: (2-3) and completely inactive
at ph above 5.
488. digestion of proteins mostly occurs in the upper small intestine, duodenum and jejunum under the action of
photolytic enzymes of pancreatic juice.
489. Proteins are mostly absorbed in the form of dipeptides, tripeptides and amino acids.
490. Rapid absorption of amino acids occurs in the duodenum and jejunum, but is slow in the ileum.
491. Proteins are absorbed through co-transport or a secondary active transport process.
492. Some amino acids are transported by the process of facilitated diffusion.
493. Average daily intake of fat is 25-160gm.
494. Digestion of fats:
495. In young adults the digestion of lipids occurs in the small intestine.
496. The emulsification of fat is the first step in fat digestion.
497. Pancreatic lipase enzyme, present in pancreatic juice.
498. Cholesterol esterase hydrolyzes cholesterol esters leaving free cholesterol.
499. The cholesterol and fat soluble are located within the fat soluble interior of the micelles.
500. Micelles contain free fatty acids and 2 monoglycerides.
501. Saliva is a fluid that is continuously secreted by glands in or near the mouth to keep the mucous membranes of
the mouth and pharynx moist.
502. Saliva is secreted by Parotid glands, Submandibular glands and Sublingual glands
503. Minor glands secrete saliva which is mucoid
504. The amount of saliva secreted per day varies considerably, ranging from 11000-1500ml.
505. Saliva pH is 7.0
506. Saliva Composition: Water =99.5%, Solutes =0.5%
507. It has large quantities of potassium and bicarbonate ions and small quantities of sodium and chloride ions are
present in saliva.
508. Saliva has various organic substances including urea, uric acid, serum albumin, globulin and mucin.
509. Saliva has two major types of protein secretions, serious and mucous.
510. Saliva acts as a solvent, so it is essential for taste.
511. Saliva keeps the mouth and teeth clean.
512. Saliva has some anti-bacteria action.
513. Saliva helps to maintain the oral pH about 7.0.
514. The enzyme pepsin with HCl Digest the protein up to peptone stage.
515. The enzyme gastric lipase digests the fats to some degree.
516. HCl prevents the growth and kill the microorganisms in the stomach.
517. Certain toxins, heavy metals and alkaloids are excreted through the gastric juice.
518. In stomach, HCl helps in the absorption of iron.
519. Intrinsic factor helps in absorption of vit-B12
520. The pancreas is a dual function gland
521. The exocrine part of pancreas secretes digestive pancreatic juice.
522. endocrine part of pancreas secretes insulin, glucagon and somatostatin a hormone
523. Daily secretion of pancreas is 1200-1500ml.
524. Composition of pancreas is Water, Ions, Proteins, Enzymes
525. Pancreatic secretion like gastric secretion is regulated by both nervous and hormonal mechanism.
526. The juice is alkaline, so it neutralizes the almost equal volume of gastric juice.
527. Bile juice is a yellowish green digestive secretion from the liver and gallbladder.
528. In humans, 500-1000ml of bile juice is secreted by hepatocytes (liver epithelial cells) and ductal cells
529. Bile pH is 7.6-8.6
530. bile juice stored in the gall bladder
531. Bile juice is essential for complete digestion
532. Bile juice acts as a detergent and reduces surface tension converting fat into emulsion.
533. Bile juice is helpful in the absorption of cholesterol monoglycerides.
534. Bile juice is also helpful in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
535. Bile salts cause stimulation of peristaltic waves.
536. Bile juice helps to maintain a suitable pH of duodenal contents
537. Bile is an important source of alkali for neutralizing the HCl into the small intestine from the stomach.
538. Liver is the largest gland in the body. It weighs about 1.5kg (3-4 lb.)
539. Liver cells detoxify the various substances.
540. Liver cells secrete about a pint of bile in a day.
541. Liver cells produce plasma proteins and serves as a site of hematopoiesis is During fetal development.
542. Gall bladder 7-10cm (3-4 inches) long 3cm is broad at its widest point.
543. Gall bladder can hold 30-50ml of bile
544. The main organs of the urinary system are the kidneys.
545. Kidneys are a pair of excretory organs situated on the posterior abdominal wall on each side of the vertebral
column behind the peritoneum.
546. Each kidney is bean shaped.
547. Kidneys are 12cm long, 6cm broad and 3cm thick.
548. The weight of each kidney is 150gm in males and 135gm in females.
549. Nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney
550. Number of nephrons: 2.4 million In both kidneys.
551. The total length of a nephron including the collecting duct is 45-65 mm.
552. The basic function of nephrons is to clear and clean the blood plasma of unwanted substances.
553. The volume of urine excreted in a normal adult varies between 1000-2000ml.
554. pH of urine is 6.0 range (4.6- 8.0).
555. The kidneys excrete urine with a high solute concentration.
556. When it is necessary to rid the body of excess water, the kidneys excrete urine with a dilute solute
concentration.
557. The principle regulator of urine composition is anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
558. Hormones are chemical substances which are secreted into the body fluids by one cell or a group of cells and
have a physiology control effect on other cells of the body.
559. Hormones help to control the internal environment by regulating its chemical composition and volume.
560. Hormones transport substances through the cell membrane.
561. Hormones play a key role of growth and development.
562. Hormones contribute to the basic processes of reproduction, fertilization, nourishment of the embryo, and
delivery of newborns.
563. Hormones regulate metabolism and energy balance in the body.
564. Local hormones: These have specific local effects on the body. Example: acetyl choline, secretin and
cholecystokinin.
565. General hormones: These affect body cells far away from their points of secretion.
566. Hormones of Anterior pituitary gland: Growth hormone (somatctropin), Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH),
Adreno corticotrophin hormone (ACTH), Follicular stimulating hormone (FSH), Prolactin, Luteinizing (LH)
567. Hormones of Posterior pituitary gland: Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), Oxytocin
568. Hormones of Adrenal cortex: Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone), Glucocorticoids (Cortisol), Sex hormone
(Adrenal androgens)
569. Hormones of Adrenal medulla: Epinephrine (adrenaline), Norepinephrine (nor adrenaline)
570. Hormones of Thyroid gland: Thyroxin (T4), Triiodothyronine (T3), Calcitonin
571. Hormones of Parathyroid gland: Parathyroid hormone (Parathormone)
572. Hormones of Islets of Langerhans (Pancreas): Insulin (Beta cells), Glucagon (Alpha cells), Somatostatin (Delta
cells)
573. Hormones of Testes: Testosterone
574. Hormones of Ovaries: Estrogen, Progesterone
575. Hormones of Placenta: Estrogen, Progesterone, Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), Human
samatomammotropin, Relaxin
576. Growth hormone is a hormone of the anterior pituitary gland
577. Growth hormone is a small protein (particle)
578. Growth hormone stimulates the synthesis of protein RNA and DNA.
579. Growth hormone promotes amino acid entry into cells.
580. Growth hormone decreases the catabolism of protein because Growth hormone mobilizes free fatty acids to
supply energy.
581. Growth hormone is a diabetogenic hormone
582. Growth hormone has a tendency to cause hyperglycemia.
583. Growth hormone has an overall catabolic effect in adipose tissue.
584. Growth hormone stimulate the mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissue l
585. Antidiuretic hormone is the hormone of the posterior pituitary gland.
586. Antidiuretic hormone prevents excessive urine production.
587. Chemical Nature of antidiuretic hormone is Polypeptide containing amino acid.
588. ADH is a hormone of the posterior pituitary gland.
589. Chemical nature of ADH is Polypeptide containing 8 amino acids.
590. Oxytocin causes uterine contraction and has a sucking effect on seminal fluids.
591. Oxytocin inhibits ADH secretion.
592. Calcitonin hormone is produced by the Para follicular cells of the thyroid gland.
593. It is involved in the homeostasis of blood calcium and phosphate level.
594. Chemical nature of Calcitonin is 32 amino acid poly peptide
595. Calcitonin decreases the blood calcium concentration.
596. Calcitonin decreases activity of calcium in ostcocytic membranes.
597. Calcitonin increases osteoplastic activity.
598. Calcitonin decreases formation of osteoclasts.
599. Calcitonin decreases the rate of bone remolding.
600. Calcitonin increases the urinary excretion of phosphates.
601. The regulation of calcitonin depends upon the Plasma concentration of calcium.
602. An increase in plasma Ca++ concentration causes increased secretion of calcitonin.
603. A decrease in plasma Ca++ concentration causes decreased secretion of calcitonin.
604. Aldosterone is a hormone of the adrenal cortex, secreted by the outer most layers called the zone glomerulosa.
605. The main action of aldosterone is to maintain balance of the electrolyte contents of the body fluid.
606. Cortisol is also known as hydrocortisone.
607. Cortisol stimulates gluconeogenesis in the liver by mobilizing amino acids from extra hepatic tissues (muscles)
and by increasing the enzymes of gluconeogenesis.
608. Cortisol decreases the utilization of glucose
609. Cortisol increases blood glucose levels
610. The principle effects of cortisol on the metabolic systems of the body are reduction of protein stores in all body
cells except those of the liver.
611. Cortisol mobilizes fatty acids from adipose tissues.
612. Cortisol increases free fatty acid concentrations in blood.
613. Cortisol increases utilization of free fatty acids for energy.
614. Cortisol increases blood pressure because of increased production of angiotensinogen.
615. Cortisol Increases the platelet count.
616. Cortisol Decreases blood clotting time.
617. Cortisol Increases total WBCs.
618. Cortisol Increase neutrophils, monocytes and RBC count.
619. Low cortisol levels cause restlessness, insomnia and inability to concentrate.
620. Excess cortisol may cause a defect in the synthesis of protein matrix.
621. Cortisol decreases the deposition of calcium.
622. Cortisol increases the loss of calcium in urine.
623. Cortisol decreases absorption of calcium from the GIT.
624. Insulin is a small protein which acts lower the blood glucose level.
625. Insulin is secreted by beta cells of the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas.
626. Insulin is small soluble protein containing 51 amino acid.
627. Insulin increases utilization of glucose for energy.
628. Insulin increases glycogen storage in cells.
629. Insulin increases the conversion of glucose into fat to be stored in adipose tissues.
630. Insulin causes active transport of amino acids into cells.
631. It Insulin promotes translation of mRNA in ribosomes to from new proteins.
632. Insulin promotes transcription of DNA in nucleus.
633. Insulin inhibits protein catabolism.
634. Insulin inhibits gluconeogenesis from amino acids.
635. Insulin is essential for growth, as it increases protein formation.
636. Human glucagon increase blood glucose levels.
637. Glucagon hormone is secreted by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas.
638. Chemical Nature of glucagon is linear polypeptide containing 29 amino acids.
639. Glucagon Increases blood glucose level (as if hyperglycemic hormone) in the following ways:
640. Glucagon promotes glycogenolysis in the liver by activating phosphor late.
641. Glucagon promotes gluconeogenesis.
642. Glucagon promotes amino acid entry into hepatic cells.
643. Glucagon promotes gluconeogenesis from amino acids.
644. Glucagon mobilizes fatty acids from adipose tissues by activating adipose cell lipase.
645. Glucagon inhibits storage of triglycerides in the liver.
646. Glucagon promotes utilization of free fatty acids for energy.
647. Glucagon promotes gluconeogenesis from glycerol.
648. Glucagon increases the strength of the heart.
649. Glucagon enhances bile secretion.
650. Glucagon decreases gastric acid secretion.