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Vol. 51 Issue-1 Jan.
-June 2017 ISSN-0974-1089
Purvanchal University Academy

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89 An International Journal
Vol. 51 Issue-1 Jan-June 2017 ISSN-0974-1089
Chief Editor
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PASSH
(Estd. 1989)
l The conclusions and views expressed in the papers are of the authors concerned,
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Chief Editor : Prof. R.N. Singh
Associate Editors
l Sudeshna B. Mukharjee Ph.D. (Sociol) Kolkata l Mohd. Naseem Khan Ph.D. (Pol. Sc.) Alig.
l N.S. Deol Ph.D. (Physical Edu.) Patiala l Manoj K. Singh Ph.D. (Geog.) Jnp.
l S.D. Singh Ph.D. (Com.) Vns. l D. P. Asthana Ph.D. (Geog.) Azg.
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Contents Page No.
l Role of Gender in Internet Experience, and Internet Attitudes 1-9

among Indian College Students
Nina B. Eduljee & Suchitra S. Kumar
l A Competitor Analysis of Adrenalin E-systems, Chennai 10-16
G.Thiruvasagam & D.Rajasekar
l Television, News and History: Exploring a New Paradigm 17-26
Shuchi Yadav
l Prevalence of Iron Deficiency Anaemia among Adolescent 27-34
Girls in Urban Area of Jammu, India
Vidya & Nidhi Kotwal
l Gender, Emotional Intelligence and Adjustment 35-42
among Adolescents
O. P. Chaudhary
l Adolescent Lifestyle and Behavior: Psychological First 43-56
Aid and Lifestyle Intervention
Sandhya Ojha, Amit Kumar Gupta & Rinu Chaturvedi
l Adjustment Problems among High and Low Achiever 57-62
High School Students of Ranchi (Jharkhand)
Anwer Jahan Khatoon
l Gender Equality : Issues & Challenges 63-70
Rashmi Singh
l Mental Health and Machiavellianism 71-75
Jawed Ahmad
l Paradigm Shifts in Higher Education in India 76-81
Neelima Singh
l Effects of Social Climate of Teaching and Learning on 82-86
Achievement Motivation among Students
Mosarrat Jahan
l Educational and Occupational Aspiration of C.B.S.E 87-94
and B.S.E.B Students of Gaya
Chandradeo Yadav
l Role Conflict and Teacher Attitude 95-98
Shaikh Abul Barkat
Contents Page No.
l Effects of Socio-econimic Status on Academic 99-105
Aspiration among OBC High School Students
Subhash Paswan
l Depression among College Girls 106-111
Zeba Yasmin
l Applicability of the Figures of Bene-Anthony Family Relations 112-118
Test in Indian Children
Jay Kumar Ranjan, Masroor Jahan & Amool R. Singh
l Family Therapy in India: Benefits and Barriers 119-127
Vibha Yadava, Purnima Awasthi, & Ravi, P. Pandey
l Communication Behaviour and Political Awareness 128-138
of Panchayati Raj Leaders
Bhanu Shankar
l Gender and Locale Differences in Psychological Well-Being 136-146
among Adolescents
Pratima Kumari Maurya and Sandhya Ojha
l Employee Engagement, Cognitive Flexibility and Pay 147-157
Satisfaction as Potential Determinants of Employees'
Turnover Intentions: An Overview
Prashant Das, Virendra Byadwal and Tushar Singh
l Scaffolding as a Panacea for Children's Learning 158-166
Problems: An Overview
Namrata S. Bhardwaj & Shubhra S Bhardwaj
l Life Satisfaction and Burnout 167-170
Sandhya Rai
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Printer's Name Prof. R.N. Singh
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E-mail.: ijhrpu1993@gmail.com Chief Editor
Indian Journal of Human Relations ISSN-0974-1089
2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 1-9
Peer Reviewed International Journal
Role of Gender in Internet Experience, and Internet

Attitudes among Indian College Students
Nina B. Eduljee* & Suchitra S. Kumar**
Abstract
This study examined gender differences in internet experience and internet
attitudes among 323 Indian College students (44.9% males, 53.9% females) from
three colleges in Mumbai. Surveys aimed at internet experience and attitudes
towards the internet (Internet Attitude Scale; Tsai, Lin, & Tsai, 2001) were
administered to the participants. The results indicated that in general, students with
greater internet experience (4 years or more) tended to have more positive internet
attitudes. Females tended to have greater perceived usefulness of the internet than
males, whereas males tended to have greater perceived control and affection of the
internet. Internet experience was found to be a significant predictor of internet
attitudes for all three subscales of the Internet Attitude Scale. Implications of the
results are discussed.
Keywords: Gender, Internet Experience, Internet Attitude scale.
Previous research examining internet attitudes among Indian college
students are a limited numberes (Angadi, 2012; Challa & Madras, 2014; Dahiya &
Verma, 2014; Issrani, Keluskar, Ammanagi, Singh, & Prabhu, 2014; Jain, Patidar, &
Malviya, 2011; Petare & Mohite, 2016; Reddy & Karthik, 2013; Sharma, Pyase, &
Jain, 2014). In general, these studies have examined a different combination of
variables such as internet enjoyment, efficacy, usefulness, comfort and satisfaction
with using the internet, anxiety, and stream of study. However, studies examining
the relationship between gender, internet experience, and internet attitudes with
Indian college students are scarce.
Gender, Internet Experience and Internet Attitudes:
Tsai, Lin, & Tsai (2001) examined gender, internet experience, and internet
*Professor, Department of Psychology, Saint Joseph's College of Maine, Standish, ME, USA.
Phone: 207.893.7902 (Work)
**Associate Professor and Department Head, Department of Economics, Guru Nanak Khalsa College,
Matunga, Mumbai, India, Phone: 022-24096234 (Work)
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attitudes among 753 high school students in Taiwan. The results indicated
significant gender differences were obtained in perceived control, affection, and
behavior subscales, with males having more positive internet attitudes than females.
Males had greater confidence, exhibited lower levels of anxiety, and used the
internet more frequently than their female counterparts. No gender differences was
obtained for perceived usefulness of the internet. In addition, students who had
greater internet experience tended to have more positive internet attitudes, with
“…more internet experience tended to express more positive feeling, lower anxiety,
and higher confidence when using the internet” (p. 48). Internet experience was
also highly related to their perceptions of independent control of using the internet.
Along these lines, Luan, Fung, & Hong (2005) examined internet use and
attitudes of 238 preservice teachers from Universiti Putra, Malaysia. The results
indicated that female participants spent 3.32 hours per week on the internet and a
significant number used the internet for educational and general purposes. With
regard to internet attitudes (as measured by perceived usefulness, perceived control,
and affection), female participants felt unsure when navigating the internet.
Participants with greater internet experience tended to use the internet for leisure,
social, and information purposes, with experienced female users indicating better
control of the internet than their inexperienced counterparts.
In a study with 313 preservice teachers, Luan, Fung, Nawawi, & Hong
(2005) found that participants indicated having moderate level of internet use and in
general positive internet attitudes, with the most positive internet attitude for
affection and least positive for perceived control. A negative correlation was
obtained for time spent on the internet and attitudes towards the internet (r = -.153, p
= .007) and between internet use and attitudes (r = .314, p < .0005). Students who
stayed longer online tended to have more positive internet attitudes. Interestingly,
participants with greater internet experience (one year or more) tended to have
better perceived control and affection of the internet; however no differences were
obtained for perceived usefulness of the internet.
Abedalaziz, Jamaluddin, & Leng (2013) examined internet usage and
attitudes towards computers with 289 post graduate students (54% male, 46%
female) in Malaysia. The results indicated the students in general exhibited positive
attitudes towards computer and internet usage. Participants indicated their high
level of perception for perceived usefulness, followed by perceived control,
affective, and lastly behavioral intention, with “…moderate level of feelings and
anxiety when using the internet (Emotional response)” (p. 208). Interestingly, no
gender differences were obtained in computer usage. While no differences existed
in computer usage and internet attitudes differences were obtained between age and
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Role of Gender in Internet Experience, and Internet Attitudes among Indian College Students
students perception towards the computer and internet.

Method
Despite the rising internet usage with Indian college students and with studies
examining attitudes towards internet usage with Indian college students being scant,
it was felt that this study would add significantly to the research. The research
objectives of the present study are as under :
1. To examine gender differences in internet experience and internet attitudes,
2. To determine if gender and internet experience are predictors of internet attitudes.
Participants: 323 Indian college students from three colleges in Mumbai were
surveyed. There were 145 males (44.9%), 174 females (53.9%), and 4 students
(1.2%) who did not disclose their gender. There were 46 males (31.7%) and 60
(34.5%) females from an aided college, while there were 99 males (68.3%) and 114
female (65.5%) from an unaided college. The students ranged in age from 17 to 31
years (mean age = 19.70, SD = 2.50; mean age of males = 20.45, SD = 2.80; mean
age of females = 19.08, SD = 2.04).
Tools:
Surveys concerning demographic information- (age, gender, class, kind of
college attending, and stream of study) were administered to students. Additionally,
questions asked participants to rate their level of internet experience where 1 = less
than six months, 2 = six months to one year, 3 = one to two years, 4 = two to 4 years,
and 5 = more than four years.
Measurement of Attitudes towards the Internet- The Internet Attitude Scale
(IAS; Tsai, Lin, & Tsai, 2001) contains 20 items (only 15 were used in the present
study) was used to measure internet attitudes. Students responded to the items on a 5
point Likert scale (Strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, or strongly disagree) to
statements presented. The IAS generates three subscales: (1) Perceived usefulness;
(2) Perceived Control; and (3) Affection. The subscales range in scores from 5 to 25,
with lower scores indicating more positive attitudes towards the internet. But items
for the affection scale are reverse scored. Examples of items on the three subscales
include:
1. Perceived Usefulness- 5 items -Measuring students' perceptions about the
positive impact of the Internet on individuals and society (Tsai, Lin, & Tsai, 2001,
p.44). Examples of items include: The Internet enlarges my scope, the Internet
helps me acquire relevant information I need.
2. Perceived Control, 5 Item- Measuring students' confidence about the
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independent control of the usage of the internet (Tsai, Lin, & Tsai, 2001, p.44).
Examples of items include: I need an experienced person nearby when I use the
internet, I can use the internet independently, without the assistance of others.
3. Affection, 5 items - Assessing students' feelings and anxiety when using the
internet (Tsai, Lin, & Tsai, 2001, p.44). Examples of items include: I feel bored
towards using the internet. The Internet makes me feel uncomfortable. The Internal
reliability as demonstrated by alpha coefficients ranges from .68 to .82 (Tsai, Lin, &
Tsai, 2001).
Results
Background Information:
Data on internet usage for males and females indicates that 99.3% males
and 93.1% females were internet users. Over 75% of males and females had an
internet connection at home. More females (55.7%) had attended a computer
training course than males (46.8%). With regard to technology ownership, 93.1% of
males and 89.6% of females owned a mobile phone. Both males (86.2%) and
females (74.7%) indicated that they accessed the internet on their mobile phones
followed by their laptop computers (Table 1).
Table 1. Number (%) for Background Information by Gender
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Gender, Internet Experience, and Internet Attitudes

The results in Table 2 indicate that in general, for males as internet
experience increased, internet attitudes were more positive. Males with 4 years or
more internet experience tended to have the highest perceived usefulness and
perceived control of the internet than those with less than 4 years of internet
experience. For females, those with 4 years or more of internet experience tended to
have the greatest perceived usefulness, perceived control, and affection than those
with less than 4 years of internet experience.
Table 2. Means (SD) for Internet Experience by Gender for the Subscales of the
Internet Attitude Scale (IAS)
Gender and Internet Attitudes :

Mean scores and Standard Deviations for gender and the three scales of the
Internet Attitude Scale are presented in Table 3. The results indicated that both
males and females had the most positive attitude for perceived usefulness and the
least positive attitude was obtained for perceived control. No significant gender
differences were obtained for the three subscales of the Internet Attitude Scale.
Table 3. Means and Standard Deviations by Gender for the Internet Attitude Scale
A closer examination of the individual items on the 3 subscales of the IAS

reveals interesting findings (Table 4). No significant differences were obtained
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between males and females for perceived usefulness and affection. However, a
significant difference was found for two items for perceived control, with males
exhibiting more positive attitude for both items.
Table 4. ANOVA summary for the 3 subscales of the IAS
* p < .05
(6)
Correlations were compute in order to determine the interrelationships

between the three subscales of the Internet Attitude Scale (Table 5). The results
indicated a significant relationship was obtained between the three subscales of the
Internet Attitude Scale.
Table 5. Intercorrelations Between the Three Subscales of the Internet Attitude
Scale (IAS)
* p < .01
Predictors of Internet Attitudes :
Table 6 indicates the linear regression results using gender and internet
experience as predictors for internet attitudes. The results indicated that for all three
subscales, gender was not a predictor of internet attitudes; however, internet
experience was a significant predictor of internet attitudes.
Table 6. Predictors of Internet Attitudes for the Internet Attitude Scale
Discussion
The results of this study indicated that 99.3% males and 93.1% females
were internet users. Over 77% of males and females had an internet connection at
home. More females (55.7%) had attended a computer training course than males
(46.8%). A majority of males (93.1%) and females (89.6%) owned a mobile phone
which they used to access the internet. Similar results were obtained by Issrani,
Keluskar, Ammanagi, Singh, & Prabhu (2014) who found that 47.89% of
undergraduate students and 53.37% of post graduate students accessed the internet
with their mobile phones.
In terms of internet experience and internet attitudes, males with greater
internet experience (4 years or more) tended to have more perceived usefulness and
(7)
affection and in general, positive internet attitudes. Females with greater internet
experience (4 years or more) tended to have more perceived usefulness, perceived
control, and affection and in general positive internet attitudes indicating lower
levels of anxiety and more positive feelings towards using the internet. Luan, Fung,
Nawawi, & Hung (2005) found that greater internet usage translated to more
positive internet attitudes and Wong, Ng, & Tang (2005) found that internet
experience increases internet usage which then encourages positive internet
attitudes.
In the present study, it was interesting to note that females tended to have
greater perceived usefulness of the internet than males. However, males tended to
have greater perceived control and affection of the internet than did females. A
closer examination of the items of the Internet Attitude Scale indicated that males
tended to have more positive attitudes than females for two items of the perceived
control subscale: “I need an experienced person nearby when I use the internet”, and
“I do not need someone to tell me the best way to use the internet”. For females, they
tended to have less confidence in their independent control of the internet than did
males. Along these lines, in order for females to have greater levels of confidence
and higher computer efficacy, we recommend that more females enroll in computer
classes which should be geared towards assisting them to work independently with
the internet.
The results of the linear regression indicated that when examining
predictors of internet attitudes, internet experience (and not gender) was found to be
a significant predictor for perceived usefulness, perceived control, and affection.
Thus, it is recommended that irrespective of gender, students gain internet
experience which in turn can impact internet attitudes positively. Tsai, Lin, & Tsai
(2001) indicated that “students' prior Internet experience played an important role
on their Internet attitudes, and providing appropriate Internet experiences may be a
useful way to change students' Internet attitudes in a more satisfactory direction” (p.
49). Thus, we recommend that both males and females be provided with
opportunities to gain greater internet experience, which in turn could translate to
more internet attitudes.
Conclusion
The results of this study revealed that in general, both males and females
exhibited positive internet attitudes. Both males and females with greater internet
experience tended to have more positive attitudes than students with less internet
experience. Internet experience was found to be a significant predictor of internet
attitudes. While the study yielded interesting findings, we recommend that future
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research should examine gender differences in computer skills and efficacy to

examine if these variables relate to internet attitudes.
References
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and internet usage among post graduate students in Malaysia. TOJET: The Turkish
Online Journal of Educational Technology, 12(2), 200-216.
Angadi, G. R. (2012). Post graduate students attitude towards the use of the internet.
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Challa, N., & Madras, V. (2014). Attitude, awareness and usage skills of computer and
internet among medical students. IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences,
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Dahiya, S., & Verma, C. (2014). Analysis of student's attitude regarding internet in relation to
study level and stream. International Journal of Science and Research, 447-452.
Issrani, R., Keluskar, V., Ammanagi, R., Singh, P., & Prabhu, N. (2014). Knowledge, views
and attitudes regarding the internet and its use in dentistry among dental undergraduate
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student's perception. Indian Journal of Computer S cience and Engineering, 2(2),
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Luan, W. S., Fung, N. G., & Hong, T. S. (2005). Malaysian female pre-service teachers
online: Exploring their internet use and attitudes. Proceedings of the 2005 conference
on Towards Sustainable and Scalable Educational Innovations Informed by the
Learning Sciences: Sharing Good Practices of Research, Experimentation and
Innovation, Pages 452-459.
Luan, W. S., Fung, N. G., Nawawi, M., & Hong, T. S. (2005). Experienced and
inexperienced Internet users among pre-service teachers: Their use and attitudes
toward the Internet. Educational Technology & Society, 8(1), 90-103.
Petare, P. A., & Mohite, P. V. (2016). An empirical study on measuring attitude towards
enjoyment, efficacy,anxiety, and usefulness of internet among management students.
Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 2(6), 250-252.
Reddy, P. R., & Karthik, E. K. (2013). A study on students attitudes towards internet.
IJEMR, 3(1), 1-9.
Sharma, A. K., Pyase, R., & Jain, S. (2014). A study & survey of B. Ed students' attitudes
towards using internet. International Journal of Science and Research, 4(12), 1155-
1158.
Tsai, C. C., Lin, S. J., & Tsai, M. J. (2001). Developing an internet attitude scale for high
school students. Computers & Education, 37, 41-51.
Wong, S. L., Ng, S. W., & Tang, S. H. (2005). Malaysian female pre-service teachers online:
Exploring their internet use and attitudes. In Proceedings of the 2005 Conference on
Towards Sustainable and Scalable Educational Innovations Informed by the Learning
Sciences: Sharing Good Practices of Research, Experimentation, and Innovation,
Pages 452-459.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 10-16
A Competitor Analysis of Adrenalin

E-systems, Chennai
G.Thiruvasagam* and D.Rajasekar**
Abstract
Business happens in an exceptionally aggressive, eccentric condition, so it
is essential to comprehend the opposition. A record on each of the contenders
methodologies like estimating, publicizing and special materials. Re-assess these
records at standard interims, deciding how regularly they offer deals, publicize and
support advancements. Correction the duplicate utilized as a part of their business
approach, the publicizing and special materials. The contender examination helps
the association remaining in the market and choosing the best option move will help
in remaining in the top positions of the business. So we chose the theme of
distinguishing the opposition and breaking down their offerings for the Adrenalin e-
Systems, A Polaris Software Group Co.
Introduction
Contender Analysis (CA) is an accentuation on social occasion information
about the contenders, to a substantially more prominent inside and out investigation
of client's methodologies and activities. The most focused organizations are those
that viably change information identifying with contenders into "choice important"
experiences.
This examination gives both a hostile and cautious vital setting through
which to recognize openings and dangers. Contender profiling combines the
majority of the applicable wellsprings of contender investigation into one structure
in the support of productive and compelling technique detailing, usage, checking
and alteration. Given that contender investigation is a fundamental segment of
corporate methodology, it is contended that most firms don't lead this kind of
examination methodicallly enough. Rather, many undertakings work on what is
*Vice-Chancellor, AMET University, ECR, Kanathur, Chennai-603112
** Associate Professor, AMET Business School, AMET University,Chennai
G.Thiruvasagam and D.Rajasekar
called "casual impressions, guesses, and instinct increased through the titbits of data
about contenders each administrator ceaselessly gets." subsequently, customary
natural checking places many firms at danger of unsafe aggressive blind sides
because of an absence of strong contender examination.
Objectives
l To dissect the contenders of Adrenalin e-Systems.
l To discover their item offering and USP.
l To check the cost of the contenders items and channel accomplices and top
customers.
Method
Design and Sampling
The examination configuration received for this review is Exploratory
Research Design. The Exploratory Research Design helps deciding the best,
information accumulation strategy and choice. The scientist has embraced the
technique for judgment inspecting.
The objectives for this review are the organizations whose essential item is
the HCM (Human Capital Management) device. The aggregate size of the specimen
is 8 organizations.
Sources of Information :
Essential Souces:
Primary information was gathered to do the exploration extend. The respondents
were met actually and an immediate meeting strategy was led, for this review and
was gathered through survey.
Auxiliary Sources:
The optional sources can be named Internal and External. The interior
information gathered for this review is from the leaflets and from the workers of the
organization. The outside information was gathered from the site, news and
occasions of the organization.
Measures:
The examination of information gathered through research has been done
efficiently. Pie outline, Simple Bar Diagram and Percentage were utilized to avert
assortment of information that fall into different classifications. The investigation
has been done deliberately and precisely in order to get the right outcomes.
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A Competitor Analysis of Adrenalin E-systems, Chennai
Table -1 : Table showing the no.of modules offered by the competitors.
Graph 2
Table 2 : Table showing the offering of competitors.
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Graph 2 :
Table 3 :Table showing the average price of the product (for 200 employees).
Graph 3
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Table 4 :Table showing the number of competitors present globally.
Graph 4
Table 5 : Table showing the no. of clients of the competitors.
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GRAPH 5
Findings
Ø From the data analysis, it was found that the maximum number of modules
offered is 18 and the minimum is 7. Adrenalin e-Systems is offering 10
modules covering all aspects of HRM.
Ø It was found that 88.89% of the companies offer the product in Enterprise
and SaaS. Whereas only 11.11% of the companies are offering in Enterprise
solution. Adrenalin e-Systems offer both Enterprise and SaaS.
Ø The minimum price in the market is 1.5 lakhs and the maximum price 7
lakhs. Adrenalin e-Systems offers its product at Rs.7 lakhs.
Ø From the data analysis, it was found that 6 companies are having a global
presence and only 3 companies are in India.
Ø The maximum number of clients a company has is 720 whereas the
minimum number of clients of a company is 60. Adrenalin e-Systems has
310 clients.
Suggestions
ü The company offers 10 modules in the product, the maximum number of
modules in the industry is 18. The company can introduce some more
modules for easy access of information.
ü The price at which the product offered is at the highest level in the industry.
The company can bring down the price for higher sales.
ü The company can create more awareness about the product to the existing
and new clients.
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Conclusion
While analyzing the competitors, the company should be very careful in
understanding the competitors offer and their unique selling power. It is very
important to know the offering as the correct offering in the market will help in
staying at the top position in the market. The main purpose of analyzing the
competitors is to be the leader or become a leader in the market by bringing in the
latest technologies in the market ahead of the other companies. It is always good to
have an eye on the competitors, to adapt their method or to use an improved method
of performing the task in a better way. The competitors should be studied completely
and at the most accurate possible level and everything has to be analyzed as per the
requirement, should know their strengths and weaknesses.
It is concluded that Adrenalin e-Systems is one of the best player in the
industry and has got a good number of clients.
References
Kothari, C.R. (2005). Research Methodology Methods and Techniques, Delhi, Vishwa
prakasham , New Delhi ,1985 , second edition, Ninth reprint.
Edwin B Flippo, Personnel Management, Sixth edition, Mcgraw Hill Book Company.
Strauss And Sayles (2007). Managing Human Resources Prentice Hall Inc, p 317-320.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 17-26
Television, News and History:

Exploring a New Paradigm
Shuchi Yadav*
Abstract
Twenty first century is being seen as a mediated society where television as
a medium of mass communication plays a crucial role in shaping public opinion.
The news genre in television has increasingly been engaging with history in a
variety of ways. Audio-visual news narratives are increasingly being written and
produced by journalists to represent the past in the present. What society consumes
therefore is a mediated constructed representation of reality. Public history as a
paradigm is gaining ground among scholars to study how past is constructed in the
public domain. However, the paradigm in itself seems to borrow extensively from the
philosophical ideas prevailing in the 1970s. This paper attempts to explore the
concept and idea of public history as a new paradigm to study the linkages between
television, news and history.
Key Words: Representations, Meanings, Culture, Past, History.
Popular media practitioners are increasingly seen to be engaging with the
representations of the past. We live in a world which is dominated by constructed
realities represented via different mediums of mass communication. 'News' is one
such genre (Fulton, et al. 2005) in media where stories of the past and the present are
packaged for everyday consumption. Both television and print news media
construct representations in the form of narratives which structure the sense of
reality in the public domain.
Culture is a mediated reality and is consumed by the public in a mediated
form. In the process, there is an overcrowding of stories around us, the purpose it
seems is not 'to know' or 'to find the truth' but it is 'to be seen to be doing so'.
Contemporary society is marked by an audience which is not passive but a
participatory producer of the constructed reality itself (Briggs, 2010). Media
narratives are major repositories of people's ordinary lives. News media-print and
*Assistant Professor, School of Media & Communication Studies, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, UP
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Shuchi Yadav
electronic-produces narratives that are seen here as representations of human

experiences. News media also creates ways in which individuals encounter the
present and the past culture.
Reflections on Postmodernism
It is observed here that scholars of the twenty first century are increasingly
focussing on analyzing the value of 'representation' across studies in social sciences.
Epistemological concerns of philosophers in the 1970s of studying scholarly
writings as 'representations' and 'interpretations' seem to have become the central
point of reference for the present day studies across disciplines in social science.
This study therefore discusses the theoretical perspectives on representations
reflected in exploring concepts of news and narratives.
In 1979, American philosopher, Richard Rorty in his seminal work -
Philosophy of Nature - laid emphasis on discerning truth and facts as representations
of human mind.
“To know is to represent accurately what is outside the mind; so to
understand the possibility and nature of knowledge is to understand the way in
which the mind is able to construct such representations. Philosophy's central
concern is to establish a general theory of representation, a theory which will divide
culture up into the areas which represent reality well, those which represent it less
well, and those which do not represent it at all.” (Richard Rorty, 1973). Studies in
news and media have been engaging with such philosophical contentions made in
the past.For news also, representations are structured in a 'language that uses signs
and symbols sounds, written words, electronically produced images, musical notes,
even objects to stand for or represent thoughts, ideas and feelings. Representation
can be defined here 'as one of the central practices through which culture is
produced' (S. Hall, 1997). Theories in anthropology and semiotics, describe “culture
as a three-dimensional framework, comprising social (people, social relations,
institutions), material (artifacts and media), and mental aspects (culturally defined
ways of thinking, mentalities)” (Posner, 1989).
Media narratives are seen here as symbolic representation of the cultures
prevalent in the societies. In order to understand how the meanings of the past are
represented in the present, it is imperative therefore to deconstruct the processes by
which the content of popular cultural narratives is constructed in diverse media
platforms. Culture Studies scholarship has laid stress that narratives are
representations culturally produced which perform the function of cognitive
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Television, News and History: Exploring a New Paradigm
restructuring of the audiences in contemporary society. Narrative is a form of

representation; it is historically and culturally positioned to turn information and
events into structures that are already meaningful to their audiences (Fulton, et al.
2005).
The focus here is on the 'genre' of 'news' as narrative. The idea of genre is
seen 'as a construct in the media texts' (Fulton, et al. 2005, Hall, 2010) which
performs the function of creating a niche in the media industry. Genres, therefore,
are constructs that lend a fixed texture to the narrative. In the public sphere news
narratives are perceived as performing the function of representing the 'truth'. The
producers of news, especially television, stake their claims on showing reality,
showing the truth, totally oblivious of the fact that there seems to be no 'absolute
truth'. In the words of Richard Rorty, 'Truth is a property of sentences, since
sentences are dependent for their existence upon vocabularies, and since
vocabularies are made by human beings, so are truths' (Rorty, 1975) This brings us
to the value of meaning manifested in the narrative as the representation of the
'reality'. As Roland Barthes remarked “narrative is simply there like life
itself...international, transhistorical, transcultural...arising between our experience
of the world and our efforts to describe that experience in language, narrative
ceaselessly substitutes meaning for the straightforward copy of the events recounted
" (Barthes, 1977).
Narrative research witnessed a renewed interest of social scientists towards
the end of 1960s. The idea that people lived in stories and that for understanding
human experience and social reality, it was imperative to explore the meanings
embedded in everyday life stories. Philosophers moved away from facts and
scientific basis of research inquiry, arguing that in order to understand the nature of
historical writing, it is crucial to focus on 'its artistic rather that its scientific basis'
(Adam Budd, 2011). Termed as the 'linguistic turn' in the study of philosophy,
coined by Gustav Bergmann (Rorty, 1967) it found a lot of takers. American
philosopher Richard Rorty in 1967 stressed that the philosophers needed to explore
the purpose and consequences of language to discern the representations of 'reality'
and 'truth' (Rorty, 1967). Literary theorist, Hayden White was one of the leading
figures who argued to inquire into the structure and form of the narratives in order to
understand history. White famously wrote
“...What is the structure of a peculiarly historical consciousness? What is
the epistemological status of historical explanations, as compared with other kinds
of explanations that might be offered to account for the materials with which
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Shuchi Yadav
historians ordinarily deal? What are the possible forms of historical representation
and what are their bases? ” (Hayden White, 1970)
Philosophers suggested therefore that historical consciousness is
something above or beyond “fiction” and that linguistic structures are reflections of
the interpretative viewpoints. Clearly, there was drift away from 'facts as data'
towards understanding the 'abstract meanings coded in the narrative structures'. In
order to know human beings a semiotic interpretation of prevailing popular culture
was stressed upon. Geertz stressed, “...what serve us best are tableaus, anecdotes,
parables, tales: mini narratives with the narrator in them...what counts far more than
reliable data are suitable metaphors...” (Clifford Geertz, 1973).
Hayden White stressed the need to explore the past by focussing on discerning
the structures of imaginative writing and linguistic shaping of reality manifested in
the form of narratives (White, 1980). These kinds of observations are termed as
postmodern in philosophy. Since then “narrative is found in a number of disciplines,
from anthropology to psychiatry; from history to theology; from media studies to
organisational research, from discourse analysis to the study of teachers' lives and
teaching; from politics to healthcare...it is also found in epistemological positions
including phenomenology, hermeneutics, constructivism, feminism, critical
theories, etc” (Ivor F. Goodson and Scherto R. Gill, 2011). Narratives therefore
provided an opportunity for a 'mixed genre' in social research (Geertz, 1983).
Public Histories: Exploring the Past in Public Domain
History on television is a representation of what is constructed as
'remembered' in the society and sometimes of what is constructed as 'forgotten'.
Television uses different sites of memory like oral experiences, photographs,
memorabilia, newspapers, novels, pamphlets etc to recreate the past for its
audiences. Public History as a new paradigm mediates between history and
memory. In the words of Raphael Samuel, 'Memory-keeping is a function
increasingly assigned to the electronic media, while a new awareness of the artifice
of representation casts a cloud of suspicion over the documentation of the past'
(Samuel, 1994).
Public history as a method and as a practice stresses the need for an active
involvement of the public in constructing the past (Jordonova, 2011, Groot, 2016).
However (H) istory as a singular term in itself is problematic, that is to say that if
there is a 'multiplicity of truth' (Carr, 1961) then there are not one but several
versions of history. In the words of Robert Archibald, 'public historians do not own
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history. History is owned by those whose past is described in the narrative because
that story, their own version of it resides in their memories and establishes their
identities' (Archibald, 1999). Public history - or histories as we prefer to call it -
therefore is a process by which the past is constructed into history and a practice
which has the capacity for involving people as well as nations and communities in
the creation of their own histories (Jay Winter, 2006). The paradigm is new in the
sense that it explores different ways through which the contemporary society
engages with the past. Journalists, film makers, curators, photographers, novelists
and poets have their own ways of constructing the past for popular consumption.
The toolkits of public historians generally use memory as vehicle to reconstruct the
past. Oral stories, personal diaries, family albums, photos, newspaper clipping all
seem to be rich repositories of the past. What is reconstructed for the contemporary
society therefore is a representation of the past constructed in the form of narratives
manifested in the form of print or electronic news stories.
Television news narratives are produced in various audio-visual formats
like background stories, news documentaries and live debate or talk shows. In order
to make any contemporary issue intelligible to the audiences, it becomes imperative
for the television producers to put in a historical perspective. At this moment,
television engages with the memory in various forms to construct a popular
historical narrative. Past here is recreated on screen with the help of historical tropes
like photographs, news paper clippings, personal diaries that are mostly found in the
public domain. 'Cultural memory here is used metaphorically' (Young, S. B.,
Nu nning, A., & Erll, A, 2008). News media constructs a shared past to be
consumed by the contemporary society. In this process, television news selects,
categorizes, combines, and narrates by means of sights and sounds. It attempts to
represent the real world using culturally understandable signs and symbols.
News is consumed as discourse here as “news strives to control and limit the
meaning of the events it conveys” (Fiske, 1987). This kind of public history
produced in television news on a daily basis is termed as 'collective history' (Jay
Winter, 2006) which challenges the individual nature of the academic histories.
Thus television as a media platform is collective in nature which produces narratives
which are a handiwork of not one single person; it is a team work that reproduces
histories for mass audiences. Therefore 'television news is an arena in which the
struggle over meanings and signification takes place' (Edgerton & Rollins, 2001).
News is generally placed in historical perspective by the use of linguistic and visual
tropes that lie embedded in the different vehicles of memory.
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Shuchi Yadav
Television engages with the 'historical' (Groot, 2016) very often,

reconstructing the past in the present for the contemporary audiences. Media
therefore reconstructs history for the audience to make the present intelligible to the
audience. Past as a category for the audience is reconstructed via memory that lies
embedded in the cultural signs and symbols. This knowledge of the past is extracted
from the public domain - from the stories of ordinary people. Television relies on all
kinds of theatres of memory to reconstruct the past : press photographs, newspaper
clippings, official reports and documents, oral testimonies of the people involved in
and around the incident. In the daily reconstruction of the past for its audiences,
television producers rely on unofficial sources that are non-academic in nature. This
public history on television is our focus of study.
Public history as a theoretical paradigm stresses that 'cultural memory' or
'social memory' is a vehicle through which media reconstructs history in the present.
There is a need, therefore, to liberate the writing of history from over deterministic
models in historiography and look at other ways in which history is being produced
and consumed by the public. Post 1990 television in India also witnessed a
substantial growth in the 'historical' as a cultural genre (Page & Crawley, 2001).
However, different genres in television have their own way of reconstructing the
past in the present. Increasing number of satellite channels in South Asia pushed the
news genre in television also to engage with the past on a daily basis. The challenge
of making the present intelligible on screen for the audiences made it imperative for
TV to reconstruct the past for the society.
Televising a news story in the present almost always requires an
engagement with the past of that incident. In order to make the news
comprehensible, television news producers draw connections with the past by
engaging with memory. It is the interpretation of the past that puts the meaning of the
present in perspective. What is more crucial therefore is to discern the ways in which
television news engages with the past. Studies in television history underline the
process by which television news producers/reporters perform mediation over time.
“One effect of using the past as an interpretative scheme is to create a symbolic
continuity over time. In this way, television news is instrumental in portraying the
collective as remaining the same across the years, in spite of the changes it may have
undergone. When television news uses the historic explanation, it performs
mediation over time. It is important to stress the implications of this feature of
television news. Not only does the past become relevant to explain present
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developments, but also collective memories are reconstructed in the light of present
meanings”(Edgerton, Gary R., Rollins, Peter C, 2001).
Exploring Public History of a Muslim Massacre in India
In 1987, more than 40 Muslims of the Hashimpura locality in Meerut were
allegedly killed brutally by the state police, shot and thrown into a canal. The first
charge sheet in the case was filed after 10 years and the judgement in the case came
28 years after the incident. It was a case of targeted Muslim killing by a state agency
which surprisingly was given a short shrift by the academicians.
Between 1987 and 1997 itself, there was destruction of evidence related to
police records, vehicle of crime, the weapons used leading to delays in investigation.
While the 1984 carnage of the Sikh minority got substantial attention of the press
and the academic scholars studying communal violence (Das,1990; Mitta &
Phoolka, 2007); the 1987 Muslim killings of Hashimpura were reduced to a
footnote. Sections of the press during that year- newspapers and magazines - seem to
have downplayed or sidestepped the issue in a manner that there could be found no
traces of the killings in the mass consciousness.
For 28 years, there was no comprehensive media coverage of the incident. It
was only on March 21, 2015 following a Tees Hazari Court judgement on the
Hashimpura massacre that the mainstream television news media focussed on it.
Since concrete information about this massacre was scarce or whatever was
available seems to have been overlooked, the history of this targeted Muslim
massacre was for the first time in 2015 cobbled up mainly from fragments, oral
testimonies of the survivors or victims and exclusive press photographs taken by a
photojournalist and newspaper clippings.
On 21st March 2015, an Indian court pronounced the 'Hashimpura
Judgment' (SC No. 80/1/14, State vs. Surenderpal & Ors, 2015). The judgement
acquitted all the accused policemen in the case, citing lack of circumstantial
evidence but agreed that 42 Muslims from Hashimpura locality in Meerut were
killed in cold blood by the state police in 1987:
“The victims were subjected to brutal, unconscionable and unprovoked
violence by the accused persons who belonged to C Company of 41st Battalion PAC
posted in Meerut and therefore it is a case for custodial torture and deaths... It is very
painful to observe that several innocent persons have been traumatized and their
lives have been taken by the State agency but the investigating agency as well as the
prosecution have failed to bring on record the reliable material to establish the
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Shuchi Yadav
identity of culprits... Hence, in these circumstances, all the accused persons... are
acquitted of all the charges framed against them”. (Judgement, State vs Surender Pal
& Ors, 2015)
The news of the judgement flashed across TV screens as the
newsworthiness of the issue at hand was immense for the Indian society. Television
news was sure to latch on to it as there was enough controversy surrounding the
judgement. It is here that the television history of the massacre was reconstructed in
the present for contemporary audiences. This study attempts an analysis of the
visual representation of the history of the massacre on television.
It needs to be underlined here that “everyday television often blurs the
divisions between history and fiction, conflates historicity and contemporaneity,
and is inseparable from popular memory, the active process of remembering and
forgetting”(Edgerton & Rollins, 2001). Studies in cultural memory point out that in
order to remember, it is important to forget. Hence the framing of the event in 2015
television news narratives was actually a starting point for the television as a
medium to set the pace for engaging with memory to reconstruct a historical
narrative of the massacre in the present.
This approach of public history that emphasizes “collective memory is an
exploration of a shared identity that unites a social group, be it a family or a nation,
whose members nonetheless have different interests and motivations”(Alon
Confino,2008). It emphasizes that the crucial issue in the history of memory that
television explores here is not just how the past is represented, but why it was
received or rejected. In the process of remembering the past of the massacre for
television, the vicitims, survivors or journalists subtly point out to linkages between
media, hegemony and sectarian violence.
In the process of reconstructing the public history of the massacre for the
contemporary audiences, it is observed that pertinent questions about the media's
role in the past (in 1987) are frequently raised. But the television news journalists'
increasingly frame the story generally in the canonical discourse of communalism
versus secularism in India (Headlines Today, 2015; NDTV-Hindi, 2015; NDTV,
2015). What is sidestepped is the silence of the 1987 print media on the Hashimpura
massacre. In the words of Foucault, “...it is not only important to be critical of how
the total story of history is told (how the past informs the present), but also how the
present reads the past - how the media construct “history” as a category of popular
memory” (Edgerton & Rollins, 2015). That question about the past media coverage
may have been ignored, nevertheless television engaged with the history in screen
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by mainly exploring the oral narratives of the victims and the survivors of the
Hashimpura killings. Even print media like the Indian Express published engaging
popular narratives of the photo journalist Praveen Jain by narrativizing the stories
behind the images of Hashimpura search operation clicked by him.
These are forms of public histories being produced in the public domain on
a daily basis where news as a genre constantly engages with such fragments like
memory, stories and photos. It is crucial to realize that those studying media or the
news genre in media must focus on discerning the processes by which such
representations are constructed for audiences. Histories produced in public, outside
the academic discipline, need a systematic documentation and analysis as they have
a potential to reconstruct a parallel historical narrative increasingly being consumed
by the society. Public history as a paradigm provides immense opportunities for the
scholars of media and culture studies to discern the practice in television to
increasingly engage the past in public domain.
References
Adam Budd, (2008). The Modern Historigraphy Reader', London and New York:
Routledge.
Archibald, Robert, (1999).A Place to Remember : Using History to Build Community, New
York.
Barthes, Roland, 'Image, Music, Text'
Cohn, W. H., 'History for the masses: Television portrays the past'; Journal of Popular
Culture, 1976
E.H. Carr, (2008). What is History, Penguin.
Edgerton R Gary & Rollins C. Peter (2015). Television histories: shaping collective memory
in the media age, University Press of Kentucky.
Glassberg, David, (1976). Public History and the Study of Memory', Public Historian 18
(Spring).
Hayden White, ( 1980). The Value of Narrativity in the Representation of Reality; Critical
Inquiry, Vol. 7, No. 1, The University of Chicago Press.
Jay Winter. (2006). Remembering War: The Great War and Historical Memory in the
Twentieth Century. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.
Jay Winter. 2006. Remembering War: The Great War and Historical Memory in the
Twentieth Century. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.
Jeremy Black, 2014. Contesting History: Narratives of Public History, Bloomsbury,
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Shuchi Yadav
Jerome de Groot (2016) Consuming History: Historians and Heritage in Contemporary

Popular Culture, Routledge, New York.
Jordonova. L. ( 2011 )What's in a Name? Historians and Theory'', The English Historical
Review 126, pp. 1456
Kean & Martin (ed), The Public History Reader,. Oxford and New York: Routledge, .
Keith Jenkins (2013). Refiguring History: New Thoughts on an Old Discipline. Routledge
Raphael Samuel, Theatres of Memory: vol. I - Past and present in contemporary culture,
London: Verso
Richard A. Posner. (1988). Law and literature: a misunderstood relation Cambridge:
Harvard University Press.
Richard A. Posner. 1988. Law and literature: a misunderstood relation Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
Richard Rorty . (1967). The Linguistic Turn. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Richard Rorty, 1973. Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature Princeton University Press
Princeton, New Jersey
Robert Kelley (1978). Public History: its origins, nature and prospects, The Public
Historian, 1:1, Autumn,
Robert R. Archibald (2004). The New Town Square: Museums and Communities in
Transition AltaMira,.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 27-34
Prevalence of Iron Deficiency Anaemia

among Adolescent Girls in Urban Area
of Jammu, India
Vidya* & Nidhi Kotwal**
Abstract
India has the highest prevalence of iron deficiency anaemia among women in
the world including adolescents. The present study was conducted to find the
prevalence of iron deficiency anaemia among adolescent girls in the urban area of
Jammu, India. A sample of 60 adolescent girls belonging to middle income group
was purposively selected from urban Paloura. The information was collected with
the help of interview schedule anthropometric measurements, clinical examination
and haemoglobin estimation by cyanmethaemoglobin method. Data were analyzed
by using appropriate statistical method. The results revealed that the overall
prevalence of iron deficiency anameia among adolescent girls was 86.6%. The
prevalence of severe, moderate and mild anaemia was 3.3%, 25% and 58.3%
respectively. The mean haemoglobin level was 10.27±1.1 g/dl. It was found that
88.33% of adolescent girls had normal BMI for age. It was concluded that over all
iron deficiency was of high magnitude in urban girls of Jammu irrespective of their
education, socio- economic status and BMI.
Keywords- Adolescent girls, Iron deficiency anaemia, haemoglobin, Urban
Among the nutritional types of anaemia, iron deficiency anaemia is the
most common in India, especially in women and children. In India, the prevalence of
anaemia among adolescent girls is 90% which results in increased maternal
mortality and decreased child survival as supplementation during pregnancy fails to
restore the iron status (Toteja G S. 2006) Because of considerable overlap of the
increase in Iron requirements due to growth, onset of menses and costs of pregnancy,
there is limited opportunity to acquire a sufficient iron store before pregnancy to
meet the demands of pregnancy (WHO 1999). Well controlled studies on adolescent
girls show that iron deficiency without anaemia is associated with reduced physical
* M.Sc. (DFSM) Research Scholar, Magadh University, Bodh-Gaya, Bihar
* * Asstt. Prof. P G Dept of Home Science (Food & Nutrition)
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endurance and change in mood and ability to concentrate (Balasubramanian N et al

2009). Adolescent period in girls has been recognized as a specific period in their
life cycle that requires special attention. Adolescent girl's health plays an important
role in determining the health of future population, because adolescent girl's health
has an intergenerational effect. Assessment of prevalence of anaemia and iron stores
in response to daily/ weekly iron-folate supplementation in adolescent girls from
urban slums of North East Delhi (Agarwal 1980) and prevalence of anaemia among
adolescent girls of rural Tamil Nadu (Rajaratnam & Asokan 2000) were aimed at the
prevention and control of anaemia among adolescents. Kaur (2006) conducted a
study on the epidemiological correlates of nutritional anaemia among adolescent
girls in rural Wardha and found 59.8% prevalence of nutritional anaemia. The
adolescent girls of middle income groups in urban area still lack awareness on the
importance of having an optimal haemoglobin level and dietary intake of iron rich
foods. Moreover programmes addressing the adolescent girls of urban area in the
state of Jammu are very few. Hence, the study provides an opportunity to investigate
the prevalence of iron deficiency anaemia among adolescent girls of urban area in
middle income group which will further help in designing the intervention programs
for prevention of anaemia in urban area.
Method
Sample: The study was carried out in the urban area of Paloura, Jammu. 60
adolescent girls in the age group of 11-18 years from middle income group were
purposively selected for the study. The data was collected in month of February
March 2010. The urban area of Paloura (Paloura Top and B S F Paloura) were
selected for study. A formal permission was taken from the authority of B S F
Schools .The girls in the age group of 11-18 years, studying in V-X11 standard were
selected and interviewed during their lunch time in the school for the study. Home
visits were also done in connection with the research work.
Table. 1 General Information about Adolescent Girls.
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Prevalence of Iron Deficiency Anaemia among Adolescent Girls in Urban Area of Jammu, India
Table 2. Average Age of Menarch and Attainment of Menarche
A pre-tested and pre-designed interview schedule was used to obtain the

information from adolescent girls and their parents. The interview schedule
included questions regarding name, age, educational status, type of family, family
size, parent's educational status and income of the family.
Body measurements such as height & weight were taken for the evaluation
of national status of adolescents. The subjects were examined from head to foot in
good illumination for presence or absence of sign of anaemia. Subjects were asked
about the symptoms present and all the information was recorded in interview
schedule.
Haemoglobin estimation was done by Cyanmet haemoglobin method.
A quantitative and qualitative analysis was done on the gathered data. The
data was coded and put into tabular form. The appropriate statistical method was
used.
Results and Discussion
In the present study 41.66% of adolescent girls were in the age group of 16-18
years studying at secondary and higher secondary level, 36.66% of girls were in the
age group of 13-15 years of age and studying middle and secondary level.
Remaining 21.66% of girls were in 10-12 years of age group and they were studying
in primary. All girls were unmarried, their parents were literate and they all belonged
to middle income group.
Most of the girls (81.6%) had attained menarche and 18.3%of girls belonging to the
age group of 10-12 years had not attained menarche. The mean age of menarche was
found to be 13.0 years which was similar to the findings of Shekhar (2005).
(29)
Figure -1
The average height of the adolescent girls was slightly higher than the
standard height but the mean height of girls of 17-18 years 156.1±1.15 cm which is
slightly less than standard. The average weight of adolescent girls was more than
the standard weight of LIC of India. The mean weight of girls belonging to the age
group of 17-18 years was 53.65±1.4 kg. These observations were almost similar to
the findings of Shekhar (2005). Majority of adolescent girls had normal BMI for age
and 6.66% of girls were overweight whereas 3.33% of girls were at risk of
overweight. Only 1.66% of girls were underweight.
Table-3: Average Height of Adolescent Girls compared to standard
Height for Age.
Source : Life Insurance Corporation of India Agent Manual
(30)
Figure. 2: Comparison of Average Height (Cm) of Adolescent Girls with Standard

Height.
Table 4: Average Weight of Adolescent Girls Compared to Standard Weight.
Source : Life Insurance Corporation of India Agents Manual
Fig.-3
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It was found that 75% of girls had pale nail bed, 73% of them had pale inner portion
of eye lid, 70% of girls had pale inner portion of lips and 68.33% of girls had pale
tongue only 8.3% of girls had swollen feet but no one had koilonychia ( spoon
shaped nail). Majority of girls had headache, 46.6% of girls had weakness and 21.6
of girls had lost appetite. Only 8.3 % of girls had problem of poor attention.
Table-5: Gradation of nutritional status by BMI for age of 60 Adolescent girls
(11-18 yrs).
Table 6 : Percentage Distribution of BMI Gradation
Table 7: Percentage of signs of anaemia present among adolescent girls (n=60).
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TABLE NO. 8 Percentage of Symptoms of Anaemia among Adolescent Girls
Table- 9: Prevalence of Anaemia among 60 Adolescent Girls by

Cyanmethaemoglobin Method.
Figure- 6. Percentage of Prevalence of Anaemia among Adolescent Girls

Severe %
The mean Hb level was 10.27 ± 1.11g/dl which was almost similar to the
report of Mehta (10.6± 1.2g/dl) but it was lower than the score reported by Kaur as
11.3± 1.7 gm/dl. Over all prevalence of anemia was 86.6% among adolescent girls
which was nearer to 58.3%, 25% and 3.3% of girls had mild, moderate and severe
anemia respectively where as the prevalence of mild, moderate and severe anemia
was 38.4%, 20.8% and 0.6% respectively reported by Kaur which was lower than
the present study. However, Toteja (2006) estimated 90% overall prevalence of
anemia among adolescent girls. Indian Institute of Health and family welfare in
(33)
2002 reported 81% prevalence of iron deficiency anaemia among adolescent girls
and severity was 63.2%, 12.5% and 5.3% mild, moderate and severe respectively
which is nearer to the present study.
Limitation: Sample size was small and is suggested that a larger sample will
be more useful for the better analysis of of the problem.
Recommendation: WHO/UNICEF has suggested that the problem of
anemia is of very high magnitude in a community when prevalence rate exceeds
40% considering that anaemia development is a consequence occurred at a later
stage of iron deficiency, the problem of iron deficiency in these adolescent girls of
urban area with a prevalence of 86.6% should be considered serious and calls for an
action. The study provides an indication to initiate the anaemia prophylaxis,
measures including nutrition education in schools for adolescent girls especially of
urban areas in India.
References
Agarwal K N.(1998). Assessment of prevalence of anaemia and iron stores in response to
daily/weekly iron-folate supplementation in adolescent girls from urban slums of North
East Delhi UNICEF contract No. 95/0075.
Balasubramanian N. (2009). Anaemia effects adolescent girls ability to work and learn. The
Hindu: Triuch News.
Dietz, W. H. & Bellizzi, M.C.(1999). Introduction: the use of BMI to assess obesity in
children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 70(suppl):145s-148s.
Indian Institute of Health and Family Welfare (2002-2003). Prevention and Control of
Anaemia among Rural Adolescent Girls through School System, Andhra Pradesh.
Annual Report.
Kaur, S., Deshmukh, P .R. & Garg, B.S.(2006). Epidemiological correlates of nutritional
anaemia in adolescent girls of rural Wardha. Indian Journal of Community Medicine
Vol 31, No. 4.
Rajaratnam, J. & Asokan, J. S.(2000). Prevalence of anaemia among adolescent girls in rural
Tamil Nadu. Indian Paediatrics ,37: 532-535.
Shekhar, A. (2009). Iron Status of Adolescent Girls and its Effects on Physical Fitness Delhi,
India, Indian Journal of Pediatrics,76:501-4.
Toteja, G.S.(2006). Prevalence of Anaemia among Pregnant Women & Adolescent Girls in
16 District of India. Food Nutr Bull, (4); 311-5.
WHO.(1999). Programing for adolescent health and
Development. Technical Report Series No. 886.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 35-42
Gender, Emotional Intelligence and

Adjustment among Adolescents
O. P. Chaudhary*
Abstract
Emotions play an important role in human lives. In psychology, emotional
intelligence and adjustment is the behavioural process of balancing conflicting
needs, or needs against obstacles in the environment. The major objective of the
present study was to assess and compare the emotional intelligence and adjustment
of adolescents. 100 adolescents (50 boys and 50 girls) within the age range of 13-19
years with mean age of 16.03 years were selected for the present study.
Multidimensional Self Report Emotional Intelligence Scale (MSREIS-R) and
Adjustment Inventory were administered on the subjects one by one at a time. Result
reveals that there is significant difference between ability to express and appraise
emotions, ability to utilize emotions dimension of emotional intelligence, overall
emotional intelligence and adjustment of adolescents. Further result reveals that
there is significant relationship between emotional intelligence and adjustment for
boys and girls.
Keywords: Emotional Intelligence, Adjustment and Gender.
Emotions play an important role in human lives and emotional intelligence
has been found to be a predictor of life satisfaction, healthy psychological
adaptation, positive interaction with peers and family, and higher parental warmth.
Lower emotional intelligence has also been found to be associated with violent
behaviour, illegal use of drugs and alcohol, and participation in delinquent
behaviour. While it might be correct that there has been a lot of theorizing in the
usefulness of emotional intelligence in helping the adolescent in adjustment to
academic, social and school life, there is a paucity of empirical data in this regard.
Emotional intelligence was described formally by Salovey and Mayer
(1990). They defined it as 'the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and
emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's
thinking and actions. They also provided an initial empirical demonstration of how
*Associate Professor and Head, Department of Psychology, Shri Agrasen Kanya P.G. College, Varanasi-221003
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O. P. Chaudhary
an aspect of emotional intelligence could be measured as a mental ability (Mayer, Di

Paolo, & Salovey, 1990). The concept of Emotional Intelligence is a complex
phenomenon that occurs in early adolescence. There has been a growing interest in
the emotional functioning of early adolescents (Goleman, 1995; Bar-On & Parker,
2000; Stover, 2003).
Adjustment is a process through which an individual deals with
requirements and situations. The concept of adjustment is originated from the
biological term 'adaptation'. Biologists used the term 'adaptation' strictly for the
physical demands of the environment but psychologists use the term 'adjustment' for
varying conditions of social or inter-personal relations in the society. Adjustment
means the reactions to the demands and pressures of social environment imposed
upon the individual. The demand to which the individual has to react may be
external or internal. Psychologists have viewed 'adjustment' from two important
perspectives. For one, adjustment is as an achievement and for another, adjustment
is a process. The first point of view emphasizes the quality or efficiency of
adjustment and the second lays emphasis on the process by which an individual
adjusts to his external environment.
In psychology, adjustment is the behavioural process of balancing conflicting
needs, or needs against obstacles in the environment. Humans and animals regularly
do this, for example, when they are stimulated by their physiological state to seek
food, they eat (if possible) to reduce their hunger and thus adjust to the hunger
stimulus. In the words of Shafter "Adjustment is the process by which a living
organism maintains a balance between its needs and the circumstances that
influence the satisfaction of these needs." A person does not always get success
according to his desires and efforts. The reason for this lies is either in an
unfavorable situation or in the limited capacities of the individual. When he fails in
this effort some abnormality may appear in his behaviour. There are several factors
which can influence the process of adjustment : level of aspiration, socioeconomic
status, family environment, school environment, anxiety, and frustration.
It is essential to know how emotional intelligence affects our personal and
social adjustments. Adjustment is an important factor to complete a person's goal
successfully. It is the process by which a living organism maintains a balance
between its needs and the circumstances that influence the satisfaction of these
needs. Adjustment refers to the ability of an individual to fit into his environment. In
recent years, there has been an increased interest in the role of emotional intelligence
in both the academic success of students and their adjustment in school. Indeed,
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Gender, Emotional Intelligence and Adjustment among Adolescents
some authors (Romasz et al. 2004) suggest that acquisition of such skills is a
prerequisite for students before they can access traditional academic material
presented in the classroom. Emotional intelligence is the driving force behind the
factors that affect personal success and everyday interactions with others. Studies of
emotional intelligence have shown its relevance to many aspects of life and the role
it plays in the interactions and adjustments in daily life. Safavi et al. (2008)
investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence and socio-emotional
adjustment in pre-university girl students in Tehran. The results of the study showed
that there was a significant correlation between emotional intelligence and socio-
emotional adjustment. In view of the above, the present study was to assess
emotional intelligence and adjustment of adolescents of the Varanasi region as there
is scarcity of such studies in our context.
Objectives:
1. To compare male and female adolescents on emotional intelligence and
adjustment scales.
2.To examine the relationship between emotional intelligence and adjustment
among adolescents.
Hypotheses:
H1. The male and female adolescents would differ significantly in emotional
adjustment.
H2. The male and female adolescents would differ significantly in emotional
adjustment.
H3. There would be significant positive correlation between emotional intelligence
and adjustment.
Method
200 adolescents (100 boys and 100 girls) in the age range of 13 to 19 years
were randomly selected for the present study. Sample was selected from the
different schools and colleges of Varanasi city. It included both rural and urban
adolescents. All the participants were normal in behaviour. Only normal participants
were administered the psychological tools for data collection.
Tools: The following behavioural measures were administered on participants:
Multidimensional Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Scale- This scale is
developed by Pandey and Anand (2008). It is a 51 item scale having four
dimensions, namely, ability to express and appraise emotion containing seventeen
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O. P. Chaudhary
items, ability to utilize emotion containing fifteen items, ability to manage emotion
in self containing eleven items and ability to manage emotion in others containing
eight items Responses are made on a six- point scale ranging from strongly disagree
(6) through strongly agree (1). The Cronbach's alpha coefficient global scale is .91.
The satisfactory concurrent validity of the scale has been found to be satisfactory
Asthana Adjustment Inventory. This test was developed by Asthana (1968). It
contains 42 statements for the assessment of adjustment. Higher percentile shows
better adjustment and low around 13 or less suggests the need of counseling. The
reliability coefficient of the test is 0.97 and the validity is also high.
Results
The data obtained were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics
and correlation coefficient was also computed. According to the planning, attempt
was made to compare boys and girls on emotional intelligence and adjustment to see
the effects of gender on emotional intelligence and adjustment. Besides, coefficient
of correlation was also computed between emotional intelligence and adjustment.
Discussion
Table 1 shows that boys and girls differ significantly on two dimensions only, i.e.,
ability to express and appraise emotions, ability to utilize emotions and overall
emotional intelligence but significant differences were not obtained on the
remaining two dimensions, i.e., ability to manage emotions in self and ability to
manage emotions in others.
Table-1: Mean etc. of male and female adolescents on Emotional Intelligence scale.
** p=.01; * p=.05; NS= Not significant

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Table 1 reveals that the mean score of boys (M = 82.68, SD = 8.30) is higher
than that of girls (M = 73.8, SD = 10.95). This difference is significant at .01 level of
confidence (t = 3.25, P =< .01). Ability to express and appraise emotions and the
core capacities are identifying feelings and thought through proper and appropriate
methods in self as well as in others and discriminate between real and unreal
emotional expression. So the boys score is higher than that of girls.
The mean score of boys on ability to analyze emotions is (M = 75.24, SD =
6.76) is higher than that of girls (M = 71.68, SD = 8.49). The difference is found to
be significant at .05 level of confidence (t = 1.64 P =< .05). Ability to utilize
emotions the core abilities are using emotion in thinking by giving proper attention
to useful intimations using emotions in appropriate judgment and memory
concerning feeling. This ability also includes emotional facilitation to be optimistic
using emotion in tasks requiring reasoning as well as creativity. Boys generally
show this type of behaviour in their life but girls are found to be sentimental.
As regards the ability to manage emotions in self, boys scored higher (M =
54.92, SD = 9.26) than the girls (M = 52.84, SD = 6.93), but the difference is
statistically not significant. Similar is the case on the dimension of ability to manage
emotions in others. Although boys scored higher mean (M = 39.72, SD = 3.94)
than girls (M = 38.16, SD = 5.16) the difference is not significant
A comparison of the two groups on global scale of emotional intelligence
makes it obvious that on the global scale also, boys scored higher mean (M =
252.36, SD = 19.66) than the girls (M = 236.16, SD = 27.61). The difference is
significant at .01 level of confidence (t = 3.39, P =< .01). Some previous
researchers also have reported significant difference between male and female
respondents in emotional intelligence (Aquino, 2003; Brackett & Mayer, 2003;
Bracket, Rivers et al., 2006 & Tiwari & Srivastava ,2004). Thus the findings of the
present study extend empirical support to the above studies.
Table-2: Mean, SD and t- ratio of male and female adolescents on adjustment scale
**= Significant at .01 level of confidence
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O. P. Chaudhary
It is obvious from table 2 that mean score of girls (M = 154.84, SD = 18.57) is

higher than that of boys (M = 140.48, SD = 12.35) on adjustment scale. The
difference is significant at .01 level of confidence (t = 3.23, P =< .01).
Table-3: Correlation between adjustment and emotional intelligence obtained for
male and female adolescents.
* Significant at .05 level of confidence; ** Significant at .01 level of confidence

Table 3 shows the correlation between emotional intelligence and
adjustment of male group. There is positive relationship between ability to express
and appraise emotions and adjustment (r = 0.48*), ability to utilize emotion and
adjustment (r = 0.61**), ability to manage emotions in self and adjustment (.42*)
and ability to manage emotions in others and adjustment (r = 0.51**) and overall
emotional intelligence and adjustment (r = 0.67**) for boys.
Table 3 also reveals positive relationship for the female group between ability
to express and appraise emotions and adjustment (r = 0.49*), ability to utilize
emotion and adjustment (r = 0.52**), ability to manage emotions in self and
adjustment (r = 0.47*) and ability to manage emotions in others and adjustment (r =
0.42**) and overall emotional intelligence and adjustment (r = 0.46**) for girls. All
the coefficients of correlations are significant, so the proposed hypotheses are
approved.
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Conclusion
The present study was conducted to compare the male and female
adolescents from the point of view of emotional intelligence and adjustment and
also to examine the correlation between emotional intelligence and adjustment for
two groups. The two groups differed significantly on the dimensions of ability to
express and appraise emotions and ability to utilize emotions and global emotional
intelligence but not on the other two dimensions of EI, i.e., ability to manage
emotions in self and ability to manage emotions in others. As regards adjustment,
they differed significantly, which suggests the role of gender factor in adjustment.
All the dimensions of emotional intelligence were found to be significantly
correlated with adjustment for both the groups. This shows the importance of
emotional intelligence in our life. The adolescents disregarding their gender should
be extended required opportunities for developing the emotional intelligence to
cope with adverse circumstances of life.
Limitations and Suggestions:
The overall findings suggest that gender is an important factor in emotional
intelligence and adjustment and there exists significant correlation between the two
factors. But gender was not found to exert differential effects on the two dimensions
of emotional intelligence. It makes the role of gender in emotional intelligence
ambiguous. It is advised that future researches should use relatively larger samples
to ascertain the role of gender in emotional intelligence.
References
Abdullah, Maria, C. (2008). Contribution of emotional intelligence, coping, and
social support towards adjustment and academic achievement amongst
fresh students in the University. Ph.D. Thesis, Unpublished. University
Putra Malaysia.
Adeyemo, D.A. (2005). The buffering effect of emotional intelligence on the
adjustment of secondary school students in transition. Electronic Journal of
Research in Educational Psychology, 6(2), 79-80.
Asthana, H. S. (1968). Adjustment Inventory. Rupa Psychological Centre,
Bhelupura, Varanasi-India
Chu, J. (2002). Boys development. Reader's Digest, 94-95.
Duckelt, E. & Raffalli, M. (1989). Taking care, maintaining the self and the home in
adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 18(6), 59.
(41)
O. P. Chaudhary
Dunn, S. (2002). Emotional intelligence quotations from around the world. From
http://www.eqcoach.net/(Retrived Monday, 3 October, 2011).
Engelberg, E., & Sjober, L. (2004). Emotional intelligence, affect intensity, and
social adjustment. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 533-542.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New
York: Bantam Books.
Hyde, A., & Dethe, S. (2002). Emotional Intelligence Scale. Lucknow: Vedant
Publications.
Katyal, S., Awasthi, E. (2005). Gender differences in emotional intelligence among
adolescents of Chandigarh. Journal of Human Ecology, 17(2), 153-155.
Pandey, Rakesh and Anand, Tulika (2008). Multidimensional Self-Report
Emotional Intelligence Scale-Revised: Rupa Psychological Centre,
Bhelupura, Varanasi-India.
Romasz, T. E., Kantor, J.H., & Elias, M. (2004). Implementation and evaluation of
urban school-wide social-emotional learning programs. Evaluation and
Program Planning, 27, 89-103.
Safavi, M., Mousavi, L.S., & Lotfi, R. (2008). Correlation between emotional
intelligence and socio-emotional adjustment of pre-university girl students
in Tehran. Pajoohandeh Journal, 1(5), 255-261.
Salovey & Mayer (1990). Emotional intelligence: Imagination, cognition and
personality. 9, 185-211.
Sandhu, P., & Mehrotra, N. (1999). Time pattern of female students with special
reference to leisure time activities. Indian Journal of Social Research, 40(4),
285-296.
Schilling, D. (1996). 50 activities for teaching emotional intelligence. Level I,
elementary school. Torrance, CA: Interchoice.
Singh, D. (2002). Emotional intelligence at work: A professional guide. New Delhi:
Sage Publicatins.
Sinha, A. A. P., & Singh, R. P. (2007). Adjustment inventory for school students.
National Psychological Corporation. Agra.
Tapia, M. L. (1998). A study of the relationships of the emotional intelligence
inventory. Unpublished Doctoral Dessertation, the University of Alabama,
Tuscaloosa.
Wing, E., & Love, G. D. (2001). Elective affinities and uninvited agonies: Mapping
emotions with significant others onto health, emotion, social relationships
and health series in affective science, New York : Oxford University Press.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 43-56
Adolescent Lifestyle and Behavior:

Psychological First Aid and Lifestyle Intervention
Sandhya Ojha*, Amit Kumar Gupta** & Rinu Chaturvedi***
Abstract
Today the world is home to the largest generation of 10-19 year olds in
history; their number is estimated to be over one billion with the impact of
tumultuous changes in technologies and socio-cultural contexts, adolescent's life
style has undergone unhealthy transition especially observed in the proneness to
risk behaviors. These affects range from simple issues like high ambition and
expectation to larger town life issues like stress induced major physical and mental
health impacts. More so is the concern of parity, rather disparity. Adolescents are a
unique population with specific health concerns and needs. Overload of stress from
physical, emotional, social and sexual change in adolescents overburdens them
with stress which can result in anxiety, withdrawal, aggression, poor coping skills
and actual physical illness. The demands on young people are new and
unprecedented; their parents could not have predicted many of the pressures they
face. How we help adolescents meet these demands and equip them with the kind of
education, skills, and outlook they will need in a changing environment, will depend
on how well we understand their world.
The emerging evidence is that psychological and mental health first aid
does work. Many adolescents who suffer from psychological and emotional
problems, personal crises and mental disorders can benefit from receiving
psychological and mental health first aid and lifestyle interventions from
professionals and the general public.
Adolescence - the critical phase of life-is a period of major physical,
physiological, psychological, and behavioural changes with changing patterns of
social interactions and relationships. Adolescence is the window to opportunity that
sets the stage for a healthy and productive adulthood and to reduce the likelihood of
health problems in later years. A myriad of biological changes occur during puberty
*Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, S.A.K.P.G. College, Varanasi, U.P.

**&***Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, S.A.K.P.G. College, Varanasi, (U.P.)
(43)
including increase in height and weight, completion of skeletal growth

accompanied by an increase in skeletal mass, sexual maturation and changes in body
composition. The succession of these events during puberty is generally consistent
among the adolescents often influenced by onset of age, gender, duration, along with
the individual variations. These changes are also accompanied by significant stress
on young people and those around them, while influencing and affecting their
relationships with their peers and adults. It is also an age of impulsivity
accompanied by vulnerability, influenced by peer groups and media that result in
changes in perception and practice, Adolescence is characterized by decision
making skills/abilities along with acquisition of new emotional, cognitive and social
skills.
Developmental psychology provides a much more detailed framework, one
that considers a wider variety of factors that might affect youth decisions to take
risks, albeit at the cost of much less modelling precision than is provided by the
parsimonious economics model. The developmental perspective on risk taking is
nicely summarized in Fischoff (1992). As noted by Fischoff, the most general
definition of risk taking is any action having at least one uncertain outcome. The
decision to undertake these types of activities will be determined by cognitive
development (how people think about the world), affective development (how
people feel about the world), and social development (the roles that others play in
people's choices). Cognitive development consists of three components: capacity
for thinking through problems; knowledge of alternatives and their implications;
and skill in carrying out analyses of the alternatives. Affective development consists
of hot affect, the deep states of arousal (fear, anger, passion) that can drive people to
action or inaction, and cold affect, the more dispassionate cognitive representations
of those desires (what might be labelled values). Social development consists of
incorporating society's attitudes toward risky behaviors into one's own decision
making process. Developmental psychologists have provided a range of evidence
that allows one to compare the decision-making capacities of youths and adults, and
this evidence suggests both important commonalities and important differences.
Beyth-Marom et al. (1993) asked both teens and adults about the perceived
consequences of youth risk taking along a number of dimensions, such as drinking,
smoking, drug use, etc. They found substantial homogeneity in the perceived
consequences of these activities. Similarly, Jacobs-Quadrel, Fischoff, and Davis
(1993) found that, while youths appear to consider themselves somewhat
invulnerable to the consequences of risk taking, their perceived invulnerability was
no stronger than was adults'.
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Adolescent Lifestyle and Behavior: Psychological First Aid...
Adolescence, as every teenager, parent, and youth professional knows, is a

time of risks. With greater freedom and independence, young people face new
choices involving automobiles, addictive substances, and sexuality frequently in
combination. Poor choices about these risks can have terrible consequences for
individuals, families, and society as a whole. The statistics are frightening, but they
are not unknown to young people. For decades, adolescents have been bombarded
by facts about the risks they face. Yet efforts to scare young decision makers with
numbers and percentages have met with limited success (Reyna & Farley, 2006).
There is even evidence that some risk awareness- raising programs actually increase
the behaviours they are designed to prevent ( Lilienfeld, 2007). To reduce
adolescents risk taking, a different approach is needed: one that recognizes how
adolescent reason. Most young people are presumed to be healthy but, as per WHO,
an estimated 2.6 million young people aged 10 to 24 yr die each year and a much
greater number of young people suffer from illness 'behaviours' which hinder their
ability to grow and develop to their full potential. Nearly two-thirds of premature
deaths and one-third of the total disease burden in adults are associated with
conditions or behaviours initiated in their youth (e.g. tobacco use, physical
inactivity, high risk sexual behaviours, injury ad violence and others).
The behavioural patterns established during this developmental phase
determine their current health status and the risk for developing some chronic
diseases in later years. A significant reduction in the mortality and morbidity of
communicable, maternal and neonatal disorders since 1990 due to concerted and
integrated efforts has led to a shift in focus towards the health, safety and survival of
the young people. The literature indicates that a lengthy time interval occurs
between exposure to high risk factors and the development of disease, and that many
such high risk exposures begin in early adolescence. These findings underline the
value of targeting children and adolescents for primary prevention efforts in health
care and health education for the attainment of overall healthy population in any
country including a country like India. It is crucial to understand health problems of
this population, processes and mechanisms that affect their health. It is equally
important to identify interventions and strategic approaches that protect their health
and develop and implement policies and programs.
The present review focuses on how lifestyle and risk behaviour influence
the adolescent in India, and how that problem can be solved by using psychological
first aid as well as lifestyle intervention. The review also identifies issues that need
to be addressed for health and safety of young people in India.
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Flow chart indicating how the healthy and unhealthy life style affect the adolescent's
life and health:
This review highlights the importance of psychological first aid and

lifestyle intervention for the adolescents who live unhealthy life style and who are is
prone to develop risk behaviors. If this kind of behavior cannot be modified they
may face problem in decision making, in solving the problems, and relationship
issues. As a result the adolescents might develop alcoholic behaviour which leads to
stress, anxiety, frustration, impulsivity, depression, and suicidality etc.
The Psychological First Aid
The idea of a course in psychological first aid and prevention dates back to
1945 and was described as an active process of prevention and management of mild
conditions applicable to all individuals (Blain, Hoch and Ryan 1945). However,
psychological first aid remained poorly understood globally, was not universally
available and many people did not know that psychological first aid was possible
until the resurgence of interest in mental health literacy in the 1990's (Jorm et al
1997). This led to the development of a mental health first aid training course
evaluated in Australia in 2002 (Kitchener and Jorm 2002). A systematic review
completed by the WHO in 2009 also showed the effectiveness of psychological first
aid. The emerging evidence is that psychological and mental health first aid does
work. Many people who suffer from psychological and mental distress, personal
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crises and mental disorders can benefit from receiving psychological and mental
health first aid from professionals and the general public. The following cycle chart
shows how psychological first aid and lifestyle interventions improve healthy
lifestyle and regulate the behaviour of adolescents:
Healthy
lifestyle
One in four adults will experience mental health difficulties at one time or the
other but many will receive little or no help when they are pressed in an emergency.
In contrast the majority of people with physical health difficulties will be offered
physical health first aid. Since the introduction of Basic Life Support (BLS) and
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) without equipment in the 1960's many
people have benefitted from the intervention of a passer-by, and lives have been
saved. Mental health crises and distress are viewed differently because of
ignorance, poor knowledge, stigma and discrimination. Psychological and mental
health first aid should be made available to all. This is the reason why the World
Federation for Mental Health (WFMH) chose psychological and mental health first
as its theme for World Mental Health Day 2016.
Psychological and mental health first aid is understood differently by different
people in the mental health professions and the general public. WFMH seeks to
develop a shared understanding of basic psychological and mental health first aid
that will be understood worldwide by the general public, professionals,
governments and non-governmental institutions (NGO's).
WFMH aims at creating awareness in society so that every member of the
general public can learn how to provide basic psychological and mental health first
aid and provide support to distressed individuals in the same way as they do in
physical health crises
Address the stigma associated with mental ill-health so that dignity is
promoted and respected
Empower people to take action to promote mental health
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Spread understanding of the equal importance of mental and physical health

and their integration in care and treatment
To work with individuals and institutions to develop best practice in
psychological and mental health first aid
To provide culturally sensitive learning materials to enhance the skills of
general public in administering psychological and mental health first aid.
Lessons need to be learnt from the way professionals and the general public
have been involved in developing the skills required to deliver the support and
services.
Life Style Intervention
The science of adolescent risk taking leads to two broad conclusions for
designing interventions. First, bombarding youth with the facts won't help them
make better decisions, and may actually encourage a less mature, riskier form of
reasoning. Interventions should instead encourage less deliberative, more
categorical thinking about risk. Second, because adolescents' brains are not yet
mature, exposure to major risks should be limited as much as possible. The safety of
young people is a community concern, not solely a matter of individual choice.
However, interventions that help young people learn to make better choices can be
an effective component of a larger commitment to youth development and healthy
communities.
The following interventions can be productive and useful for adolescent's
healthy lifestyle and modifying their risk behaviours:
A. Life style counseling program (LSCP)
Life style counseling program comprising an integrated module of positive
life style based on the insights from research literature, personal experiences, and
learning during the course of studies. The module of LSCP should be prepared with
the following objectives:
To create awareness that health and well-being can be enhanced by
changing the lifestyle
To induce adherence for dietary change
To administer Yoga training program feasible in the setting to reduce health
risks and enhance well-being
To evaluate the efficacy of LSCP in enhancing health and well-being among
adolescents.
During planning of LSCP some practical issues related to capability of
adolescents to adhere with LSCP, school or college routine, and availability of
adolescents for Yoga training program should be taken into consideration. The
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progression of LSCP should be based on insights derived from theoretical models of

behavioural change. It is undertaken in three stages:
1. Preparation: the first stage aims at preparing the adolescents to participate
in LSCP. TO this end, they are acquainted with the investigator who provides the
intervention. The adolescents are provided inputs during the second step of stage-1
through an interactive session about the risk of practicing unhealthy habits and
behaviours. The are also made aware of the benefits of practicing positive lifestyle
behaviours.
2. Introduction: the second stage aims at creating readiness among
adolescents. Taking cues from social learning theory (Bandura,1977), the first step
of this stage includes power point presentation and a film or video clips about
practicing of positive lifestyle behaviours by some popular role models from
deferent areas such as sports, entertainment, business, education, science, and
public life etc. Deriving ideas from the theory of reasoned action and the
observation that people process information thoughtfully only when they perceive it
as personally important (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980), the second step of this stage
involves pros and cons of changing lifestyle in small groups. The adolescents are
encouraged to talk freely about their individual concerns.
3. Implementation: In the third stage a training program is run for about two
weeks. In the first step of this stage, the adolescents are reinforced by giving
personal regards for changing their lifestyle after each yoga training program so as
to create compliance for lifestyle change.
During the final session of intervention, their participation and performance are
recognized through video-recording and positive approval by the principal and
staffs of school or college.
B. Life Style Intervention strategies:
The following strategies can be used by parents, youth professionals, and
communities to keep young people safe and help them make better choices (Reyna
& Farley, 2006):
Don't assume that adolescents think they are immortal they don't! Research
clearly shows that young people are well aware that they live in a world full of perils.
Help adolescents see benefits differently, not just risks. Risks will have less
appeal if young people perceive greater benefit from alternative, safer courses of
action. For younger adolescents, highlight short-term benefits and risks, as these are
the most salient.
Use positive images or models of healthy behaviors and negative images of
unhealthy ones. Positive, emotionally evocative images such as those in the media,
films, or fiction can assist gist-based thinking and serve as reminders of the benefits
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of safer behavior.
Use analogies to steer adolescents away from deliberative calculation
toward more categorical thinking about risk. To help young people see that no
possible payoff of risky behavior is worth risking death, ask questions like “Would
you play Russian Roulette for one million dollars?”
Develop emotional and personal cues. The most salient cues for making
mature decisions are simple, visceral, and personal. A sexual health intervention
could personalize risk by having young people write answers to questions like
“What would happen if you were diagnosed with STD? Who would you tell? How
would it change your life?”
Give adolescents practice at recognizing environmental signs of danger.
Teach kids about “red and yellow alerts” that indicate the possibility of various risks
for example, being at home after school with a boy friend or girlfriend (and no
parents or other adults) as a signal of the possibility of unwanted or unsafe sex. Have
them practice finding such alerts in various scenarios so that they can avoid such
risks and, if the risks cannot be avoided, thinking through actions they could use to
extricate themselves.
Teach self-efficacy; provide opportunities to practice concrete skills.
Giving young people real-world tasks and concrete strategies helps them become
responsible and capable. For example, young teens who are not ready for sex can
practice refusal skills; repeated practice leads to better self-confidence in using
these skills when they are needed, often in situations involving high emotion that
can disrupt thinking. A well-practiced skill can be used automatically, without
requiring a lot of thinking.
Limit adolescents' exposure to risky substances and situations. For
example, limit the number of peers in automobiles; avoid exposing minors to
addictive substances (rather than exposing young people to alcohol to teach them to
drink responsibly, which has been shown to be ineffective and in fact is associated
with higher rates of binge drinking and other bad outcomes; Grube, 2005).
Monitor and supervise younger adolescents. Rather than rely on reasoned
choices, remove younger teens' opportunity to engage in risk taking by occupying
their time with positive activities.
Train young people in strategies to help them avoid dangerous situations.
Teach youth to avoid circumstances in which they will need to make an immediate,
risky choice for instance, encourage them to stay away from situations where
alcohol and drugs may be present.
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Conclusion
Given the emphasis on alterations in current adolescent lifestyle and
behaviours, psychological first aid and lifestyle interventions have a potential to
make an effective contribution to enhancement of well-being. To deliver
psychological first aid properly, training is not enough. Many adolescents require
psychological first aid to prevent their health from deteriorating due to unhealthy
lifestyle and to empower them to take action to improve their mental health.
Considerable empirical evidence has shown that unhealthy lifestyle adopted in the
adolescent years may accelerate the likelihood of developing risk behaviours and
physical and mental health complications in the later years. Hence, it is essential to
understand the unhealthy lifestyle behaviours and habits as well as its association
with risk behavious and their patterns, frequency, and duration among a population's
youth. This will enable public health and behavioural epidemiologists to plan and
target appropriate and effective primary preventions such as psychological first aid
and lifestyle techniques to adolescents. Prevention programmes should have a
multi-level focus, including the individual, the family, and other social institutions.
It is also important to identify subgroups of adolescents and young adults with
unique risk behaviours and psychological and behavioural problems so that
prevention programs may be developed to specifically target them. Health
behaviours and attitudes formed during youth lay a strong foundation for lifetime
health related behaviour patterns. The humble effort done in this review illustrates
that it is feasible to bring positive change in the lifestyle of adolescents.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 57-62
Adjustment Problems among High and

Low Achiever High School Students
of Ranchi (Jharkhand)
Anwer Jahan Khatoon*
Abstract
This study was conducted to examine the effects of level of achievement
among high school students on their global as well as different areas of adjustment.
A sample of 300 students was selected based on random-cum-purposive sampling
from some of the schools of Ranchi town (Jharkhand) and they were divided into two
groups namely high and low achievers . Mohsin-Shamshad's Adaptation (Hindi) of
Bell Adjustment Inventory was used to measure adjustment. The statistical analyses
revealed that the high and low achievers differ significantly in only two areas of
adjustment, i.e., health and emotional adjustment. Thus significant differences were
not obtained on the dimensions of home and social adjustment as well as global
adjustment. This study produced a mixed bag of results regarding the effects of level
of achievement on adjustment. Results are discussed in the light of previous studies
and suggestions are also given.
Keywords: Level of achievement, adjustment, students
Adjustment can better be explained by the psychological and
environmental point of views. The environmental pressures force an individual to
behave in certain and particular ways. The interaction of the individual with his
environment represents a dynamic state of equilibrium/disequilibrium between the
exigencies of his personal needs and situational demands. Thus the “effectiveness of
the individual's efforts to meet his needs and adapt to his environment” is called
adjustment (Coleman, 1956b).
The concept of adjustment was originally biological one and was concerned with
adaptation to physical environment but man has to adjust to social pressures and
demands of socialization that are inherent in living interdependently with other
persons. There are also the demands from a person's internal nature, his
*Asst. Professor & Head of Department of Education, Motiraj Devi Teachers Training College Sandi,
Ormanjhi Ranchi, (Jharkhand)
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Anwer Jahan Khatoon
physiological needs along with his psychological needs, which influence the human
system in many ways.
Adjustment can be viewed from two angles. Firstly, adjustment may be
viewed as an achievement or how well a person handles his conflicts and overcomes
the resulting tension. Secondly, adjustment may be looked upon as a process as to
how a person adjusts or compromises to his conflicts.
Adjustment is a learning process and an able teacher would bring about
adjustment in a positive way, which strengthens the personality of a child. A well -
adjusted child enjoys his school environment in a positive manner and not by
twisting his personality in an unhealthy way. But when we are unable to provide
situations in the school, which can enable the students to satisfy their needs, both
high and low achievers react differently and adjustment problems arise. Thus,
adjustment problems always result from creation of needs and their non-fulfilment.
The conflicts and needs of high and low achievers need not be identical. This study
will focus on the adjustment problems of high and low achievers of high school
students, which will enable one to understand and predict their behaviors and to
suggest solutions to their adjustment problems.
Smith (1965) found that socio-economic factors influenced the problems of
students. Similarly, Reddy (1966) found a relationship between the adjustment
problems of students and their home backgrounds. Pandey (1968a, 1968b) observed
that upper class subjects had fewer problems of adjustment than the middle and
lower class students. Havighurst (1952) and Pope (1953) confirmed such findings
by saying that socio-economic status had direct effect on personality development,
which prepared the individual to deal with the problems of life. Thom and Johnson
(1936) observed that the children of the upper class were more adjusted than the
children of the lower class. Similarly, Sewell and Haller (1956) found a low positive
but significant relationship between social statuses measured in terms of father's
occupation and the child's adjustment scores.
Objective: The objective of the present study was to measure achievements of the
students at high school level and to categorize them as low, average and high
achievers and to see its effects on adjustment problems of high and low achievers
and to suggest measures for improvement in the performance of low achievers and
enrich knowledge skills of high achievers.
Hypothesis:
H1. The high and low achievers groups would differ significantly on Home
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Adjustment Problems among High and Low Achiever High School Students of Ranchi (Jharkhand)
adjustment problems.
H2. The high and low achievers groups would differ significantly on Health
H3. The high and low achievers groups would differ significantly on
Emotional adjustment problems.
H4. The high and low achievers groups would differ significantly on Social
H5. The high and low achievers groups would differ significantly on Total
Method
Sample: A sample of 300 High School students was selected on random-
cum-purposefully basis from schools of Ranchi town (Jharkhand) They were
divided into two groups high and low achievers and their annual marks of class 8th
and 10th were taken and average score of each student was treated as their
achievement score. The marks were taken from school records and Median was
60.55 the scorers who got even scores were treated as high scores N-150 and the
students who achieved below median were placed in low achiever groups.
Tools:
Mohsin- Shamshad's Adjustment Inventory: This scale was used to
measure areas of adjustment- home, health, emotional social and global adjustment.
The scoring was done with the help of scoring key and the obtained scores of the
subjects on each area, home, health, social, emotional and global adjustment were
noted.
Procedure: The study was conducted on adjustment problems of low and
high achievers. It was necessary to contact the students with whom the problem is
concerned. Thus the descriptive survey method proved very important and useful
for this research. Their consent was taken before the onset of testing and the students
not willing to participate in the study were excluded.
Result
The two groups- high and low achievers- were compared on different areas of
adjustment: home, health, emotional, social and total areas of adjustment. The
significance of mean difference between high achievers and low achievers on the
adjustment scale was calculated. It was hypothesised that the high and low
achiever high school student groups would differ significantly with respect to their
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Anwer Jahan Khatoon
mean scores in different areas of adjustment i.e., Home, Health, Social, Emotional
and Global adjustment. The mean scores of high and low achiever high school
student groups with respect to areas of adjustment i.e., Home, Health, Social,
Emotional, and global adjustment were computed and are presented in the result
table. This table also shows the significance of difference between the two groups.
SS
Table-1: Result table showing mean scores etc. of High and Low achievers on
Adjustment scale (df=298).
Discussion
It is observable from the result table that high and low achiever high school
student groups do not differ significantly with respect to mean scores of home area
of adjustment(t=1.73, p>0.05). The result does not support the given hypothesis.But
high and low achiever high school student groups differ significantly with respect to
mean scores of health area of adjustment(t=3.32, p<0.01). The result supports the
hypothesis. The high and low achiever high school student groups do not differ
significantly with respect to mean scores of social area of adjustment(t=1.65,
p>0.05NS). The result does not the support hypothesis. However, high and low
achiever high school student groups differ significantly with respect to mean scores
of emotional area of adjustment(t=3.41, p<0.01). The result supports the hypothesis.
In order to test the hypothesis that the high and low achiever high school
students group would differ significantly in terms of global adjustment, t-test was
again applied to examine the significance of difference between the two mean
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Adjustment Problems among High and Low Achiever High School Students of Ranchi (Jharkhand)
scores. It is evident from the result table that high and low achiever high school
student groups were not found to differ significantly with respect to mean scores of
global adjustment(t=1.48, p>0.05NS). The result does not support the fifth
hypothesis hence this hypothesis is rejected. The result is supported by some
previous studies (Sinha, 1971, 1975; Smith, 1965; Reddy, 1966; Pandey, 1968a,
1968b; Havighurst, 1952; Pope, 1953; Gough, 1948a, 1948b; Statt, 1962 etc). .
Conclusion
The findings of this study indicate the importance of adjustment problems
related to home, health, emotions, social and global adjustment. The students whose
academic performance is unsatisfactory cause a serious loss to the society. Hence it
is justified from educational point of view that the fundamental purpose of teaching
is to help the learner to do better academically. The low achievement problem needs
due solution. It should not remain neglected. The society requires well adjusted and
mentally healthy citizens. So it is our responsibility to prepare well adjusted students
for their well-being and for society as well. The findings of the present study are
expected to help the parents and teachers to understand the adjustment problems of
children in a better way and provide useful suggestions.
Limitation
This study covered only adjustment problem among students as affecting their
level of achievement. The sample was relatively limited in strength and the
geographic area. It will be better if other aspects assumed to be related to adjustment
problems are covered in future studies. This problem may also be intensively
studied by using correlational method.
References
Arora R (1988). The role of parent-child relationship and teacher-student relationship in the
academic achievement of higher secondary school students. Agra University.
Beedawat S.S. (1975). Study of under achievement among students. Rajasthan University,
Ph.D Psychology.
Bhatnagar, Suresh Saxena, Anamika. (2005). Advanced Educational Psychology, Meerut:
R.Lall Book Depot, p.495.
Chouhan, S.S.(2001). Principles and Techniques of Guidance, p.100.
Cofer C.N. and Appley, M.N. (1964). Motivations theory and research. New York: wiley.
Coleman, J.S. et. al. (1966) Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington D.C.;
Government Printing Office.
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Anwer Jahan Khatoon
Havighurst, R.J. et. al. (1952) Social class and basic personality structure. Sociology and
Social Research.
John W. Best & James V. Kahn. (1986). Research in Education (5th edition), N.Delhi:
Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. p.78
John W. Best & James V. Kahn. (1993). Research in Education, (7th edition). N.Delhi:
Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. p.199
Kaul, Lokesh. (2004). Methodology of Educational Research, N.Delhi: Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd.
Khatoon J . (1985). Personality patterns of high and low academic achievers. Ph.D.
Psychology, Rohilkhand University, Ranchi.
Reddy K. 1(996) Emerging epidemic of cardiovascular disease in developing countries.

Circulation. 596-601.
Smith, S. (1966) in Garrison, K.C. (1965) Psychiatry and Adolescence New Jersey, Prentice
Hall Inc. Englewood Cliffs.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 63-70
Gender Equality : Issues & Challenges

Rashmi Singh*
Abstract
Gender refers to the socially constructed roles and responsibilities of
women and men in a given culture or location. These roles are influenced by
perceptions and expectations arising from culture, political, environmental,
economic, social and religious factors, as well as custom, law, class, ethnicity and
individual or institutional bias. Gender equality means treating both the genders
male/female in an equal manner. It is essential to bring gender equality in society by
erasing gender inequality that exists. The need of the hour is to effectively combat
gender disparity to promote gender equality by sufficiently empowering women.
Our first duty is to love and respect all beings on this earth. If we do so, there will be
gender equality. Therefore an attempt is being made to integrate gender issues in all
programmes in terms of using a gender perspective to identify gender issues. The
public role of women should be supported. Women's participation in the
development process should be increased at all levels Gender sensitization
programmes should be developed and implemented.
Keywords: Gender Equality, Gender Inequality, Gender Sensitization
The Rio Olympic has become memorable and special for all Indians as our
results have proved that Indian women have been able to achieve a great feat by
bringing medals and joy to their country. Sakshi Malik, P.V. Sindhu and Deepa
Karmakar have made us proud. They have shown that India is moving ahead in the
direction of women empowerment through gender equality. They are in their
twenties with indomitable will and they have emerged winners against all odds.
They were supported by their families and their fathers proved to be pillars behind
their success. They present a new picture of Indian woman-more confident,
powerful and successful. This transformation is not sudden, it is result of a strategy
that lays emphasis upon promoting women empowerment through gender equality.
Realizing the importance of gender equality, the preamble of the Indian constitution
*Asstt. Professor, Faculty of Education, U.P. College, Varanasi (U.P.)

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Rashmi Singh
promises to secure to all citizens four noble ideals of justice, liberty, equality and
fraternity. The constitution guarantees certain fundamental rights in article 14,
article 15 prohibits any discrimination and article 15(3) empowers the state to make
a special provision for women and children. Gender equality is enshrined in Indian
constitution and constitution empowers the state to end the gender based
discrimination against women.
Gender refers to the socially constructed roles and responsibilities of
women and men, in a given culture or location. These roles are influenced by
perceptions and expectations arising from culture, political, environmental,
economic, social and religious factors, as well as custom, law, class, ethnicity and
individual or institutional bias. Gender equality means treating both the genders
male/female in an equal manner. Gender equality aims at :
Providing human rights and fundamental freedom to women on equal basis
with men in all spheres political, economic, social, cultural and civil.
Equal access to participation and decision making of women in social,
political and economic life.
Equal access to women in health care, quality education at all levels, career
and vocational guidance, employment, equal remuneration and social security.
Strengthening legal systems to eliminate all forms of discrimination against
women.
Mainstreaming a gender perspective in the development process.
Elimination of discrimination and all forms of violence against women.
It is essential to bring gender equality in society by erasing gender inequality that
exists. Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen has emphasized the need to take a plural view of
gender inequality and called for a new agenda of action to combat and put an end to
gender inequality. He has described the following seven types of inequality that
cause gender inequality :
Mortality Inequality- High mortality rates among girls and women are
found in societies due to gender bias in healthcare and nutrition.
Nationality Inequality- Boys are given preference over girls in many male
dominated societies. Due to availability of modern techniques to determine the
gender of the foetus, sex selective abortions have become common in many
countries.
Basic Facility Inequality- There are deficiencies in basic facilities available
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to women, varying from encouragement to cultivate one's natural talents to fair

participation in rewarding social functions of the community.
Special Opportunity Inequality- Gender bias in higher education and
professional training can be observed even in some of the richest countries.
Professional Inequality- In terms of employment as well as promotion in
work and occupation, women often face greater handicap than men.
Ownership Inequality- women face inequality in commercial, economic
and even some social activities.
Household Inequality- There are often enough basic inequalities in gender
relations within the family or the household.
The inequalities mentioned above indicate that there is gender discrimination in our
society. It affects the status of women in a negative manner. The girls and women are
not given opportunities. Generally their talents die in a traditional set-up in which
they have to follow many dos and don'ts silently that are imposed upon them. There
are many factors causing gender discrimination however some most common
factors are such as :
Poverty- In India of the total 30% people who are below poverty line, 70%
are women due to absence of economic opportunities and autonomy, lack of access
to economic resources including credit, land ownership and inheritance, lack of
access to education and support services and their minimal participation in the
decision making process.
Illiteracy- Census 2011 indicates that India has a literacy rate of 74.04%
and 65.46% females are literate. We are still far away from the target of 100%
literacy among women.
Lack of Employment Facilities- Women are not able to resolve the conflict
between new economic and old domestic roles which causes lack of employment
facilities.
Social Customs, Beliefs & Practices- The traditional patrilineal joint family
system confines women's roles on the basis of social customs, beliefs & practices.
Social Attitude- Despite pronounced social development and technological
advancement, women in our society still continue to be victims of exploitation,
superstition, illiteracy and social atrocities.
Lack of Awareness among women- Article 15 of the Indian constitution
states that the state shall not discriminate any citizen on the grounds of only sex but it
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Rashmi Singh
is not practiced as there is lack of awareness among women.

The irony is that there is still widespread discrimination which is a form of
injustice to women. The need of the hour is to effectively combat gender disparity to
promote gender equality by sufficiently empowering women. Addressing the
malice of gender discrimination in India is a long drawn battle against powerful
structural forces of the society which strongly oppose women's development.
Gender discrimination has paved the way for gender based crimes in our society that
affect the whole life cycle of a girl and a woman. These crimes, a slur on human
society, are given below :
Female Foeticide- Advancement in science and technology has helped us to
find out the gender of an unborn child. Some people misuse it just because they want
a male child in our patriarchal society. The sex ratio was 927 in census 2001 and 940
in census 2011. This inequality is a bad indication for our society.
Gender Based Treatment- Boys and girls are treated on the basis of their
gender. Boys get preference at home and even outside. Boys often get better food,
nutrition, schooling and special attention. Boys are considered bread-winners and
girls a burden.
Gender Based Crimes- We have become modern and attained advancement
in many fields but we don't consider women as equal men. Therefore there is a rise in
the crimes against women e.g. rapes, dowry-deaths, acid-attacks, sexual-offences,
eve-teasing and domestic violence. Our ancestors were far better than us as inspite
of being not so modern the rate of the crimes against women was low.
Gender Based Education- Parents don't want to spend much money to
educate their daughters as they are not future bread winners. Generally, girls give up
their aspirations and career-choices as they are forced to sacrifice for their families.
We see majority of girls opting to study in arts stream that is not expensive. Home-
science is a subject meant for only girls.
Gender Based Career Choices- Girls and women are often advised to pursue
such careers where they don't have to work for longer hours or night shifts or
challenging. In many cases women give up their jobs after marriage or childbirth for
the sake of their family. It is a common notion that family comes first for a woman
though the case is not same for a man.
Gender Gap in Literacy Rate- When the world celebrated the 50th
anniversary of International Literacy Day (September 8) with the theme 'Reading
the Past, Writing the Future', the effective literacy rate of India in census 2011 works
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out to 74.04%. The corresponding figures for males and females are 82.14% and
65.46% respectively. Though the literacy rates have increased, the gap still exists.
Gender Based Wage Gap- When the wage is paid in different amounts for
the same work on the basis of gender it is called Gender Based Wage Gap. It is a
common fact that females are paid low wages for the same work in comparison to
their male counterparts in private sector. It happens in entertainment industry too.
Gender Gap in Top Positions at Workplace- Companies or institutions
prefer male employees on top positions as they feel that a woman cannot devote so
much time and energy. Though women like Indira Nooyee, Arundhati Bhattacharya
and Chanda Kachchar have proved their potential, we still have a long way to go.
Gender Gap in Politics- The United States of America can boast of being the
most developed nation, however it never had a female president. This year is a
historical year in which Ms. Hillary Clinton is going to contest election as a
presidential candidate. Though there is 33% reservation for women in Gram-
Panchayat in India we are far from the target. There are 59 women in 545 seats of
Loksabha, 21 women in 233 seats of Rajyasabha. There are 203 S.C. women, 185
S.T. women and 797 general women in state assemblies the total number of women
is 1367 which being only 7-11%.
Gender Based Behaviour Pattern- Girls and women are always being told
and taught by elders, family members and social norms what they should do and
how they should do it. They are delicate and fragile so they need someone to protect
them. They have to follow customs, traditions and restrictions and they are exploited
for being females.
Gender Based Roles- The women are still considered commodity in some
areas of the world. Nowadays they are also called homemaker and childcare
provider. Their job in these roles doesn't have fixed working hours. They have been
taken for granted but they are not even given respect.
Gender based Division of Labour- Since ages it has been decided that
women have should do all domestic chores and it is still in practice. A working
woman is also expected to do the same. If she resists, she is forced. Her morality is
always questioned.
Gender Based Violence- A husband can beat his wife mercilessly on any
ground just because he is a man. The cases of domestic violence are seen in educated
and well off families too. During wars the women are worst sufferers of violence.
Now women are considered soft target for terrorists too.
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Rashmi Singh
Gender Based Exploitation- Women are exploited in families, societies

everywhere. They are made to sacrifice. They tolerate because they are taught and
forced to tolerate. Mothers are exploited for their kids, sisters for brothers and wives
for their husbands.
A woman in our society experiences all these just because she is a woman. We must
remember that she is also a human being and she has certain human rights. Gender
equality reminds us to give women their due. They have been denied even
fundamental rights. She doesn't have right to be born, to live with dignity. She has to
face bullets (e.g. Malala in Pakistan) if she wants to study. We are progressing in
such a direction where we don't follow the path of humanity. Our first duty is to love
and respect all beings on this earth. If we do so, there will be gender equality. Some
more efforts are also being made in the right direction such as :
Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao- This national programme was launched by the
Prime Minister on 22nd January, 2015 from Panipat, Haryana to save girl child and
to educate girls.
Digital Gender Atlas- It has been prepared with the help of UNICEF to
check progress of girl education (girls from deprived section) in India.
Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK)- It has been made to help poor women,
business women and self-help groups. Mahila-e-haat has also been started through
R.M.K.
Increasing Number of Women in Police Force- Women are being given 33%
reservation in police forces in central territories and some states.
Sukanya Samriddhi Yojna- It has been launched to secure financial future of
girls so that they are not considered a burden by their parents.
Providing Equal Opportunities to Women- The government has initiated
many efforts to provide equal opportunities to women. They are being recruited in
forces as commissioned officers and pilots too.
Making Acts for Safety of Women- Special acts have been passed to save
women from violent attacks and harassment at home, workplace and outside.
Declaring Non-Bailable Offences- Dowry deaths, acid attacks and honour
killings are considered non-bailable offences. Approximately 72% women are
victims in acid attack cases and 34% attacks are caused as women reject marriage or
love proposals according to BBC news report 'How Many Acid Attacks Are there'.
Women Helpline Number- It is also an effective step in ensuring safety of
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women. The universal women helpline no. is 181 and 1090 in U.P.
Establishment of Nirbhaya Fund- It has been established to rehabilitate
affected women by providing medical facilities, legal counselling, psychological
counselling, National Emergency Response System, CVCF and stopping cyber
crimes against women and children.
National Women Commission- It has been established to check that a
woman should not suffer due to any reason. She should not be deprived of her human
rights.
Establishing Women Cell- It has been made mandatory to establish women
cell in universities and colleges to ensure safety of women.
Ensuring Gender Justice- It is ensured that women should not be deprived
of justice on the basis of gender. Zakia Saman and Noorjehan Sofia Niaz have
started Bhartiya Muslim Mahila Andolan (BMMA) a fight for equal citizenship
rights for women and gender justice within Islam. Tripti Desai, a social activist
fought and got court order allowing women to enter Haji Ali Dargah in Mumbai.
Creating Awareness for Gender Sensitization- Women are also human
beings. They should be given equal rights and opportunities. They should not be
deprived of anything on the basis of their gender. Their needs should be understood
and fulfilled.
These steps are an attempt to ensure gender equality. The importance of gender
equality has been recognized by our authorities which is essential for the progress of
our nation. Swami Vivekanand has said that the thermometer to a nation's progress is
the condition of women in it. Therefore an attempt is being made to integrate gender
issues in all programmes, in terms of using a gender perspective to identify gender
issues. The public role of women should be supported. Women's participation in the
development process should be increased at all levels. Gender sensitization
programmes should be developed and implemented. An environment must be
created to eliminate gender disparities. Dominant cultural and social prejudices
against women should not be practiced. Policy makers and administrators should
consider gender issues. Women should be given equal participation at all levels in
the progress of our country. We must eradicate gender-inequality in any form
present in our society so that we can proudly say that we are the most rational and
sensitive beings.
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Rashmi Singh
References
The Times of India, September 3, 2016.
Roul Kartikeshwar, 2011 : Impact of NPEGEL on Girl's Education at Elementary Level in
Tribal District of Odisha, Journal of Indian Education, Valume XXXVII, No.I, May
2011, NCERT.
Sen Amartya : Many Faces of Gender Inequality, Inaugural Lecture at Redcliffe Institute at
Harward University, www.gender.equality.
Shauni, 2016: http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/India-2/gender- discrimination-inIndia-6-
majorcauses/47671/
Sharma Jaya, 2016 : Gender, School & Society, Shri Vinod Pustak Mandir, Agra.
Gupta S.P., 2002 : The Fabric of Education, Sharda Pustak Bhavan, Allahabad.
Singh Binay 2016 : Gender Gap in Literacy Rate Shrinking : Census, The Times of India,
September 8, 2016.
Tiwari Bipin 2016 : Samajik Nyay Ki Dharana Aur Mahila Vidheyak, Yojna, September,
2016.
Kohli Namita 2016 : Gender Justice Via the Quran, Hindustan Times, September 11, 2016.
R. Sushma 2010 : Task Force on Higher Education for Women's Equality : Female Education
as Global Consideration, University News, Vol. 48, No. 16, April 19-25, 2010.
Safaya, Shaida & Shukla, 2005 : Teacher in Emerging Indian society, Dhanpat Rai
Publication, New Delhi.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 71-5
Mental Health and Machiavellianism

Jawed Ahmad*
Abstract
The present study examined the role of level of mental health on
Machiavellian tendency of college students. Sample consisted of 60 undergraduate
students divided into two groups on good and low mental health groups by
administering Jagdish & Srivastava's Mental Health Inventory. After that they were
administered Mach IV Scale by Rai & Gupta. Findings revealed that respondents
belonging to low mental health group were found more prone to Machiavellian
tendency than the respondents of high mental health group.
Keywords: Mental health, Mach, College graduate.
The ideas of Niccolo Machiavelli have been associated with the dark side of
politics. To be Machiavellian has for centuries meant to be willing to do any thing in
the quest of power. Machiavelli has been viewed as a political devil, advising leaders
to embrace the art of treachery, force and cruelty in order to be successful. In popular
paralance Machiavellianism like “Kautilya-Neeti or “Chankya-Neeti” has become
synonymous with political machinations for achieving personal ends. The term,
Machiavellianism, therefore has come to acquire a lot of negative connotation.
Machiavellianism is "the employment of cunning and duplicity in statecraft or in
general conduct"(Oxford Dic.). The word comes from the Italian Renaissance
diplomat and writer Niccolò Machiavelli, born in 1469, who wrote Il Principe (The
Prince), among other works. In modern psychology, Machiavellianism is one of the
dark triad personalities, characterized by a duplicitous interpersonal style, a cynical
disregard for morality and a focus on self-interest and personal gain (Jones et al,
2009). If Machiavellians use their skills to attain private goals, they are branded as
“manipulators”. The very same skill if used for achieving approved goals by these
individuals brings them the labels of “effective leaders” “master tactician”,
“interpersonal adept” etc. Machiavellianism has been conceptualized by Christie
*Jawed Ahmad, Associate Professor & Head, P. G. Department of Psychology,

Shibli National College, Azamgarh.
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Jawed Ahmad
(1970) as an individual difference variable.

Machiavellianism is also a term that some social, forensic and personality
psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to be unemotional, and therefore
able to detach himself herself from conventional morality and hence to deceive and
manipulate others. In the 1960s, Christie and Geis (1970) developed a test for
measuring a person's level of Machiavellianism (sometimes referred to as the
Machiavelli test). Christie and Geis conducted multiple experimental tests that
showed that the interpersonal strategies and behavior of "High Machs" and "Low
Machs" differ (1970). Their basic results have been widely replicated C Mcllwain,
20003). Measured on the Mach - IV scale, males are, on average, slightly more
Machiavellian than females (Christie and Geis ,1970 ; Gunnthorsdottir, McCabe &
Smith, 2002).
Most of the subsequent studies of Machiavellianism have focused largely on
the investigation of several psychosocial variables like locus of control, approval
motive, anxiety, professional choice, personality traits, frustration, tolerance, self
esteem, paranoid tendency, disclosure of ethical sensitivity etc. (Solar &Brouche
1971); Somadder & Agrawal 1980, Nigro & Galli 1983, Angell 1988, Rai & Gupta
1988, Gupta 1990; Christoffersen & Stamp 1995; Ojha 2000; Pinto & Kanekar
2006; Singh, 2008). Kaur (2009) compared high, moderate and low Machs on the
scales of anxiety, prejudice, egocentrism and aggression. She found that the three
groups differed significantly in their tendency of Machiavellianism (also, Kaur,
2007).
It is obvious that empirical studies involving mental health dimension of
respondents as antecedent of their Machiavellian tendency are rare. There are even
fewer studies which have examined the factors related to mental health but not
mental health as such. In view of the above, the present study was designed to
measure the impact of level of Machiavellian tendency of college students and its
effects on their mental health.
Method
Sample: The study was conducted on an incidental cum purposive sample
consisting of 6o college students of Azamgarh city. They were selected in such a way
that they must be equal in respect of rural urban inhabitation and SES. In other
respects they were matched as far as practicable.
Tools
1. Mental Health Inventory: This scale was developed by Jagdish and Srivastava. It
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consists of 56 items. In this inventory, items were selected from six areas Positive
Self-evaluation, Perception of Reality, Integration of Personality, Autonomy, Group
Oriented Attitudes and, Environmental Competence. Four Alternative responses are
given with each statement to express the opinion by the respondents. Its reliability
and validity are reported to be high.
2. Mach IV Scale: The Hindi version of original Mach IV scale prepared by Rai and
Gupta was administered on the participants. It has 20 items and was originally
developed by Christie & Geis (1970). It measures Machiavellian and non-
Machiavellian direction. It possesses good psychometric properties.
Procedure: Jagdish & Srivastava's Mental Health Inventory was administered on the
respondents to categorize them into Good and Poor Mental Health Groups. After
that, Mach IV Scale was administered to find out the impact of mental health status
on Machiavellian tendency of respondents.
Results
This study was conducted to find out whether participants scoring high or
low on mental health scale differ significantly in Machiavellianism. Mean, standard
deviation and t- ratio were computed to see the difference between two groups of
participants based on mental health status in their Machiavallianian tendency.
Result table shows that participants possessing high mental health scored low on
Machiavellianism scale as compared to the participants having poor mental health.
The difference between the two groups is statistically significant, so the proposed
hypothesis is accepted.
Table - 1. Mean , SD and t values on Mach IV Scale obtained by respondents of
High and Poor Mental Health Groups.
Discussion
A perusal of Table- 1 shows that respondents belonging to Good Mental
Health group have obtained comparatively lower scores (M=94.20±8.23) on Mach
IV Scale than the respondents of Poor Mental Health group (M=111.30±9.78)
meaning thereby that they have been found low on Mach IV Scale because
respondents of Good Mental Health group were found productive and unalienated,
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Jawed Ahmad
they relate themselves to the world lovingly, they use their reason to grasp reality
objectively, they experience themselves as unique individual entity and at the same
time feel them with fellowmen, they are not subject to situational authority and
accept willingly the rational authority of conscience and reason and consider the
gift of life the most precious chance they possess.
Persons scoring high on Mach Scale are likely to possess negative personality
traits, they may be egocentric, concerned more about their own needs, feelings,
ideas and opinions, they cannot relate, coordinate, or develop rapport with others
easily, they may have a rebellions attitude for the prevailing social system and they
have a decreased awareness of humanity in personal interactions. That is why they
manipulate to obtain their ends or goals (Nischel 1981). Kaur (2007, 2009) obtained
higher level of anxiety, aggression, prejudice and egocentrism among high Machs
which suggests that these factors affect negatively the mental health of people
scoring higher on Mach scale.
Conclusion
Mach Scores of respondents belonging to different levels of mental health decrease
as the levels of mental health increase. It was observed that people possessing good
mental health are more likely to exhibit positive and desirable behaviour in their
personal and social life. It further suggests that people having higher tendency of
Machiavellianism may be more discriminating in their dealings and they give undue
priority to their ends which may prove to be detrimental for social harmony. Such a
tendency needs to be curbed and modified for the better human life,
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Ojha , J. (2000) Caste status as determinant of self-disclosure Machiavellianism. Indian
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Oxford English Dictionary "Machiavellian" as a word became very popular in the late
16th century in English, though "Machiavellianism" itself is first cited in 1626.
Pinto, J. &Kaneklar (1990) Social perception as function of Machiavellianism, Journal of
Social Psychology. 130, 6, 755-762.
Rai, N. & Gupta, M. (1989) Effects of parental Machiavellianism on behavior of children
Psychological Studies, 34, 3, 175-180.
Singh, A. (2008). Cognitive profiles of Machiavellianins. Ph.d. thesis of Psychology,
Purvanchal University , Jaunpur
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 76-81
Paradigm Shifts in Higher Education in India

Neelima Singh*
Abstract
Education, today, has very complex programs and products. The activities
of higher education often involve highly intangible matter. Also institutions
'compete' in market with other institutions, but do not always have similar intensity
to economic and social goals. But we cannot deny the fact that private participation
in professional educational is a business and the self financing institutions comprise
an industry with students entering them as consumers and coming out after skill
development as products. This has led to several paradigm shifts in higher
education, such as: From 'State Controlled Education' to an 'Open Market Economy
Education', From 'Education for Human Development' to 'Education for Human
Resource Development', From 'Education for a Few' to 'Education for Many', From
'National' to 'Global Education'. This paper is an attempt to highlight paradigm-
shifts in higher education through intensive use of technology to realize the vision of
shining India.
Keywords: Paradigm shifts. Higher education, India
Higher education, in general, and professional and technical education in
particular', plays a vital role in the economic and social development of a country. It
provides a wide range of increasingly sophisticated and ever changing variety of
trained manpower needed in education, engineering, medicine, agriculture,
management, communication, etc. It produces researchers, who through their
activities, deepen and extend the frontiers of scientific and technical knowledge
leading to innovations, which energize engines of economic growth and
development. Apart from developing human resources, higher education turns out
thinkers who reflect on critical problems that affect humanity and thereby ensure its
survival and growth. Thus the single most important indicator of national future can
be said to be the state of higher education. During ancient times in India the
educational system was mostly individualistic. Education was being provided by a
few learned persons, in their individual capacity as a matter of devotion, sacrifice
and service, and education was being received by a group of individuals out of their
own interest, love and requirement for learning. Teachers used to live in the bosom
*Deptt. of Education, Udai Pratap Autonomous College, Varanasi (U.P.)
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Neelima Singh
of nature in a sylvan setting with very limited needs and hardly any anxieties of life.
They were held in high esteem and they devoted their heart and soul to the
furtherance of education. Students lived in the Ashrams with their teachers, sharing
all the rites as well as responsibilities there. In such residential institutions there was
close and cordial relation among the teachers and pupils. The pupils gained
knowledge and acquired learning according to their own individual interests and
abilities. Dhoumya, Sandipani, Vasistha, Viswamitra, Vyas and so on were the
celebrated “Gurus” or teachers who imparted education to their pupils with deep
love, care and dedication. Nalanda, Taxila, Mithila, Rajagrih, Rajagiri and Lalitgiri
were a few renowned seats of higher learning. In the 10th century, India was invaded
from the northwest and many founded their dynastic rule in India. Persian became
the court language and the educated elites became conversant in Farsi and Arabic.
The dual traditions of Sanskrit and Farsi education were kept alive till the
colonization of India by the British. The British established schools to teach English
and the sciences. In 1857 three universities were established in three metropolitan
cities, Bombay (now Mumbai), Calcutta (now Kolkata) and Madras (now Chennai)
following Oxford or Cambridge as models. Another university was established in
1887 in Allahabad. These universities imparted education in the liberal arts and
sciences. The main objective was to prepare people for careers in the civil service,
legal profession and in medicine. The need for technical education was also felt by
the British, who established the first industrial school attached to the Gun Carriage
Factory in Guindy, Chennai, in 1842.With this varied history of the higher education
system, the current system is primarily modeled after the British system. Currently,
it takes 15 years of formal education to complete the UG degree successfully.
Professional U G degrees (B Tech, MBBS, BV Sc, etc.) take a total of 16 to 17 years
of formal education. If we add the years of postgraduate and research level
education, one can see that a person becomes employable around 30 years of age.
Paradigm shifts in higher education
In recent years Indian graduates have done well in knowledge industry and
they are now at an advantageous position in knowledge-controlled world economy.
Jobs, particularly in disciplines and subjects that have link with knowledge industry,
have increased. The Indian youths are now looking for education that would be of
quality and immediate utility. The private institutions have come up to fulfill the
demand by introducing large number of specific skill oriented courses. The foreign
universities are also looking forward to encash on such demands. The Indian
economy also has shown steady growth in recent years. Raising interest in utility
oriented education and enhanced economic strength of few have encouraged the
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growth of private institutions and the entry of foreign universities in India is steadily
shifting to a fast track of economic and industrial development, which has led to
several paradigm shifts in higher education, such as:
From 'State Controlled Education' to an 'Open Market Economy Education'
From 'Education for Human Development' to 'Education for Human
Resource Development'.
From 'Education for a Few' to 'Education for Many'.
From 'National' to 'Global Education'.
Undeniably, the changes in higher education scenario in India are utterly
fast, changes are phenomenal and changes continue to be inevitable. Private
participation in professional education (specially technical and management
education, has brought changes in the perception of the society.
Framework of Indian Higher Education
India with more than a billion residents has the second largest education
system in the world after China. Experts estimate that 32% of the Indian population
is under the age of 15. In the Indian system of education, the tertiary education or
higher education starts after the 10+2 stage. The structure of undergraduate
education in India is broadly similar all over the country, following the pattern of a
three year programme. Colleges form the backbone of Higher Education in India
since 88% of undergraduate education and 56% of post-graduate education is
imparted through colleges with approximately 83.37% of the teachers being
concentrated in colleges. The majority of institutions offering bachelor degree
courses are in English medium .There are various colleges, universities and private
institutions that offer BBA /B.Com /BCAM etc. The college follow annual
examination system and offer basic knowledge in specific areas. After completing a
Bachelors degree the student can qualify for admission to master's degree
programme in more specialized areas. Postgraduate studies comprise Master's
degrees such as MA/M.Com/M.Sc/MBA /MD etc. These courses are offered by
universities, colleges affiliated to universities /AICTE and private universities. At
the time of independence, India lacked a network of universities and affiliated
colleges that could meet the education requirements of a diverse student base. Over
the last sixty years India has endeavored to provide access but has been unable to
provide desired quality. In fact in order to achieve equality in terms of opportunity
and creating social mobility the government has unduly restricted and has instituted
strict commonalities in terms of fee structure and curriculum over more than 250
odd universities.
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Neelima Singh
Education, today, has very complex programs and products. The activities
of higher education often involve highly intangible matter. Also institutions
'compete' in market with other institutions, but do not always have similar intensity
to economic and social goals. But we cannot deny the fact that private participation
in professional educational is a business and the self financing institutions comprise
an industry with students entering them as consumers and coming out after skill
development as products. The Indian higher education system has undergone rapid
expansion. In less than 20 years, the country has created additional capacity for a
mammoth 40 million students. While the scale of this expansion is remarkable in
itself, what sets it apart from earlier decades of equally aggressive expansion is a
deliberate strategy and an organized design. India's higher education system has
finally broken free of decades of colonial overhang. In recent years, the country has
undertaken massive structural and systemic changes that have started to yield
encouraging results. About 15 years ago, India consciously moved to a
differentiated academic system with a three-tiered structure comprising highly
selective elite research universities at the top, comprehensive universities and
specialized institutions in the middle, and an array of highly-accessible and high-
quality colleges at the bottom. While the first tier caters exclusively to furthering
India's intellectual capital, the other two focus on delivering economic and social
value respectively. The imperative of the previous decade towards 'good
governance' in all realms business, administration and politics has resulted in
dramatic changes in the governance framework for higher education in areas both
internal to institutions (their management and leadership structures) as well as areas
external to institutions (the regulatory framework). Much has been done towards
ensuring quality, instituting accountability, enabling private participation,
promoting internationalization and so on.
Intensive use of Technology
The Indian higher education system has undergone massive expansion to
become the largest in the world enrolling over 70 million students. Such expansion
would have been unimaginable without the extensive use of ICT tools. To illustrate,
if India were to create this additional capacity through increase in brick and mortar
institutions alone, it would have had to build six universities and 270 colleges each
and every month in the last 20 years. Technology has not only been instrumental in
addressing the demand-supply gap for quality education, but has fundamentally
changed the nature of several educational processes. Gone are the days when
students had to gather in a large hall only to hear a lecture.
Today, classroom lectures are pre-recorded and uploaded to be accessed by
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students at their comfort. Class time is instead used for creating more in-depth
learning experiences through group activities, problem solving and interactive
learning. Online analytics provide faculty with data on how and at what pace each
student is learning, enabling them to provide personalized support to aid student
learning outcomes. The model also acts as a great democratizer, allowing students to
learn at their own pace for instance, slow learners can go over certain content and
exercises multiple times with special tools to aid their learning. Finally, the hybrid
model (where part of the program is taught online and part in person) has become
particularly popular among adult and working professionals looking to gain
additional credentials. The model provides them with the flexibility to access course
material as their schedule permits. In short, technology has bee immensely useful
for Indian higher education, solving three of India's pressing problems access,
equity and quality - at once.
Towards a brave new world of Higher Education
India will have the largest population in the world, in the higher education
age bracket by 2030; increasing urbanization and income levels will drive demand
for higher education. India's economy is expected to grow at a fast pace; industry
and services sectors will further dominate the economy. Industry and services
sectors in India would require a gross incremental workforce of ~250 million by
2030; India could potentially emerge as a global supplier of skilled manpower. India
has the opportunity to become a prominent R&D destination. The Union Ministry of
Science and Technology and RIKEN, Japan's largest research organization, have
signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to launch joint research programs
in the fields of biology, life sciences and material sciences, and genome-related
research including systems biology and computational science.
Kishore Vaigyanik Protsahan Yojana (KVPY) has launched
National Program of Fellowships in Basic Sciences, initiated and funded by
the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, aims to attract
interested students at an early stage (those studying in Class XI onwards to first year
undergraduates taking basic science courses) to pursue research-based careers in
science . Given the expected socio-economic scenario in 2030, India would need a
robust higher education system that can deliver on multiple imperatives. A
differentiated system of institutions with differing objectives and focus areas would
be critical for achieving the proposed goals such as
1. Research focused institutions
2. Carrier focused institutions
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Neelima Singh
3. Foundation institutions
The Road to Realize the Vision
While universities and the academic community in general would like
higher education to be viewed as a public good, the prevailing argument in the WTO
Secretariat is that higher education is akin to 'private consumption' directly
benefiting the consumer by way of higher income. However, over time the
perception of higher education as a commercial service is gaining acceptance world
wide. The Government of India has provided full policy support and substantial
public funds to create one of the world's largest systems of higher education. These
institutions, with the exception of some notable ones, have, however, not been able
to maintain the high standards of education or keep pace with developments in the
fields especially in knowledge and technology.
The knowledge of the beneficiaries perception in private set up is therefore
gaining impetus. The common sense principles of survival in a free market economy
tell us that quality, price and support services are the three corner stones for survival
of any service organization. Whether and to what extent these common sense
principles apply to the students (consumers) of management education self
financing institutes is a million dollar question.
References
Levy, C. Daniel (1993). Problems of Privatisation in Higher Education; The Journal Of
Educational Planning and Administration. p. 277.
Malcom, Frazer, ( ). Quality in Higher Education: An International Perspective; in
Tom Scheller (ed) The Future in Higher Education; pp.104-05.
Kaul, Sanat,( 2006). Higher Education in India : seizing the opportunity, working paper
ICRIER, MAY.
NKC (2006). Report of working group for undergraduate education set up by National
Knowledge Commission Feb, 2006.
Mohanty, Jagannath (1993). Dynamics of Higher Education in India, New Delhi: Deep and
Deep Publications.
Moonis Raza (1991). Higher Education In India; India: Association of Indian Universities.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 82-86
Effects of Social Climate of Teaching

and Learning on Achievement Motivation
among Students
Mosarrat Jahan*
Abstract
The study was conducted on a random sample of 300 students including 150
HSC and 150 LSC high school students of Bhagalpur town on the basis of random-
cum-incidental sample. The importance of topic lies in the sense as it measures the
characteristics of High Social Climate (HSC) and Low Social Climate (LSC) among
high school students. The review of literature shows that SCGh and SCGl high
school students differ significantly with respect to scores of achievement motivation.
It does show that there is much impact of social climate of teaching and learning on
the achievement of high school students. The study covers the important areas of
Social Climate of achievement motivation, teaching and learning on achievement
motivation of high school students. The study can be conducted on a larger scale for
better result. It can be conducted with other variables like academic achievement,
examination stress and with cognitive variables i.e. intelligence, creative thinking,
study habits etc.
Keywords:- Social Climate Achievement motivation, Teaching and learning
The term motivation has been defined variously by psychologists as the
phenomena involved in a person's drive and goal seeking behavior; the tendency to
commence an activity in response to a persistent stimulus (drive) and end with an
appropriate adjective response; the arousal, regulation and sustaining a pattern of
behavior; and the internal state or condition that results in behavior directed towards
a specific goal (Curzon, 1990). Rabideau (2005) defines motivation as a driving
force behind all the actions of an individual. The needs and desires of an individual
have a strong impact on the direction of his/her behavior. Motivation is based on
emotions and achievement related goals. The term is also used in a general sense to
refer to a person's aroused desire for participation in the learning process.
*Astt. Professor , Department of Psychology, Nalanda Mahila Colege, Biharsharif (Nalanda)

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Mosarrat Jahan
The non-academic goals (to know more about pupils) of education changed the
perspective of educators and social scientists to look into the non-intellectual factors
as deterring agents of achievement motivation (n-Ach.). Studies have increasingly
revealed that there is some relationship between the social class and n-Ach. It is
through subtle and invisible processes of socialization that the children develop in
varying degrees, the n-Ach from their parents. This differs from society to society.
For example, the Japanese mothers strongly motivate their children for the
accomplishment of goals than what the Brazilian mothers do for their children. The
different social classes, by and large, differ with respect to this motivation. The
middle class children are often pressed by their parents for strong n-Ach by
enforcing reward for their success. They show additional interest in their academic
motivation, get high grades and position in schools. On the contrary, the lower class
children are not so motivated by their parents for n-Ach, studies and performance.
They feel difficulties in pursuing academic goals, feel bored in school, and thus
become 'problem' for their teachers.
The comprehensive meaning of Achievement motivation and its measures are
given by McClelland, 1953 and McClelland, Atkinson, Clark and Lowell (1953)
through the clinical approach, that the human motives are freely expressed through
fantasy and imagination. According to Atkinson (1957), achievement motive is a
disposition to strive for success or the capacity to experience pleasure contingent
upon success. Stagner (1965) defined, at a common sense level, need achievement
refers to behavior which shows effort to accomplish something, to do one's best, to
excel over others in performance. It is to be differentiated from exhibitionism
(showing off without doing any thing useful) and from dominance (desire to boss
others around), although it is sometimes difficult to decide in a specific act which
level to apply. It involves a concern for competition with some standard of
excellence, an interest in interest in maintaining high quality of performance and the
desire to work with additional energy and persistence towards a goal. The standard
of excellence, which is the central theme of achievement motive, may be task
related, e.g. degree of perfection as compared with one's own earlier achievements,
or other related e.g. comparison with the achievement of others as it happens in
competition (Hockhasen, 1967).
McClelland and Atkinson generally used projective devices in their studies.
T.A.T. stories containing achievement frequencies are the quantitative indicator of
n-Ach of subjects. Another commonly used device is completion technique (CT) in
which the subjects make completion of incomplete sentences or stories. The
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Effects of Social Climate of Teaching and Learning on Achievement Motivation among Students
reliability of sentence completion tests (SCT) is moderate. Besides, R.T. and W.A.T.
have also been used. Singh (2012) compared achievement motivation of different
social climate of teaching and learning of high school students. The sample
comprised 300 schools students of standard IX and X from different central and
state government schools. The sample taken on the basis of incidental-cum
purposive sampling technique from the High Schools of Chapra, Bihar District.
Results showed that there was a significant difference between achievement
motivation of high school students and there was also a significant difference
between achievement motivation of HSC and LSC high school students.
Bahago (2011) investigated the influence of achievement motivation and
demographic characteristics on academic performance of nomadic Fulani girls in
Adamawa state. The data were collected from a sample of 300 girls selected from
nomadic primary schools by administering achievement motivation rating scale and
nomadic girls achievement test. The results indicated that academic achievement of
the girls was influenced by parental education levels. The findings revealed the
relevance of parental education in academic achievement of the girls.
Considering the importance of problem and its relevance, the present
investigator examined the achievement motivation of high school students of
different social climate of teaching and learning.
Objective: The purpose of the study was to assess achievement motivation of high
school students of different social climate of teaching and learning.
Hypothesis:
High social climate and low social climate would exert differential effects on
achievement motivation among students.
Method
Sample: Three hundred students of higher secondary standard were randomly
selected for the present study. The students studying in socially low and high
conditions were equal in number (150 each) and also in other respects.
Social Climate Scale: Social Climate of Teaching and Learning of the students
(where they were enrolled) was used. This scale has been developed by Ahmad,
M.H. (2008). The scale measures the social climate of teaching and learning.
Sentence Completion Test: SCT developed by Mukherjee, B.N. (1965) for the
purpose of measuring n-Ach in India sample was used in this study. The Hindi
version of SCT constructed and standardized was used for the present purpose.
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Mosarrat Jahan
Results
In order to examine the hypothesis that the high social climate group (SCGh)
and low social climate group (SCGl) would differ significantly in achievement
motivation and the SCGh would score high on achievement motivation than SCGl.
Both groups were tested by administering Sentence Completion Test (SCT). The
scoring was done with the help of scoring key. The data were arranged in frequency
table and t test (significance of difference between two means of independent
groups) on Achievement Motivation Test (SCT) was computed. Table- 1 shows that
low social climate group (SCGl) scored lower mean than the high social climate
group (SCGh). This leads to the acceptance of proposed hypothesis
Table-1: Significance of difference between mean scores for achievement
motivation scores of high schools students of SCGh and SCGl.
Discussion
Table-1 shows that the SCGh and SCGl differ significantly with respect to
mean scores on achievement motivation (t=2.71, df=298, p <.01). It means that
result supports the hypothesis that the SCGh and SCGl would differ significantly on
the scores of achievement motivation. The findings further suggest that social
climate is a significant factor in achievement motivation and the parents, teachers
and other care providers should try their best to facilitate the need of achievement
among children and students for desired success in life. According to Rabideau
(2005) motivation is a driving force behind all the actions of an individual. The
needs and desires of an individual have a strong impact on the direction of his/her
behavior and need to be enhanced by creating stimulating conditions for them. The
result is in agreement with the findings of Ahmad, M.H., 1988., Clark, Sewal,
Havighurst, 1967; Gukulnathan,1972; etc. on the influence of social class on the
achievement motivation of students. The race, tribes, schooling, class-room
management, occupations, family, background, and several other factors are related
to achievement motivation, academic motivation and scholastic achievement.
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Effects of Social Climate of Teaching and Learning on Achievement Motivation among Students
Conclusion
The study was conducted on 300 random sample (including 150 HSC and 150
LSC high school students) of Bhagalpur town on the basis of random-cum-
incidental sample. It measures the characteristics of High Social Climate (HSC) and
Low Social Climate (LSC) among high school students. The review of literature
shows that SCGh and SCGl high school students differ significantly with respect to
scores of achievement motivation. It does show that there is much impact of social
climate of teaching and learning on the achievement of high school students.
Limitation, and Suggestion:
This study is relevant as it covers the important areas of Social Climate of
achievement motivation, teaching and learning on the achievement motivation of
high school students. The study can be conducted on a larger larger for better results.
It can be conducted with other variables like academic achievement, examination
stress and with cognitive variables, intelligence, creative thinking study habits etc.
Reference
Ahmad, M.H. (2008). Social climate scale of teaching and learning of the students Ph.D.
thesis(Unpublished) M.U. Bodh-Gaya.
Atkinson, J.W. (1957) Achievement motive and test anxiety conceived as motive to
approach success and motive to avoid failure. Journal Abnorm. Soc. Psychology,
60, 52-53.
Lowell, E.L. (1953) The effect of need for achievement on learning and speed of
performance, Journal of Psychology. 65, 59-66
McClelland, D.C. (1953): The use of measures of human motivation in the study of Society.
In Srivastava, P.K. Tiwari M.L. (1967): Socio-economic satisfaction of need
achievement. Psychol. Stud., 12, 9-16.
Mc Cleland, D.C., Atkinson, J.W. Clark, B.A. and Lowel, E.L. (1953): The achievement
motive New York : Appletan- Century Crofts.
Rabideau, Scott. T (2005) Academic Motivation, Achievement and Decisions Among
Students from Immigrant and U.S. born families. Retrieved from Internet ERIC
Documents March 21, 2009.
Singh, R.K. (2012) The compared achievement motivation of different social climate of
teaching and learning of high school students. Thesis M.U. Bodh-Gaya,
(Unpubhished).
Stagner, R. (1965) Psychology of Personality, New York, Johnwil.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 87-94
Educational and Occupational Aspiration

of C.B.S.E and B.S.E.B Students of Gaya
Chandradeo Yadav*
Abstracts
This research paper endeavors to study the educational aspiration and
occupational aspiration of C.B.S.E and B.S.E.B students of Gaya. The prospective
of research lies in the sense that the educational aspiration, occupational aspiration
of C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B IXth & Xth schools students of Gaya Town are markedly
different. The sample comprised 150 students selected from C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B.
IX & X students belonging to different schools. The data have been selected
randomly from C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B schools from Gaya town. The results have been
obtained by administering PDS, Educational Aspiration Scale and Occupational
Aspiration Scale. The data have been scored, arranged, and computed by statistical
techniques like Chi-square and t test.
Keyword: Educational Aspiration, Occupational Aspiration, C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B.
The school climate influences the intellectual and non-intellectual
development of students. There are different types of schools in Bihar, and they are
governed by different educational boards e.g. the Central Board of scondary on the
other hand some schools of B.S.E.B. are governed by state government and others
by private organizations. Hence, the effect of school management is obviously seen.
Though, teachers are paid more salary than private institution in B.S.E.B. in
comparison to C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B., it has been observed that students of C.B.S.E.
obtain more percentage of marks and get admission in prestigions educational
institutions with facilities provided there like, IIT, Medical institution, Teachers,
Railways, Banking and other prestigious occupational courses. Hence, considering
the importance of topic, the researcher thought proper to study Aspiration,
(Educational and Occupational), and self-esteem of CBSE and B.S.E.B. schools
students.
*M.A. Psychology, Research Scholar, M.U. Bodh-Gaya

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Chandradeo Yadav
Nevertheless, there is Ability Difference Teaching vivid indirectly in practice.

The students enrolled in C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B., besides Missionary and some
reputed schools of DAV and others like Gayan Bharti Residential Complex, Crean
Memorial, Nazreth Academy, Manav Bharti, Param Gyan Nikatan, Hansraj Public
School, Delhi Public School, etc, and Zila +2 Schools, Hadi Hashmi High School
and Haridas Seminary etc, are academically superior to to the students who are
admitted in Government Schools and affiliated units.
Aspiration:
The individual, knowing his level of past performance in that task, explicitly
undertakes to reach a higher level of achievement. When an individual is asked to
state his level of aspiration it essentially turns out to be a choice situation. The choice
of an individual is guided by two basic factors: namely, the positive valence of future
success and the negative valence of future failure.
To avoid confusion or misunderstanding it is desirable to make a clear
distinction between 'aspiration' and 'level of aspiration' and also to define
operationally the term 'academic aspiration'. As stated earlier, the basic term has its
origin in the German word Anspruchanivesu and the first reference to the term
appeared in the scientific literature of psychology through a study by Dembo (1931)
where she used the terms 'monetary level of aspiration'. On the basis of the functions
aspiration serves in the striving of a person, it can easily be classified into three
broad categories: (i). Positive - negative aspirations. (ii). Immediate remote
aspirations. (iii). Realistic - unrealistic aspirations.. Educational and Occupational
Aspiration: The aspirations reveal how students see themselves and their roles in the
school and the community. The more recent literature has shown that aspirations are
"qualified by the nature of the activity or goal, by experiences of success and failure,
and by social pressures to aim high and do well". Educational aspirations are
important because from an individual perspective, they represent one of the more
crucial determinants of social mobility. Where a person functions in a social
hierarchy he/she is substantially dependent on his or her adolescent desire for
education beyond high school.
It is quite useful to enquire and find out the element common to the activities of
carpenters and statesmen, teachers and students, engineers and doctors, composers
and business executives, fighting soldiers and professional boxers in the ring and
toiling farmers and computer scientists. The identical structure of such widely
disparate performances does not show on the surface and is not easily grasped by a
logical definition.
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Educational and Occupational Aspiration of C.B.S.E and B.S.E.B Students of Gaya
The problem of one's level of aspiration is actually the problem of choice

and decision about one's future plan of performance. The choices and decisions for
future plan are generally expressed in educational occupations social, economic and
political goals. Even the social, economical and political goals of a person are linked
with the educational and occupational activities, therefore most of the studies on
levels of aspirations have been conducted by measuring the educational and
occupational choices. The prestige value of an educational and a vocational goal that
a person chooses to achieve determine the level of educational and occupational
aspiration. In the present study the level of educational and occupational aspiration
was studied. As proposed in the study, the level of educational aspiration (LEA) and
the level of occupational aspiration (LOA) have been defined as orientation towards
educational and occupational goals ( Haller & Miller, 1963). The L.E.A. and L.O.A.
may be considered as logical derivatives of level of aspiration.
Objective-
The objectives of the study were to examine the effect of schooling on
educational aspiration and occupational aspiration of C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. IX &
X standard students of Gaya town.
Hypotheses:
H1. The students of C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. would differ significantly on the
different dimensions of Educational aspiration and global aspiration.
H2. The students of C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. would differ significantly on the
different dimensions of occupational aspiration and global aspiration.
Method
Sample: 75 C.B.S.E. and 75 B.S.E.B. IX and X students of school grade of
different schools of Gaya town served as subjects. It included both male and female
students belonging to urban area of Gaya. Only willing students were administered
the tests.
Tools
i. The Personal Data Sheet: The PDS prepared by instigator himself was used to
know the demographic, personality and socio-psychological factors of the
respondents like name, age, sex, name of schools.
ii. The Educational Aspiration Scale (EAS): This scale is developed by Saxena
(1984) and was used to measure the educational aspiration of the students. The scale
is developed on the concept and technique of Haller and Miller (1963) under Indian
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Chandradeo Yadav
conditions. This Educational Aspiration Scale has been designed on the strength of
the lists of degrees, diploma, certificates, and other distinctive educational
qualifications as mentioned by different Indian Universities, Competitive
examinations, Boards in India.
iii. Occupational Aspiration Scale: This scale has been adapted by Grewal (1975)
by getting the prestige rating of 150 occupational titles, identical with the NORC
list. These titles are from the Dictionary of occupational titles of India. After the
prestige and rated by 200 persons on five point scale from 'Excellent' to 'Poor'. One
hundred eight occupations are arranged with different prestige values ranging from
0 to 9 in the form the OAS format with expression levels and goal of the period.
Results
The first hypothesis was that the C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. students' groups
would differ significantly with respect to their Educational Aspiration i.e., RLE,
RSE ILE, ISE and LEA as noted below:
In order to obtain scores of aspiration for C.B.S.E. students' group and
B.S.E.B. students' group studying in schools were administered to make preference
on each two multiple choice items for Realistic Long-range Educational Aspiration
(RLE), Realistic Short-range Educational Aspiration (RSE), Idealistic Long-range
Educational Aspiration (ILE), and Idealistic Short-range Educational Aspiration
(ISE) were separately arranged computed by suitable statistical i.e. measure (t test)
and presented in different tables. In this scale, the student could get a score range
from '0' (Zero) to '18' (Eighteen) on each two RLE, ILE, RSE and ISE scores those
were separately calculated. Table 1(i) shows the statistical details.
Table 1(i): Significance of mean score differences between C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B.
students on levels of Educational Aspiration i.e., RLE RSE ILE ISE and LEA
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It is apparent from Table-1(i) that the groups differ significantly on RLE

(t=3.47, df=298, p<0.01), RSE(t=2.80, df=148, p<0.01), ILE(t=2.08, df=148,
p<0.05), ISE(t=2.70, df=148, p<0.01) and LEA(t=2.55, df=148, p<0.05). The result
supports the hypothesis.
1.(i). Total scores of C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. students studying in school on their
Levels of Educational Aspiration (LEA): The total scores obtained by a
student on all the eight multiple choice items in the scale determine his level of
Educational Aspiration. In order to examine in statistical measure it was decided
proper to analyze and treat the scores by suitable statistics to ascertain significance
of difference between Means' LEA of C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. students' groups
studying in schools. It was hypothesized that C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. students would
differ significantly in their total scores on the level of educational aspiration (LEA)
Table-1.(v) below:
Table 1.(ii) Significance of difference between C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. students on
Total levels of educational aspiration (LEA):
It is obvious from the table- that C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. students groups
studying in school differ significantly on their Total level of Educational Aspiration
(t =4.07, df =148, p<0.01).The result supports hypothesis.
2. Occupational Aspiration: The scores obtained by the student on each two
multiple choice items for RLO, RSO, ILO, and ISO were arranged and tabulated
separately. A student could get a score from '0' to 18 on each two multiple-choice
items separately for RLO, RSO, ILO and ISO. The mean scores for each RLO, RSO,
ILO & ISO scores were calculated to determine the Means' level in RLO, RSO, ILO
and ISO scores.
Furthermore, the total score on the level of occupational aspiration was
calculated by adding all the obtained scores on each multiple-choice item in the
scale. There were eight items in the scale; and a student could get a score from '0'
(Zero) to 72 on all the eight items in the scale. The Mean and SD were calculated to
to find out a significance of differences ( t ratio) between Means of C.B.S.E. and
B.S.E.B school students' groups. The results related to occupational aspiration are
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Chandradeo Yadav
described hereunder.
The second hypothesis was that the C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. students groups
studying in schools would differ significantly in terms of their realistic long range
occupational aspiration (RLO), realistic short-range occupational aspiration (RSO),
idealistic long-range occupational aspiration (ILO), idealistic short-range
occupational aspiration (ISO). The obtained results are presented in (table-2.(i)
below:
Table 2(i) Significance of differences between C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. students on
occupational aspiration scale i.e., RLO RSO ILO and ISO:
It is apparent from table-2.(ii) that C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. students differ

significantly on their realistic long-range occupational aspiration on (RLO)
(t=2.49, df=148, p<0.05), realistic short-range occupational aspiration (RSO)
(t=2.31, df=148, p<0.05), idealistic long-range occupational aspiration (ILO)
(t=2.64, df=148, p<0.01) and idealistic short-range occupational aspiration (ISO)
(t=2.29, df=148, p<0.05), scores. The result supports hypothesis.
2.(ii). Total Scores on Level of Occupational Aspiration (LOA):
In order to test the hypothesis that C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. students groups
studying in school would differ significantly with respect to their total LOA (levels
of occupational aspiration) their total score on all the eight multiple choice items of
Occupational Inspirational Scale was calculated to determine the level of
occupational aspiration of all the students. The mean scores and SD's of both groups
were calculated and finally t was computed to find the difference between groups
(table-2. (ii) below:
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Table-2.(ii) Significance of mean score differences (t ratio) between C.B.S.E. and

B.S.E.B. students groups studying in school on level of LOA:
Table-2(ii) exhibits that C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. Students groups studying in school
differ significantly on their mean scores levels of occupational aspiration LOA
(t=2.43, df=148, p<0.05). The result supports the hypothesis.
Discussion
Table-1(i) shows that the two groups differ significantly on RLE. It is
obvious from the result that both CBSE and BSEB groups differ significantly in
terms of their realistic long range educational aspiration (RLE). These results
contradict the findings obtained by some previous scholars (Empey, 1956; Harrison,
1968; & Sahoo, 1960). In most of the studies reported earlier in the review it has
been seen that the lower class students possess lower level of educational aspiration
than the upper class students (Sahoo, 1979; Dixit and Noorjani, 1981; Reissman,
1982; Pandey, 1973). The result confirms the hypothesis that there would be a
significant difference between CBSE and BSEB student groups in terms of total
levels of educational aspiration.
The trend of results in Tables-1.(i, ii, iii and iv) shows a significant
difference between C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. students studying in school on their RLE,
RSE, ILE and ISE aspiration. Further, a significance of difference between groups
was emerged with respect to their Total Levels of Educational Aspiration.
It is apparent from table-2.(ii) that C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. students differ
significantly on their realistic long-range occupational aspiration on realistic
short-range occupational aspiration (RSO) (idealistic long-range occupational
aspiration (ILO) and idealistic short-range occupational aspiration (ISO) scores.
Thus the result support hypothesis. Table-2(ii) exhibits that C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B.
Students groups studying in school differ significantly on their Means scores levels
of occupational aspiration LOA (t=2.43, df=148, p<0.05). The result supports
hypothesis. The C.B.S.E. Students group possesses significantly higher educational
level. This suggests that C.B.S.E. students have more LOA than B.S.E.B.
counterparts. Hence the proposed hypothesis is accepted.
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Chandradeo Yadav
Conclusion
The present study was conducted to assess educational aspiration and
occupational aspiration. The study was conducted on the random sample of 150
C.B.S.E. and B.S.E.B. schools students of Gaya town. The criterion of
randomization was followed by the students on the basis of those who came first
were included in the sample not on choosing the respondent on any ground which
may influence the result and merit of research.
Limitation: The main limitation of this study is a relatively small sample. It is felt
that a relatively larger sample may be more useful in generalizing the findings.
Reference
Antonovsky, A. (1967): Aspiration, Class and Racial-ethnic membership. The Journal of
Negro Education, 36, 385-393.
Burchinal, Lee G.. "Differences in Educational and Occupational Aspirations of Farm,
small-Town and City Boys", Rural Sociology. 1961, 26, 107-121.
Donald, W.B., "Socio-cultural Differences Among Three Areas in Kentucky as
Determinants of Educational and Occupational Aspirations and Expectations of
Rural Youth“, Dissertation Abstract International, Vo1.31,1971.
Grewal, F.S. (1975): Occupational Aspiration Scale, Agra Psychological Research cell, Asia
4.
Guilford, J.P., Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education, New York: McGraw
Hill, 1963.
Haller, A.O. and Butterworth, C.E., “Peer Influence on Level of Occupational and
Educational Aspirations", Social Forces. 1960. 38, 289-295.
Holler, A.C. and Miller, I.W. (1963) The Occupational aspiration : theory, structure and
correlates. Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin : 288, Michigan State
University.
Jose, C.H., "Social Class and Educational, Occupational Aspiration: An Exploratory Study
in Two Regions of Mexico", Dissertation Abstracts International Vol. 31, 1971.
Saxena, S.K. and Srivastava, A.K. (1984): Manual for Educational Aspiration Scale, Agra
Psychological Research Cell, Agra-4.
Sewell, W.H.; Haller, A.O. Strans, M.A. (1967): Social status and educational and vocational
aspiration. Emer. Social. Rev. Vol. XXII, No. 1, pp. 67-73.
Sewel1, W.H. and Hauser, R.M., Education, Occupation and Earnings: Achievement in the
Early Career, New York: Academic Press, 1975.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 95-98
Role Conflict and Teacher Attitude

Shaikh Abul Barkat*
Abstract
Purpose of the present study was to examine the influence of role conflict on
teaching attitude of higher secondary teacher respondents. Sample consisted of 60
male and female respondents from different higher secondary schools of Azamgarh
city. Teacher Role Conflict Inventory (Prasad &Bhushan) and Teacher Attitude
Inventory (Ahluwalia) were administered on respondents. Results indicated that
teachers belonging to Low Role Conflict Group showed higher mean scores than the
teacher respondents of High Role Conflict Group. Obtained mean difference was
found statistically significant at respectable level of significance.
Key words : Role Conflict, Teacher Attitnde, Low Role, Conflict Group, High Role
Conflict Gropu.
Berstan opines that 'teacher is the child's third parent'. Teaching is a difficult
and yet often under appreciated career. Researches on causes and consequences of
stress in teaching job gained popularity in recent years with the appearance of
reviews and empirical studies related to the topic in scientific literature. There is
considerable evidence that work stress is related to adverse health, lowered health
and well being due to burnout in appropriate teaching attitude,beaurocratic
pressures, lack of feedback, autonomy and appreciation, work load, academic and
organizational climate and role conflict (role ambiguity) . Coping with stress also
depletes psychological energy. Thus, the more stress the individual experiences
from any source, the less energy is available for empathy and caring. Thus Role
Conflict is an occupational hazard.
Although role conflict and ambiguity can occur independently, they both offer to the
uncertainty about what one is expected to do at work. Role conflict may be defined
as the simultaneous occurrence of two or more opposing pressures so that a response
to one makes compliance with other impossible (e.g. mass education versus
individualized instruction). The most role conflicts are (a) those between the
individual values and those of the superior or of the organization (b) the conflicts
*R. C., MANNU,Plot No. 60, Lane-G, Sector-8, Vashi, Navi Mumbai-400703
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Shaikh Abul Barkat
between the demands of the work place and the worker's personal life, and (c) the
conflict between the worker abilities and organizational expectations.
In numerous studies (Austell 2010; Gupta & Nain 2016; Jena 2011;
Pushpita 2013; Rao&Ramasundaram 2008 ), role conflict has been associated with
low job satisfaction, frustration, decreased trust and respect, low confidence in
organization, morale problems and high degree of stress. The effect of role conflict
has been studied extensively but the relationship with teaching attitude among
higher secondary teachers has not been delineated clearly in the available literature.
Consequently, the present study was designed to investigate the impact of role
conflict on teaching attitude.
Method
Sample
Data were collected from a total sample of 60 higher secondary teachers
randomly selected from Azamgarh district. Their age ranged between 30 to 45. All
were from the urban areas.
Tools
1- Teacher Role conflict Inventory by Pramila Prasad & Dr. L.I. Bhushan This
inventory consists of 30 items in all and it is measured on a 5 point scale, namely,
Very Often, Often, Cannot say,Seldom andNever. The test retest reliability
coefficient was found to be .35.
2- Teacher Attitude Inventory S.P. Ahluwalia-This inventory is a 90 itemLikert
instrument consisting of six sub-scales Teaching profession ,Classroom
teaching,Childcentered practices, Educational process, Pupils and teacher. Each
scale has 15 statements that pertain to particular aspects of prospective and
practicing teachers professional attitudes. The TAI consists of a bilingual (English
&Hindi) reusable booklets with a separate answer sheets.
Procedure : In this study, incidental- cum- purposive sampling was applied. First of
all, the respondents were administered. Teacher Role Conflict Inventory was
administered over the teacher respondents, and, they were categorized into High and
Low Role Conflict Groups. After that, TAI was administered on the selected teacher
respondents and obtained data were recorded and analyzed statistically.
In order to study the relationship between teacher role conflict and teaching
attitude, t test was applied.
It was hypothesized that role conflict and teaching attitude were negatively
correlated. More specifically, teachers different on role conflict dimension may
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Role Conflict and Teacher Attitude
differ in their teaching attitude. On the basis of obtained mean scores on Teaching
Attitude Inventory, it may be concluded that teacher respondents belonging to Low
Role Conflict Group have obtained comparatively higher mean scores on Teacher
Attitude Inventory meaning thereby that teacher respondents experience high role
conflict possess less teaching attitude than respondents experiencing low role
conflict.
Table- 1 Showing Mean, SD and t values obtained by High and Low Role Conflict
groups on TAI
Since role conflict is associated with increased tension (Richard & Philip
2003), reduced job satisfaction (Yuan 2001) and psychological withdrawal (Huang
1991), role ambiguity (Wang 1991), length of service (Li 2004), authoritative
character of educational system (Feng& Dai 2005), politicians use student force to
achieve their selfish goals (Pan &Jiang 2006), inadequate teacher taught contacts,
inadequate parent teacher contacts, abuse of students, union, secret association of
teachers with students for the scale of personal gains and selfish motives (Wang
2005), violent expression due to sensitive age of students (Yuan 2004),
thoughtlessness,irresponsibility and non-conformist behavior of students (Fred &
Allen 2004) that is why respondents belonging to High Role Conflict Group have
obtained low mean scores on Teaching Attitude Inventory.
Conclusion
In the light of obtained results it may be concluded that role conflict and
teaching attitude was negatively correlated.
References
Austell, A.A. (2010) Role conflict in High School teachers.Research Papers-47. A research
paper submitted in Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Science
degree. Department of Kinesiology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale
Feng. Y & Dai Jan lin (2005) Social support: counter measures and relative research on
teachers burnout. Reseach on Social Psychology 2005 (4)
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Shaikh Abul Barkat
Gupta, M &Nain, I(2016) Role conflict among teachers: A comparative study on the basis of
of type of institutions, academic streams and locus of control. Scholarly Research
Journal for Humanities Social Sciences and English Language, 3, 13, 3275-3285
Huang Xi-ting (1991) Introduction to Psychology Beijing People's Education Press.
Jena,P.C.(2011)Role conflict among among secondary school tribals in relation to their work
motivation . Online International Interdisciplinary Research Journal, 1 ,11, 22-28
Li Hong-Ling (2004) On developing teacher management education Theories and Practice.

Pan, Q & Jiang Liu- hua (2006) Causes and counter measures on teacher's mental problems
Guangxi Education 2006(4)
Pushpita, R (2013) Role conflict among women teachers in relation to their
performance.International Journal of Physical Sciences,3, 10, 474-481
Rao,S.S. &Sundaram A (2018)Eves in academia Conflicting roles.SCMS Journal of Indian
Management ,5 ,2,102- 107
Wang Xiao-Chun (1991) How to be a teacher today. Shanghai: Eastern China Normal
University Press.
Yuan Zhen-gno (2001) Educational Principles. Shanghai Eastern China, Normal University
Press.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 99-105
Effects of Socio-econimic Status on

Academic Aspiration among
OBC High School Students
Subhash Paswan*
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the patterns of change in academic
aspirations of SES among OBC high school students of Jehanabad. This study was
conducted to find out how socioeconomic, academic, and school experience factors
impact both initial aspirations and change in aspirations. It also sought to explore
how educational aspirations relate to students. A sample of 150 OBC student of
High School was used from different SESu and SESl schools. The data have been
selected randomly from OBC high schools from Jehanabad. The results have been
obtained by administering PDS, Educational Aspiration, and Socio-economic
Scale. The data have been scored, arranged, and computed by statistical techniques
like t test.
Keyword: Academic Aspiration, Socio-economic Status.OBC H/S Students etc.
Every individual has aspiration-positive or negative, realistic or unrealistic,
immediate or remote, explicit or implicit. An aspirant, trying to better himself or to
achieve financial, social or academic success above which he has achieved to date
will be satisfied only when his achievement comes up to the goal he has set,
regardless of how others view his achievements. When used in this sense,
“aspirations are the goal, a person sets for himself in tasks, which have intense
personal significance or in which his age is involved.” In brief, aspiration may be
considered from three angles.
(a) What performance or aspect of it a person considers important and desirable
or what he wants to do or what goal he sets for himself.
(b) How well he expects to perform, especially in the important aspects of the
activity, the goal oriented performance.
(c) How important is the performance to him either as a whole or in different
*M.A. Ph.D (Psychology) Magadh University Bodh-Gaya

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Subhash Paswan
aspects. This would be indicated only by what result the goal oriented sustained
performance has brought for him that is by his achievements.
Aspiration serves in the striving of a person and can be classified into three
broad categories: Positive - negative aspirations, Immediate remote aspirations,
and Realistic - unrealistic aspirations.
Positive and Negative Aspirations: Negative aspiration centres on the goal of
avoiding failure while positive aspirations are oriented towards achieving success.
If a person's aspirations are positive, he will be satisfied and regard himself as a
success only if he improves his present status. If his aspirations are negative, they
will centre on maintaining his present status and avoid a downward slide on the
social scale.
Most people have positive aspirations because they derive greater
satisfaction and greater feelings of self- importance from achievement. Only when a
person has had a history of failures is he likely to be satisfied with negative
aspirations.
Level of aspiration: Level of aspiration has been found to influence the high
and low achievement of the students. Generally, it is assumed that students
possessing higher level of aspiration do better in the examinations. And those
possessing lower level aspiration perform low in academic achievement. Broadbent
(1958) conducted laboratory studies and found that the higher level of aspiration
was correlated strongly with deterioration in performance. Mohan (1976) also
found in his study that introverts who were high on level of aspiration showed better
performance in educational task. Wilson and Morrow (1962) studied the high
achievers and found that the high achievers were also high aspirants. He found that
bright school students who attain good marks in the examination possess higher
level of aspiration Uhlinger and Stephens (1960) studied the high and the low
achievers and observed higher level of aspiration is high achievers than in low
achievers. In a similar study, Jones (1962) found lower grade aspiration in poor
students.
But some investigators (Red; McCary and Johnson, 1962; Bovert, 1962)
have failed to obtain the positive correlation between high aspiration and high
achievement. Dowd (1952) compared 19 high achievers and 16 non-achievers of
high ability students and found no significant difference with respect to their level of
aspiration. Ries and others (1984) found that level of aspiration of the subject was
unrelated to the students' actual performance.
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Effects of Socio-econimic Status on Academic Aspiration among OBC High School Students
Socio-economic Factors and the High and the Low SES in School: Studies
had been conducted to identify the socio-familial characteristics of the high and low
SES in the school. The role of family, child parent relation, economic conditions of
the family, educational and occupational status of the family, social status and
subculture differences etc. have been identified as factors influencing the high and
the low achievement of the students.
The effects of socio-economics status on academic achievement are so
pronounced that almost all the studies on correlates of academic achievement cover
it. Though the results reported by different psychologists are controversial, socio-
economic status appears to correlate positively with academic achievement. Chopra
(1967) also reported positive correlation of socio-economic factors with academic
achievement. He reported that even when major intelligence was need constant, the
richer the socio-economic background, the lesser was the possibility of failure.
Davies (1953) pointed out that middle class parents who recognized education as a
means of upward social mobility induce higher motivation in their children to prove
better in the examination. To the contrary, the lower class parents ascribe less value
to education and hence their children are less motivated to do better in the
examination (Allan and others, 1966).
SES has also been found to be related to education. Erlic and others (1973)
surveyed the amount of education mothers had completed and its relation to
academic achievement and academic aspiration of the high school students. It was
found that high school students whose mothers had attended college were much
more likely to achieve bachelor's degree.
2. Objective: The aim of the present study is to examine the on the academic
aspiration of effect of socio-economic status OBC high school students.
Hypothesis: Hypothesis related to academic aspiration of OBC SESu and OBC
SESl school students groups.
1.(i). OBC SESu and OBC SESl students would differ significantly on realistic
long-range educational aspiration (RLE).
1.(ii). OBC SESu and OBC SESl students would differ significantly on Realistic
Short-range Educational Aspiration (RSE).
1.(iii) OBC SESu and OBC SESl students would differ significantly on Idealistic
Long-range Educational Aspiration (ILE).
1.(iv).OBC SESu and OBC SESl students would differ significantly on Idealistic
Short-range Educational Aspiration (ISE).
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Subhash Paswan
1.(v).OBC SESu and OBC SESl students would differ significantly on Total scores
on Level of Educational Aspiration (LEA).
Methodology
Sample: The study was conducted on 150 SESu and SESl OBC random sample of
high school students from different schools of Ghoshi, Jehanabad who served as
subjects. The students of the said schools were selected for data collection.
Tools:
The Personal Data Sheet: The PDS prepared by the instigator himself was used
to find out the demographical, personality and socio-psychological factors of the
respondents like name, age, sex, name of schools.
The Educational Aspiration Scale (EAS) developed by S.K. Saxena (1984)
was used to measure the educational aspiration of the students. The scale has been
developed on the concept and technique of Haller and Miller (1963) under Indian
conditions. This Educational Aspiration Scale is designed on the strength of the lists
of degrees, diploma, certificates, and other distinctive educational qualifications as
mentioned by different Indian Universities, Competitive examinations, Boards in
India.
Procedure: In order to obtain scores of Aspiration, the scores of faculty of SESu
OBC students' group and faculty of SESl OBC Students' group studying in schools
were administered to make preference on each two multiple choice items for
Realistic Long-range Educational Aspiration (RLE), Realistic Short-range
Educational Aspiration (RSE), Idealistic Long-range Educational Aspiration (ILE),
and Idealistic Short-range Educational Aspiration (ISE) were separately arranged
computed by suitable statistical i.e. measure (t test) and presented in different tables.
In this scale, the student could get a score range from '0' (Zero) to '18' (Eighteen) on
each two RLE, ILE, RSE and ISE scores which were separately calculated
Results
The data were subjected to statistical analyses using descriptive and inferential
statistics to examine the hypotheses proposed in the study. In order to verify the
hypothesis that the SESu and SESl OBC students' groups would differ significantly
with respect to their Educational Aspiration i.e., RLE RSE ILE ISE and LEA the
obtained scores on Educational Aspiration i.e., RLE RSE ILE ISE and LEA of SESu
and SESl OBC groups were arranged in frequency table. Thus the results obtained
are presented in two separate tables showing the comparative position of the two
groups on the aspiration scale.
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Table-1: Significance of differences between the mean scores of SESu and SESl
OBC students in their Academic Aspiration i.e., RLE, RSE, ILE, ISE and LEA:
Table 1 shows that the two groups differ significantly in the all the dimensions of
aspiration and table 2 shows that they also differ significantly in global aspiration.
Table 1.(ii) Significance of Mean difference between Mean scores of SESu and
SESl OBC on global academic aspiration (LEA) scale:
It is obvious from table 2 that two groups of students were also found to
differ significantly on the global scale of aspiration So the proposed hypothesis is
accepted. In other words, variations in SES exert differential effects on academic
aspiration of the students.
Discussion
The hypothesis was that the SESu and SESl OBC students' groups would differ
significantly with respect to their Educational Aspiration i.e., RLE RSE ILE ISE and
LEA. It is apparent from Table-1 that the two groups differed significantly on RLE
(t=3.47, df=298, p<0.01), RSE(t=2.80, df=148, p<0.01), ILE(t=2.08, df=148,
p<0.05), ISE(t=2.70, df=148, p<0.01) and LEA(t=2.55, df=148, p<0.05). The result
supports the hypothesis. It is obvious from result that both SESu and SESl groups
differ significantly in terms of their realistic long range educational aspiration
(RLE). However, the results are contrary to the findings reported by some previous
researchers (Empey, 1956; Harrison, 1968; Sahoo, 1960).
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Subhash Paswan
Table 2 shows the scores of the groups on the global scale. The total scores
obtained by a student on all the eight multiple choice items in the scale determine
their level of global educational aspiration. It was hypothesized that SESu and SESl
OBC students would differ significantly in their total scores on the level of
educational aspiration (LEA). It is obvious from table- that SESu and SESl OBC
students groups studying in school differ significantly on their global level of
educational aspiration (t =4.07, df =148, p<0.01).The result supports the hypothesis.
In most of the studies reported earlier in the review it has been seen that the
lower class students possess lower level of educational aspiration than the upper
class students (Sahoo, 1979; Dixit and Noorjani, 1981; Reissman, 1982; Pandey,
1973). The result confirms the hypothesis that there would be a significant
difference between SESu and SESl OBC students groups in terms of total levels of
educational aspiration. The trend of results shows a significant difference between
SESu and SESl OBC students studying in school on their RLE, RSE, ILE and ISE
aspiration.
Conclusion
The present study investigated educational aspiration and occupational
aspiration. The study was conducted on a random sample of 150 SESu and SESl
OBC school students of Ghoshi, Jehanabad town. The criterion of randomization
was followed by the students on the basis of those who came first were included in
the sample not on choosing the respondent on any ground which may influence the
result and merit of research. The students of high and low SES differed significantly
on their level of measured dimensions as well as on global scale of educational
aspiration,
Limitation: The limitation of the study is inclusion of limited number of participants
for investigation. It can provide very fruitful result if the present study is compared
with larger samples aspiration: educational and occupational aspiration of SESu and
SESl OBC students group.
Reference
Antonovsky, A. (1967): Aspiration, Class and Racial-ethnic membership. The Journal of
Negro Education, 36, 385-393.
Burchinal, Lee G.. "Differences in Educational and Occupational Aspirations of Farm,
Small-Town and City Boys", Rural Sociology. 1961, 26, 107-121.
Donald, W.B., "Socio-cultural Differences Among Three Areas in Kentucky as
Determinants of Educational and Occupational Aspirations and Expectations of
Rural Youth“, Dissertation Abstract International, Vo1.31,1971.
(104)
Grewal, F.S. (1975): Occupational Aspiration Scale, Agra Psychological Research Cell, Asia
4.
Guilford, J.P., Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education, New York: McGraw
Hill, 1963.
Haller, A.O. and Butterworth, C.E., “Peer Influence on Level of Occupational and
Educational Aspirations", Social Forces. 1960. 38, 289-295.
Holler, A.C. and Miller, I.W. (1963) The Occupational aspiration : theory, structure and
correlates. Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin : 288, Michigan State
University.
Jose, C.H., "Social Class and Educational, Occupational Aspiration: An Exploratory Study
in Two Regions of Mexico", Dissertation Abstracts International Vol. 31, 1971.
Saxena, S.K. and Srivastava, A.K. (1984): Manual for Educational Aspiration Scale, Agra
Psychological Research Cell, Agra-4.
Sewell, W.H.; Haller, A.O. Strans, M.A. (1967): Social status and educational and vocational
aspiration. Emer. Social. Rev. Vol. XXII, No. 1, pp. 67-73.
Sewel1, W.H. and Hauser, R.M., Education, Occupation and Earnings: Achievement in the
Early Career, New York: Academic Press, 1975.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 106-111
Depression among College Girls

Zeba Yasmin*
Abstracts
The study was conducted on a sample of 200 College Girls to examine the
causes of emotional problems. The hypotheses were that the large size and small
size, joint family and nuclear family, democratic and authoritarian PCR family,
FGO and PGO would differ significantly on depression. The hypotheses also
focused on whether the High Depression Groups (HDG) and Low Depression
Group (LDG) would differ significantly on negligence in satisfaction of basic needs.
The sample comprises 200 undergraduate girls selected random cum-purposefully
from different colleges of Gaya town. The PDS, Manifest Depression Inventory
(MDI), and Akhtar's PCR were administered to the girls students. The data were
primarily treated by t test. Further the Chi-square was computed. Significant means
differences between large size family(LSF) and small size Family, joint family
type(JFT) and nuclear family Type(NFT), democratic Family(DF) and
authoritarian family (AF ) were found, forbidden the girls for outing (FGO) and
permission for outing (PFO) groups differ significantly with respect to their mean
scores of depression, further a significant chi-square difference was found between
HDG and LDG. The results support the given hypotheses. The study is in agreement
with the findings of several other investigators. Implications of the study are
indicated for the well-being of girls coming from different backgrounds.
Key words: Depression, girls (undergraduate), PDS, PDI, PCR, LSF- SSF, JFT-
NFT, DF-AF, HDG-LDG forbidden to go outing- permission to go outing.
Depression is a type of mood disorder in which the individual feels worthless,
believes that things are not likely to get better, and behaves lethargically for a
prolonged period of time. All children feel depressed from time to time, but most get
over their despondent, down mood in a few hours or a few days. However, for some
children the negative mood is more serious and longer-lasting. When children show
depressive signs for two weeks or longer, they are likely experiencing depression.
Having a poor appetite and not being able to sleep well also can associate with
*Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Magadh University, Bodh-Gaya

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Zeba Yasmin
depression.
Typically, in most Western cultures, women are diagnosed with depression
twice as often as men. However, men are often more likely than women to die by
suicide. Depression is much more likely to appear in adolescence and has a much
higher incidence in girls than in boys (Culbertson, 1997). Girls tend to ruminate on
their depressed mood and amplify it, whereas boys tend to distract themselves from
the negative mood. Girls' self-images are often more negative than those of boys
during adolescence; and societal bias against female achievement might be involved
(Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001).
Psychotherapy is often a helpful treatment for depression. In psychotherapy, a
therapist helps a person to understand and solve problems which cause depression.
The therapist also helps the person learn skills for dealing with their depression.
Psychotherapy can help a person make changes in the way they think, in order to
help with life problems and understand what makes depression worse. The most
effective psychotherapy for depression is cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT).
This teaches a person to think in a more rational, positive, realistic manner.
Objective: The objective of study was to examine depression among girls .
Hypothesis:
(i).The girls of large size family would show significantly more depression than the
girls of small size family.
(ii).The girls of joint family would have more depression than girls from nuclear
family.
(iii).The subject coming from democratic/autocratic child rearing practices and the
subject belonging to authoritarian family CRP would differ significantly in
depression.
(iv).The societal belief system forbidding girls to go outing would produce more
depression than those who have permission for outing.
(v). Whether there would be significant difference between high depression and low
depression girls groups with respect to the negligence/avoidance in satisfaction of
basic needs (food, nutrition, and pocket money, etc,) by parents to girls, their
responses captioned to food, nutrition and pocket money were obtained from PDS
and chi-square was computed.
Methodology
Sample: The study was conducted on a random-cum-purposive sample of 200
college girls (undergraduate) from Gaya town.
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Tools:
(i). Personal data sheet (PDS): The PDS made by the present investigator
consisting of items on which the subject had to respond were sex: boys or girls, size
of family: coming from nuclear or joint family system, and types of family: small
size of family (1-3 members) or large size of family (4 and above members), societal
belief system and negligence/avoidance in satisfaction of Basic need etc. was used
on the sample.
(ii). Manifest Depression Inventory (MDI):The MDI developed by Jamuar,
(1986) was used for measuring depression among respondents. The test-retest
reliability of the inventory is .65 for male and .82 for female.
(iii). Parent- Child Relationship (PCR): Akhtar Parent-Child relationship scale
was used for measuring child rearing practice in terms of authoritarian and
democratic dimension levels.
Procedure- The tools as mentioned above were administered on the participants
and their consent was properly taken before their participation in the study. They
were asked to answer the items carefully and also told not to leave any item
unresponded.
The responses of the participant were converted into scores and subjected to
descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. Thus he results obtained are
presented in five different tables. The girls from large and small families, joint and
nuclear families, democratic and authoritarian families, and FGO and PFO groups
were found to differ significantly in depression. The girls from joint and nuclear
families also differed significantly in need satisfaction. The proposed hypotheses
are approved.
Table-1: Significance of difference between large family size and small family size
Table-1 shows that large size of family and small size of family differ
significantly in terms of scores of depression (t=2.943, df=198, p<.01).The result
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Zeba Yasmin
supports the hypothesis. The large size of family has more depression mean scores
(M=38.12) than small size of family (Mean=35.85).
In order to test the hypothesis that the girls of joint family would have more
depression than those of the nuclear family and the groups would differ
significantly, the groups were made on the basis of responses on such items of PDS.
The groups were compared and t was computed to examine the difference between
groups(table-2) below:
Table-: Significance of mean score difference between joint family and nuclear
family groups with respect to the scores of depression.
It is evident from table-2 that girls belonging to joint family and nuclear family
differ significantly with respect to their mean scores of Depression (t=2.685,
df=198, p<.01). The result supports the hypothesis. The joint family depicted more
mean depression scores (M=37.74) than nuclear family (M=35.68).
To test the hypothesis that the subject coming from democratic/autocratic family
and the subject belonging to authoritarian family child rearing practices would
differ significantly in terms their of Mean scores of depression, the data were
obtained from Akhtar's child rearing practices scale and two groups were formed.
Further their scores on the Mean scores of MDS were examined by computing t test
(table-3) below:
Table-3: Significance of mean differences between democratic/autocratic and
authoritarian child rearing practices groups with respect to their Means scores on
depression.
Table-3 result shows that the democratic/autocratic and authoritarian PCR

students groups differ significantly on their Means scores of depression (t=2.758,
df=198, p<.01). The result supports the hypothesis. The authoritarian PCR students
group has shown more Mean depression scores (M=37.92) while the democratic
group has less Mean depression scores (M=35.68).
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In order to test the hypothesis that the societal belief system forbidding to girls to
go outing would produce more depression than those who have permission for
outing and the groups would differ significantly, the responses of respondents on
PDS were derived and the groups were dichotomized as forbidding the girls for
outing (FGO) and permission for outing (PFO) and the groups were examined by
computing t with their Mean scores of depression (table-4) below:
Table-4: Significance of mean difference between FGO and PFO girls students
groups with respect to their scores of depression.
Table-4 shows that FGO and PFO girls groups differ significantly with
respect to their Mean scores of depression (t=2.854, d df=198, p.<01). The result
supports the hypothesis. The Mean depression scores of FGO group is higher
(M=37.98) than PFO group (M =35.69).
In order to test the hypothesis whether there would be significant difference
between high depression and low depression girls groups with respect to the
negligence/avoidance in satisfaction of basic needs (food, nutrition, pocket money,
etc,) by parents to girls, their responses captioned to food, nutrition and pocket
money, were obtained from PDS and chi-square was computed (table-5) below:
Table-5: Chi-square comparison between high depression and low depression girls
students groups with negligence/ avoidance in satisfaction of basic need: food,
nutrition and to pay pocket money.
The obtained result shows that the high depression and low depression groups
differ significantly with respect to their responses on negligence/ avoidance in
satisfaction of basic needs: food, nutrition, to pay pocket money, and on 'No'
column' (X2=10.4966, df=3, p<.05). The result supports the hypothesis. The high
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Zeba Yasmin
depression group has shown more frequency on food (41) pocket money (31),
pocket money (20) and less on 'No'(8) while the low depression group has less
frequency on 'food' (30), 'nutrition' (23), and more on 'pocket money' (24), and on
'No'(23) These findings extend empirical support to some of the previous findings.
(Culbertson,1997; Nolen-Hocksema,2001). According to Santrock (2006), studies
on depression among people in general and college population in particular are of
great importance to prepare programmes for their betterment and well-being.
Conclusion
All the hypotheses proposed in the study were approved as the groups
compared differed significantly in depression from different points of view. The
result showed significant mean differences between large family and small size of
family groups, joint family and nuclear family, democratic and authoritarian PCR
students, societal belief system forbidding to girls to go outing and those who have
permission for outing, and negligence/avoidance in satisfaction of basic need: food,
nutrition, and to pay pocket money. The results have significance in psychiatry,
psychopathology, counselling, positive and health psychology.
References
Akhtar. Parent-Child relationship scale
Backham, E.E. (2000). Depression. In A. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of Psychology.
Washington, DC, and New York: American Psychological Association
and Oxford University Press.
Culbertson, F.M. (1997). Depression and gender. American Psychologist, 52, 25-31.
Jamuar, A. (1 Culbertson, F.M. (1997). 1986): A study of some differential of high and low
depression among normal college students. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,
Patna University, Patna.
Nolen-Hocksema, S. (2001). Abnormal Psychology (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Santrock, J.W. (2006) (9th ed.). Educational Psychology, Tata MaGraw- Hill. Understanding
Depression and Effective Treatment" (2010). American Psychological
Association. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 112-118
Applicability of the figures of Bene-Anthony

Family Relations Test in Indian Children
Jay Kumar Ranjan*, Masroor Jahan** & Amool R. Singh***
Abstract
Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test (BAFRT) is one of the projective tests
which assesses children's family relations. Various western studies have
demonstrated the clinical utility of this test with different age and clinical groups.
However, there is a dearth of studies to assess the applicability of this test in the
Indian context particularly among children. The aim of the present study was to
assess applicability of the Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test in Indian setting.
Based on random sampling technique, 30 male and 30 female children were selected
from different schools of Ranchi and nearby places. Picture recognition part of
Bene-Anthony Family Relation Test was administered to all participants. The
obtained responses were statistically analyzed and the results revealed that the
Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test has poor applicability value for Indian
children. Indian children show poor level of identification with images of the
BAFRT except Nobody Figure.
Key Words: Applicability, Bene-Anthony Family Relation Test, Indian Children
Projective methods of assessment consist of a set of techniques that are
characterized by stimuli such as pictures, inkblots, and incomplete sentences with
varying degrees of structural ambivalence to elicit response that reflect a person's
thought, associations, percepts, feelings, needs, and other relatively covert
processes (Hilsenroth, 2004). The term projective is the process of thrusting out, or
externalizing one's subconscious associations or subjective experiences when
assigning meaning to stimulus stimuli (Frank,1939). The goal of this assessment
process is to interpret an individual's subjective or ideographic data in order to
*Jay Kumar Ranjan, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi;
**Masroor Jahan, Additional Professor;
***Amool Ranjan Singh, Professor, Department of Clinical Psychology, Ranchi Institute of Neuro-Psychiatry &
Allied Sciences (RINPAS), Kanke, Ranchi-834006 : Correspondence to first author
provide a descriptive profile of emotional problems, and its pathology. Although the
underlying premise of projective method was initially linked to psychoanalytic
theory (McAdams, 2001; Teglasi, 2001; Wiggins, 2003) recent researches question
the psychometric standing and cross-cultural validity of projective tests (Lilienfeld,
et al. 2000). Others argue in favour of their clinical utility (Karon, 2000; Meyer and
Archer, 2001; Woike and McAdams, 2001). The lack of consensus and clarity on the
applicability of projective techniques is even more salient regarding persons from
culturally diverse background and highlights the need to explore and decipher the
critical multicultural issues involved in projective methods of assessment (Dana,
2005; Kohn, et al. 2006).
Dana (2005) has proposed a framework for cross-cultural research that
directs attention to the cultural relevance of pictorial stimuli; development of local
norms that account for educational level, socioeconomic status, and acculturation;
establishment and validation of culturally sensitive criteria along universal and
cultural specific dimensions; use of local norms or culturally sensitive test
adaptations; the development and validation of consensual objective scoring
systems.
The Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test (BAFRT) is a projective test that
assesses the child's perception of family relations. Eva Bene, a psychologist, and
James Anthony, a psychiatrist, first published the test at the Institute of Psychiatry,
London in 1957 (Bene & Anthony, 1957). It has since been revised (Bene, 1978) and
reprinted (Bene, 1985). The BAFRT was developed at a time of two converging
philosophies in child psychiatry and psychology. One was the use of this projective
technique in the assessment of children's emotional perception and interpretation of
the world. The other was a growing recognition of the need to view the child, who
had been brought to the clinic as the identified patient, in the context of the family so
that the problem may not lie solely in the child.
There have been numerous researches conducted in the area of clinical
utilities of the Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test, but there is dearth of Indian
researches in concern of cultural applicability of this test. So, the aim of the present
study was to assess the applicability of the Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test in
Indian setting.
Method
Participants and Procedure : Based on Purposive Sampling technique (60
children (30 Boys, 30 Girls) age range of 8 to 12 yrs were selected from different
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Applicability of the figures of Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test in Indian Children
schools of Ranchi (India) and nearby places. Children with a history of mental
illness, organic mental disorder, head injury and other neurological disorders were
excluded. Only those children were included in the present study who volunteered
themselves. It was also emphasized that the test was not being used to find out
illness, and that they were participating in a research study to determine how
different people responded to the test.
The socio-demographic characteristic of samples is presented in Table 1. It
is evident from the Table that fifty percent (50%) children were male and 50% were
female. Sixty percent (60%) children were from age range of less than 10 yrs and
40% children were in the age range of above than 10 yrs. Sixty (60%) students
belonged to low socio-economic status and 40% were from middle and upper socio-
economic status. Majority of children (46.6%) were from sub-urban areas of
Ranchi, 16.6% children were from urban area of Ranchi, and 36.6% were from rural
area of nearby places of Ranchi. Most of the children (83.3%) were Hindus, 13.3%
were Christians and 3.4% were Muslims.
Table-1: Socio-demographic Characteristics of the Sample
Tools: The following tools have been used in the study:

Socio-demographic Data sheet: The Socio-demographic data sheet was custom
made, which contained the socio-demographic information of the subjects. The
Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test (Bene & Anthony, 1978):
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The Family Relations Test was initially published by psychologist Eva

Bene and psychiatrist James Anthony in 1957. It is an objective device for the
exploration of the child's emotional relations as they are directly experienced by the
child. The test material of this test was designed to give a concrete representation of
the child's family. It consists of 20 figures representing people of various ages,
shapes, and sizes, sufficiently stereotyped to stand for any child's family. They range
from father, mother to a premature baby, and from these the child is able to create his
own significant circle. From these the children are instructed to choose a figure for
every member of their family. In addition to the family representatives, another
important figure is incorporated in the test. The figure stands for 'Nobody' and serves
to accommodate those items that are not felt to apply to anyone in the family.
Results
The obtained responses of children on The Bene-Anthony Family Relations
Test were scored and analyzed by using percentage and phi (Φ) coefficient. The
findings have been summarized in Table 2 and 3.
Table2: Indian children's Level of Identification with Pictures of the Bene-Anthony

Family Relations Test
Table 2 that shows the Indian children's level of identification as a father, mother,
self, siblings and no-body with the pictures of Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test.
Majority of the children (86.7%) were not able to identify themselves as a mother
with mother figures of BAFRT. As a father figure, seventy three percent (73%)
children were not able to identify themselves with father's images of BAFRT.
Majority of children (70%) were able to identify themselves with images for self.
Fifty-six percent (56.6%) children were able to relate themselves with pictures for
siblings. All of them were able to identify with picture for No-body figure.
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Table 3: Socio-demographic correlates of children's Level of Identification with

Pictures of the Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test
(* significant at 0.05level, ** significant at 0.01 level)

Table 3 shows socio-demographic correlates of children's level of
identification with different pictures of the Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test.
There was significant negative correlation found between age and self identification
with images (r= - 0.505, p<0.01). It means, as children's age grows, they were not
able to identify themselves with pictures related to self. There was no significant
correlation found between gender, education and religion variables, and children's
level of identification with mother, father, self, and siblings images. Socioeconomic
status of children were significantly correlated with level of identification with
mother images (r=0.506, p<0.01), father images (r=0.482, p<0.05), and self images
(r=0.429, p<0.05). It means, children who belonged to low and lower middle socio-
economic status was not able to identify with above mentioned figures. Children
from rural and suburban areas were also not able to identify themselves with mother
figures (r=0.429, p<0.05) and father figures. (r=0.525, p<0.01).
Discussion
Present study assesses the applicative value of The Bene-Anthony Family
Relations Test in Indian setting. In the western literature it has been demonstrated
the construct of this test with children's interpersonal view about the family
members (Parkin, 2001). A number of early studies have also demonstrated the
clinical utility of this test with different age and clinical groups (Frost, 1969;
Lockwood & Frost, 1973; Rosen & Brigham, 1984).
In the present research investigation, we have found that applicability of
this test for Indian children is poor, particularly with figural identification part.
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Indian children have not been able to identify themselves with pictures of mother,
father, self and siblings. Poor level of identification occurs due to cultural
inappropriateness of pictures (i.e. dresses, body built, body language etc. shown in
characters). In a recent critical evaluation of projective test, Dana (2005) has also
given emphasis on cross-cultural validation of projective test, which comprises
attention to the cultural relevance of pictorial stimuli. Emphases on cultural
adaptation of pictorial stimuli have also given in Indian adaptation of Thematic
Apperception Test (Choudhary, 1960).
Impact of age, socio-economic status, and rural-urban differences of
children have been found on children's level of identification with pictures. The
findings of present study are similar to that of Cramer (2003), Dana (2005), and
Kohn, et al. (2006) who have also given emphasis on the relevance of socio-cultural
context of pictorial stimuli for enhancing subject's level of identification with
pictures as well as enhancing level of projection.
Conclusion
The findings of the present study clearly demonstrated that The Bene-
Anthony Family Relations Test has poor applicability value for Indian children.
Children show poor level of identification with images of BAFRT. It is advisable
that the pictures of The Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test should be developed in
Indian context (body built, dressing sense, etc.) and own norm for the same. The new
test needs to be administered on a larger sample of data taking into account various
age groups and socio-economic strata. It also requires to be revalidated employing
various validation procedures including understanding of its factor structure.
References:
Bene, E. (1978). Manual for the Family Relations Test (2nd ed.). Slough: National
Foundation for Educational Research on England and Wales.
Bene, E. (1985). Manual for the Family Relations Test (2nd ed., reprinted with additions).
Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research in England and Wales.
Bene, E., & Anthony, E. J. (1957). Manual for the Family Relations Test. Slough: National
Foundation for Educational Research in England and Wales.
Choudhary, U. (1960). Indian Adaptation of TAT. New Delhi: Manasayan.
Cramer, P. (2004). Storytelling, narrative, and the Thematic Apperception Test. New York:
Guilford Press.
Dana, R. H. (2005). Multicultural assessment: Principles, applications, and examples.
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
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Frank, L. K. (1939). Projective methods for the study of personality. Journal of Psychology,
8, 389413.
Frost, B. P. (1969). The Family Relations Test: a normative study. J. Proj. Techniques and
Personality Assessment, 33, 409-413.
Hilsenroth, M. J. (2004). Projective assessment of personality and psychopathology: An
overview. In M. J. Hilsenrith & D. L. Segal (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of
psychological assessment (vol. 2, pp. 356-371). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Karon, B. P. (2000). The clinical interpretation of the Thematic Apperception Test,
Rorschach, and other clinical data: A re-examination of statistical versus clinical
prediction. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 31, 230-233.
Kohn, S. W., Conti, D., & Esquivel, G. B. (2006). Personality and behavioural assessment:
Considerations for culturally and linguistically diverse individuals. In G. B.
Esquivel, E. C. Lopez, & S. C. Nahari (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural school
psychology: Interdisciplinary perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Lilienfeld, S. O., Wood, J.M., & Garb, H. N. (2000). The scientific status of projective
techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 1, 27-66.
Lockwood, B., & Frost, B. P. (1973). Studies of Family Relations Test patterns: II. Most
mentioned family members and inter-sibling involvement. Social Behaviour and
Personality, 1, 137-143.
McAdams, D. P. (2001). The Person: An Integrated Introduction to Personality Psychology.
(3rd Ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt College Publishing.
Meyer, G. J., & Archer, R. P. (2001). The hard science of Rorschach research: what do we
know and where do we go? Psychological Assessment, 13, 486-502.
Parkin, A. (2001). The Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test revisited: Directions in the
assessment of children's perceptions of family relations, British Journal of Medical
Psychology, 74, 323-349.
Rosen, A. C., & Brigham, S. L. (1984), Sex differences in affective response on the Bene-
Anthony Test. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48(5), 520-524.
Teglasi, H. (2001). Essentials of TAT and other storytelling techniques assessment. New
York: Wiley.
Wiggins, J. S. (2003). Paradigms of personality assessment. New York: Guilford Press.
Woike, B. A., & McAdams, D. P. (2001). TAT bases personality measures have considerable
validity. American Psychological Society Observer, 14 (5), 10.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 119-127
Family Therapy in India:

Benefits and Barriers
Vibha Yadava*, Purnima Awasthi**, & Ravi, P. Pandey***
Abstract
Family is like a human body where every part is affected by the other. Being
the centerpiece in the Indian society, it feels great to have a family and at times a
huge challenge. The family members, youth, couple, adults, all have some good and
bad experiences in a family. But the personal and relational difficulties lead to
opportunities for developing a wide variety of psychological problems like mental
and physical illness, family conflicts, cultural adjustments, ageing, eating disorder,
divorce, trauma thereby creating demands for family therapy. Thus, the current
review attempts to highlight the concept of family therapy. The present paper also
focus on goals and need of family therapy with its major emphasis on how family
therapy helps in supporting and better understanding each other's view, enabling
individuals to explore, express and experience emotions, working on strengthening
relationships. Therefore, the later section of the review focuses on the benefits of
family therapy from children to adults and couple to families. However, the roots of
family therapy are about half a century old, yet the concept and practice has not
been widely accepted especially in a culturally and religiously diverse country like
India. There are potential barriers and cultural issues in providing the services.
Thus, there is a strong call for involvement of family in providing therapies and
mental health services in order to get solutions beyond any constraints.
Keywords: Adults; Family; Therapy; Relationships; Cultural adjustments.
India is the largest democracy and oldest civilization in the world. It is a land
of extremely diverse cultures, languages, communities, education and family
*Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, F.S.S., B.H.U., Varanasi, E mail Id: vibhammv@gmail.com
**Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, F.S.S., B.H.U., Varanasi, Email Id: awasthip9@gmail.com
***Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
Email: rppandeypsy@gmail.com
systems, customs and rituals (Mullatti, 1995). Family has always played an
extremely vital role in the development of an individual. It is valued and honored
differently in different countries and cultures. It is impossible to talk about family
therapy development without family. In eastern societies, individual rather than
family is highly prized. Family provides a backbone for the development, support,
guidance of its members. Since, India is a land of paradox therefore there is no single
approach of viewing family system (Kit, 2003). The difference in social and cultural
aspects and the unique nature of family interrelations makes it difficult to parallel
with the West in the development of family therapy (Prabhu, 1988).
Characteristics of Indian family
The term family has been derived from the Latin word 'familia' that is
referred to a group of people or individuals living together during their lifetime and
share social, biological and psychological relationships (Sethi, 1989). Different
people have different ideas about the concept and meaning of family. So 'family' is
used to describe any group of people who care about each other and call themselves
a family. Apart from parents and children family also involve whoever is important
such as grandparents, brothers and sisters, uncles and aunts, cousins, friends, and
other professionals (Kit, 2003)
The Indian families and its members share almost everything and
comprised of variety of individuals. The structure of the family is based on the
hierarchy of the gender preference. The major emphasis is on the conformity based
on the sacrifices of pursuits and autonomy. The Indian families dwelling in rural and
urban areas also face complex problems arising not only from urbanization and
migration but also from poverty, natural disasters, crime and other modern day
challenges. These challenges put families and family system at risk leading to
uncertain future (Bharat, 1994).
The growing phenomenon of economic growth and distribution of power
and women in workforce generally lead to the gradual shift from traditional joint
family system to nuclear family system. Some Indian studies report increased
incidence of mental disorders in nuclear family (Kit, 2003).
The ongoing brain drain in younger population, emigration to abroad for
more lubricated jobs, tension of pursuing personal goals, increasing old age homes
has led to wide range of family problems as well as physical and psychological
disturbances in the family. The institution of marriage holds a very important
position in Indian society and is mostly arranged by the family.
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Family Therapy in India: Benefits and Barriers
Family therapy
Family therapy is a form of therapy that is designed to address the problems
that influence the psychological as well as mental health of family and its members.
It seeks to reduce conflicts and stress between the members of the family. Sholevar
(2003) defines family therapy as any use of a family-focused intervention to bring
out behavioral and/or attitudinal changes in one or more family members”. It is the
branch that deals with the family and considered to be the most direct branch of
psychotherapy.
Family therapy is often used as a complementary treatment approach for
many physical and mental health conditions. It is different from other
psychotherapies in its perspective and not on how many members are present during
the session. Since the problems are viewed as systems that needs regulation it is
often referred to as strength based treatment”.Family therapy can be beneficial when
individuals are unable to cope with their problems and feel stuck(Association for
Family Therapy & Systematic Practice, 2017).
The repeating pattern of harmful behavior repeating leads to
indecisiveness. It aims at meeting the demands and the needs of all of the family
members as when each member function and do well, the family also functions
better as a whole. Other goals of family therapy include enhancement and
improvement of emotional support, improvement in family functioning, problem
solving and coping skills development in various dilemmas of life.
The beliefs, experiences and culture of each individual are respected by the
therapist. In (King, 2017). India the emphasis is on the collectivism and not on
individualism as in western countries. Thus, it promotes cooperation and
interdependence and forming family as the center point of social structure. The
Indian and Asian families are therefore, far more involved in caring of its members.
People are comparatively more involved with the patient and capable of
participation in treatment services
Need for family therapy
Family is the key unit in the overall development of an individual, be it a
child, adolescents, or young adults. Many research bodies have emphasized on the
functions of family in providing sustained and early impact during the formative
years of child. (Latimer, 2001; Henggeler 1989; Dishion& Loeber, 1983; Loeber
&StouthamerLoeber 1986; Barnes, Dintcheff, Farrell, Hoffman & Welte, 2006;
Haynie & Knoester, 2005). Along with its role of principal social unit it also
provides basic emotional support, basic physical needs, learning opportunities, and
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moral guidance. When the family fails to fulfill these responsibilities, the children
typically suffer (Kessler et al. 2010; Kumpfer &Alvarado, 1997). It is of critical
importance for children, adolescents, youth and adults.
The problems and dysfunction in the family like family disruption,
isolation, poor discipline and supervision, poor socialization, violence in family
opens the door to engage in problem behavior. For example, in children living in
family with marital discord are more likely to display problems in behavior (Wells
&Rankin, 1991). Research suggests that poor management practices and
inconsistent discipline predicts drug and substance use and delinquency in their later
life (Barnes et al. 2006; Capaldi &Patterson 1996; Hawkins, Arthur, & Catalano,
1995).
The improvement and reduction in family functioning should in turn reduce
problem behaviors in children and adolescents from dysfunctional families
(Kumpfer &Alvarado, 2003). Today, there are several major categories of
interventions designed to strengthen family functioning and thus prevent future
problem behaviors. These family-strengthening interventions include family skills
training, family education, family therapy, family services, and family preservation
programs. Family therapy also known as psychotherapy also known as family
therapy can help those in close relationships to better understand and support each
other. It enables family members to express and explore difficult thoughts and
emotions safely, understand each other's experiences and views, appreciate each
other's needs, build on family strengths, and work together to make useful changes
in their relationships and their lives.
Effectiveness of family therapy
Family therapy is affective in problems related to family as well as the
individual such as divorce, alcohol and drug addiction or any other behavioral
problems. It is often used in conjunction with treating an individual's problem that is
affecting the entire family. The family is the unit of treatment and the individual is
regarded as a part of the sub- systems are interconnected (Carson, Jain & Ramirez,
2009). Family therapy addresses solely on addressing individual problems and
recognizes that as a system, individual problems affect other members of the family.
Therefore, it is expected that therapy should include all members in therapy.
Some research studies focus on the effectiveness of family therapy in wide
range of problems. The research undertaken by Thompson et al. (2011) on family
therapy and examined experiential activities offered to parents and adolescents with
high- risk adolescents provided with usual family therapy. The follow-up interviews
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indicated that the activities were helpful and increased their motivation to continue
the therapy.
Findings by Byrne, Carr and Clark (2004) reviewed studies on short term
behavioral couples therapy (BCT) and longer-term emotionally-focused therapy
(EFT). Both the therapies were directed towards couples and the outcomes indicated
that EFT was better that BCT.Marital and family therapy (MFT) and BCT are more
effective than individual treatment for improving relationship functions and
increasing self- discipline. BCT form of family therapy also appears to be effective
with male alcoholics with comorbid with post-traumatic stress disorder related to
combat, women, gay and lesbian alcoholics (O'Farrell & Clements, 2011).
Carter (2011) undertook a single case study research with a young man with
schizophrenia and his family. Carter reported significant change in the individual
from pre-test to post-test. Family therapy is also effective in both individual and
family members of adolescents with drug and alcohol use with in Hong Kong. The
social and psychological functioning of both adolescents and their family members
improved (Sim, 2007).
Another study highlighting the effectiveness included families of
individuals recovering from traumatic brain injury (aged 5 to 16 years) in order to
address the issues of brain injury faced by family members. This study results
indicated that those individuals recovering from traumatic brain injury using the
family problem solving with families showed positive results. There was significant
reduction in anxiety and depression as well as behavior problems (Gau,Rohde, Stice
& Wade, 2007).
The study concluded by various therapists found narrative therapy is
helpful in clients with reducing the presenting problem, but that further, longitudinal
research, is required (Meakes, O'Connor, Pickering, & Schuman 2004).
Issues in practicing family therapy in India
The consideration of principles, points and potential barrier may lead to
wider acceptance of family therapy in mental health services India, as well as
descents of other nations. It is important to identify these factors with some common
threads and themes running through the culture at large in Indian population (Carson
&Chowdhury 2000; Das 2007; Chisholm, D., James, Kumar, Murthy, Mubbahsar,
Sekar & Saeed, 2002; Mittal & Hardy 2005; Natrajan &Thomas 2002; Prabhu 2003;
Raney &Cinarbas 2005; & Natrajan, Rastogi& Thomas, 2005).
There are a number of reasons why family therapy and counseling services
are deemed of lesser significance and perceived as negative as other health-related
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issues and areas and issues in India. The stigma, blame and social embarrassment, is
related to serious mental, relational and emotional illness and other common
problems, and those who seek such treatment are basically flawed. The mental
health clinics and hospitals are poorly run and economically not very well
supported. Therefore, many health problems have negative stereotype. People fail to
understand that stress is the most common cause rather than by other factors, such as
black magic or karma, as well as the bias among professionals. Thus,extremely low
level of awareness in the community and even healthcare providers cause hindrance
in practicing family therapy. Mostfatal and common belief among Indians is
that,counseling and therapies are only meant for those with severe mental disorders
(Kashyap, 2009).
There are various kinds of issues that counselors and therapists that need to
take into account when dealing with Indian clients. Since, interdependence,
connection and shared responsibility are highly valued and deviations from norms
are often considered as disorders of relationships. In India the role of counselor or
going for family therapy is considered as least priority. It is expected that all the
problems would be provided with solutions and answers rather than involving the
process of problem solving and accepting the fact that the healing is based on their
attitude.
Another factor is experience and age as younger therapist and counselors
are considered as inefficient especially in case of older and adults of middle age.
Also, the younger educated people find it difficult to adopt the values and lifestyles
of the traditional family and society. This creates an interrelation gap between the
two generations, and trouble in participating as a family during the therapy process
(Carson, Jain &Ramirez, 2009)
The marriage system in India is believed to be a union of two families and a
firm contract. But when it comes to seeking assistance or move out of the marriage
especially for women, the difficulties resonate in the entire family leading to
disruptions and turmoil. The option of family or couple therapy is rarely opted.
The assistance folk healers, elders, advisors is sought more likely to be
sought before consulting mental health professional.Thus, any kind of treatment is
probably not much productive and prevalent beliefs remain unchanged.
Conclusion
By considering the fact that no family is perfect, problems are
manifestedeven in families with healthiest relations leading to frustration, painful
interaction and challengesamong family members. Mental health services are
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scanty, therefore families form an essential support system for the management of
the problem and various situations.But, the available resources also at times fail to
educate and train the members about the disorder or illness and the medication, apart
from the information regarding therapy.
In recent years, the therapists, psychologists and counselors, have been trained in
India towork on the approach of family therapy but a broader array of perspectives is
desperately needed (experiential, systemic, play therapy, attachment-based
approaches,emotion-based therapies, etc.), along with training in crisis intervention
and trauma and adequate supervision and opportunities for consultations. There is a
need of practicing and making family therapy a phenomenon that can be easily opted
by all, especially in various parts of Indian cities as only a few centers exists in South
India.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 128-138
Communication Behaviour and Political

Awareness of Panchayati Raj Leaders
Bhanu Shankar*
Abstract
This study was carried out in the remote area of Chadauli district. Due to
distant location and typical geographical condition, the block is still
underdeveloped in many facets. There is very limited choice of communication
means as they are far off from the developed district of Varanasi due to lack of means
of transportation. In the study, the grassroots level leaders were selected as
respondents, in which, out of 50 respondents, 32 were males and 18 were female
leaders. Female leaders were elected after the passing of the 73rd Constitution
Amendment Act, which called for 33% reservation for women. Communication
behavior was examined in terms of mass media exposure and information sources
used by leaders for obtaining knowledge and information, while political awareness
was assessed by their knowledge regarding elected representatives at local, state
and national level. A set of questions were asked, data and other relevant
information were scored, tabulated and analyzed using frequencies, percentages,
chi-square, t and z-tests. It was found that mass-media (radio, newspapers and
television) has significantly enhanced the knowledge level of leaders.
Keywords: Communication behaviour,
Mass media is considered as a potential agency for the development of
people and society, primarily because their reach is very wide. Television Radio has
the power to overcome the literacy barrier and hence their interaction with illiterate
may be higher. Mass media is a vital agent in accelerating the participation of leaders
(especially women) in political process. They can project leader's issue, portray
their struggle and experiences and generate values that encourage their participation
in rural development (Rajshekharan K. 1966). An efficient as well effective
communication would create congenial environment to stimulate discussion about
their powers and rights. However, the identification and utilisation of effective
sources and channels of communication are the essential prerequisite for the same.
*Associate Prof. National P.G.College, Lucknow.

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Bhanu Shankar
Objectives-In this context, the investigation was planned with the following
objectives.
1) To examine the communication behaviour of Panchayati Raj leader.
2) To identify the political awareness of Panchayati Raj leaders regarding elected
political representatives at local, state and national levels.
3) To find out the relationship between communication behaviour and political
awareness of leaders.
Method
The study was conducted in the most backward and remote area of
Chandauli district i.e. Naugarh block, where communication means were very
limited. All the 27 gram pradhans and 23 BDC members of the block were selected
for the study. Out of 50 respondents, 32 were male leaders and 18 were female. All
respondents were personally interviewed with the help of a structured interview
schedule in three consecutive weekly meetings held at block head quarter or
contacting them at their residence.
Communication behaviour has been operationalised as mass-media
exposure and information source used by leaders for obtaining knowledge and
information. Political awareness refers to awareness of people regarding the means
of elected representatives at village, block, district and national level. A set of
questions were developed and information were scored, data were tabulated and
analysed using frequencies, percentages, and chi-square, t and z tests.
Table -1: Distribution of respondents according to their exposure Different media.
S.No. Sources Sex Statistical
Male Female Total Significance
1 Family 14 (43.75) 15 (83.33) 29 (58.00) Z = 3.189,
Members P < 0.001
2 Neighbour 10 (31.25) 7 (38.89) 29 (58.00) Z = 0.541,
P < 0.05,NS
3 Relatives 25 (78.12) 17 (94.44) 17 (34.00)
and Friends
4 Radio 32 (100.00) 13 (72.22) 42 (84.00) Z = 5.216,
P < 0.001**
5 News Paper 22 (68.75) 2 (11.11) 24 (48.00) Z = 5.216,
& Magazine P < 0.001**
6 Others 14 (43.75) 7 (38.89) 21 (42.00) Z = 3.216,
P < 0.001***
(Figures in parentheses shows percentage)

**and *** significant at 0.01 level of probability.
#multiple responses were allowed.
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Communication Behaviour and Political Awareness of Panchayati Raj Leaders
As it is clear from the table-1, that majority (90%) of the leaders got
information through radio, followed by relatives and friends ((84%). Due to lack of
electricity in such a remote area of Chandauli district, Radio has become the
cheapest readily available and most preferred source of information and
entertainment. The study confirms the findings of Natraj and Channe gowda (1985)
and Singh (1993) who reported the radio as the most powerful channel of
communication. The role of family members, relatives and friends was found
statistically similar for both the sexes of leaders ( P >0.05 NS).
Table -2 : Distribution of leaders according to their Radio listening behaviour.
S.No. Details Sex Total Statistical
Male Female Significance
1 Place of
listening
a) Home 15 (46.88) 10 (55.56) 45 (90.00) ÄÄ?? = 3.380
b) Neighbourhood 7 (21.88) 3 (16.67) df = 1
c) Village/Market 10 (31.24) – P < 0.05, NS
2 Time spent 10 (31.25) 3 (23.08) 12 (26.67) t = 0.12
<1 Hr. 9 (28.12) 10 (76.92) 27 (60.00) P > 0.05,NS
1-2 Hrs. 17 (53.12) -- 6 (13.33)
> 2 Hrs. 6 (18.75)
3 Types of news
a) listen #
Global 21 (65.62) 10 (76.92) 31 (68.89)
economic and
Social news.
b) Sports 18 (56.25) -- 18 (40.00)
c) Village/Block 10 (56.25) 4 (30.77) 14 (31.11)
Related news.
d) Political news 26 (81.25) 11 (84.62) 27 (60.00)
e) Entertainment 21 (65.62) 10 (76.92) 31 (68.89)
4. Persons with
whom the news
was discussed
#
a) Family 3 (9.38) 7 (53.85) 10 (22.22) Z = 3.013,
(Figure in parentheses indicate percentage)

NS Non-Significant
** And *** significant at 0.01 and 0.001 level of probability.
# the added percentage is more than 100, since multiple responses were allowed.
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Bhanu Shankar
It was found that all the male leaders used to listen radio, against of their
female counterparts. The reason behind less interest of female leaders towards radio
listening might be due to their involvement in household and farm related activities.
Neither they could spare much time to listen radio nor had an opportunity to listen it
at village or market as compared to male leaders. Time spent on radio listening was
statistically similar for both the sexes ( t = 0.812, P>0.05, NS). Regarding type of
news listen by leaders, majority of the leaders (68.89%) preferred to listen
entertainment programmes, followed by political news (60%). Discussion of news
items with family members was more common in female leaders while male used to
discuss the news items with their friends and colleagues (Table-2).
Table -3: Distribution of leaders according to their news-paper reading behaviour.
Description SEX Total
Male
Female
1 Place of reading #
a) Own house 10 (45.45) 2 (100.0) 12 (50.00)
b) Any shop in the market 20 (90.91) -- 20 (83.33)
Neighbour-hood
c) 8 (36.36) 2 (100.0) 10 (41.67)
2. Time spent
a) < 1 hr 7 (31.82) 1 (50.00) 8 (33.33)
b) 1-2 hr 11 (50.00) 1 (50.00) 12 (50.00)
c) > 2 hr 4 (18.18) -- 4 (16.67)
3. Preferred news items in

the news paper #
a) 12 (54.55) 2 (100.0) 14 (58.33)

Village/Block
development
b) Murder/ Accident 8 (36.36) -- 8 (33.33)
c) Sports 8 (36.36) -- 8 (33.33)
d) National/State position 20 (90.51) 2 (100.0) 22 (90.67)
4. Persons with whom news

was discussed #
Family members
a) 10 (45.45) 2 (100.0) 22 (90.67)
Neighbour-hood
b) 5 (22.73) 2 (100.0) 7 (29.17)
Figure in parentheses indicate percentage

# Multiple responses were obtained.
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Reading newspaper was more common in male leaders than female leaders
(Table-3). Because most of the women were illiterate in the area, it was also found
that male leaders used to read newspapers both at home as well as at any shop in the
market where as female leaders preferred to read it in their own houses or
neighbourhood. The most likely news items in the news paper was related to
national or state politics and both sex leaders discussed the news items with their
friends and colleagues.
Table-4: Distribution of respondents according to their television viewing
behaviour.
S.No. Description SEX Total
Male
Female
1 Presence of TV in house #
Vewing of TV # 5 (15.62) 2 (11.11) 7 (14.00)
2. Time spent on TV # 5 (15.62) 2 (100.00) 7 (100.00)
3. < 1 hr
a) 1-2 hrs - - -
b) > 2 hrs 1 (20.00) 1 (50.00) 2 (28.57)
c) 4 (80.00) 1 (50.00)
5 (71.43)
4. Preferred news items#
a) Agriculture related 5 (100.00) 1 (50.00) 6 (85.71)
b) Entertainment serials 4 (80.00) 1 (50.00) 5 (71.43)
c) News 5 (100.00) 1 (50.00)1 1 6 (85.71)

(50.00)
d) Religious 4 (20.00) 5 (71.43)
5. Personnel of discussion
2 (100.00)
Family members 5 (100.00) 7 (100.00)
1 (50.00)
a) Neighbours 2 (40.00) 3 (42.86)
2 (100.00)
b) Colleagues 5 (100.00) 7 (100.00)
(Figure in parantheses shows percentage)

# Percentages was calculated on the basis of having T.V. set in the house
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Bhanu Shankar
Table-4 shows that only (14%) panchayat leaders had TV set in thier houses
and means + SD time of viewing TV. was assessed to be 2.21 + 0.49 hrs. Majority of
the leaders (85.71%) who had T.V. in their houses used to watch agriculture
programs and news items, following the entertainment serials. It is a good sign of
leaders to choose religious, political and rural based programs, which would enable
them to play an effective role in their political field. Regarding discussion of viewed
objects with others, all leaders used to discuss it with their family members, friends
and colleagues
Table-5: Distribution of respondents according to political awareness
regarding selected representative's name.
S.No. Name of elected Gender Total Statistical
Representative Male Female Significance
1. MP. 28 (87.50) 8 (44.44) 36 (72.00) Z = 3.290,
P < 0.01**
2. M.L.A. 32 (100.00) 12 (66.67) 45 (90.00) Z = 3.000,
P < 0.01, **
3. Block Pramukh 30 (93.75) 12 (66.67) 42 (84.00) Z = 2.274,
P < 0.05*
4. Chief minister 32 (100.00) 10 (55.56) 42 (84.00) Z = 3.795,
P >
0.001***
5. President of 24 (75.00) 6 (33.33) 30 (60.00)
India 3.089,
P < 0.01
(Figure in parentheses shows percentage), *, ** and *** significant at 0.02, 0.01 and 0.001 level of probability.
Table - 5 depicts that majority of leaders (88.00%) were aware with the names of
their MLA followed by block pramukh and chief minister (84%). The political
knowledge of male leaders was found significantly higher than female leaders.
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Table -6 : Radio listening, News paper reading, T.V. viewing behaviour and
political Awareness of leaders
(Figures in parentheses shows percentage)

***and(***significant at0.02, 0.01 and 0.001 level of probability.
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Bhanu Shankar
It s clear from the table-6 that majority of the radio-listeners all the TV
viewers and all the leaders who read news-paper had the knowledge of various
elected representatives. Only (40.00%) of non-listeners of radio had knowledge of
these elected representatives and majority of the panchayat leaders who were not
reading news-paper had no knowledge of M.P. (54.85%) and president of India
(76.92%). Lack of interest and knowlede in PRIs on account of lukewarm attitude to
PRIs by the Union and State Govt. Audio-Visual and print media can contribute
significantly by the dimensions of information on development issues and
prospects. (Singh A.P. 2009) Kaushik et al (2002).
Conclusion
The role of mass-media has proved its utility in carrying out the massages of
development to the door-step of rural folk. The radio was supposed to be highly
popular medium, dividing itself from geographical and literacy barriers.
Programmes regarding powers and rights of panchayati-raj leaders and rural
development may bring a significant change in the rural atmosphere and may
enhance their participation in local bodies. Last but not least giving power alone
cannot bring about development, information and training regarding their rights
also is an important prerequisite.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 136-146
Gender and Locale Differences in Psychological

Well-Being among Adolescents
Pratima Kumari Maurya* and Sandhya Ojha**
Abstract
This study examined psychological well-being among adolescents of
Varanasi district. A sample of 400 adolescents was selected '100 urban and 100
rural and 200 female adolescents (again each from rural and urban areas). The age
range of the partisans was 15 to 18 years. Psychological well-being scale developed
by Sisodia and Choudhary (2005) was used to measure the psychological well-
being. The descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data.
Results of the study revealed that there was no significant gender difference
regarding psychological well-being. Further, the findings revealed no significant
difference between urban and rural adolescents. Hence the hypotheses of the study
are accepted.
Keywords: Psychological well-being, Gender Difference, Urban and Rural
Adolescents
Adolescence is conceptualized as a transitional period, which begins with
the onset of puberty and ends with the acceptance of adult roles and responsibilities.
Young people form precious human resources in every country. However, there is
considerable ambiguity in the definition of young people and terms like young,
adolescents, adults, young adults are often used interchangeably. World Health
Organization (WHO) defines 'adolescence' as age spanning 10 to 19 yrs, “youth” as
those in 15-24 yr age group and these two overlapping age groups as “young people”
covering the age group of 10-24 yr. Adults include a broader age range and all those
between 20 to 64 yrs. Adolescence is further divided into early adolescence (11-14
yr), middle adolescence (15-17 yr), and late adolescence (18-21 yr).
Psychological wellbeing, indeed, manifests a person's constructive and
*Research Scholar
**Associate professor, Dept. of Psychology, Sri Agrasen Kanya Autonomous
Post Graduate College, Varanasi (U.P)
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positive feeling about oneself; it is lived subjectively and is cognitin to the person's
physical, psychological, and social functioning. Moreover, it brings together
reactive and transitional elements linked to the emotions, and to cognitive, more
stable, evaluative elements. Both emotion and cognition certainly are
interconnected. Psychological well-being is a relatively complex notion with a
variety of components that may contribute to it. Diener & Suh (1997) believed that
subjective well-being consists of three interrelated components: life satisfaction,
pleasant affect, and unpleasant affect. Affect refers to pleasant and unpleasant
moods and emotions, whereas life satisfaction refers to a cognitive sense of
satisfaction with life.
There has been a variety of studies with regard to this issue, and most look at
a broader definition of psychological health containing two factors; psychological
distress and well-being. Masse, Poulin, Dassa, Lambert, Belair and Battaglini,
(1998) as well as Wilkinson and Walford (1998) point to the two factor definition of
psychological health in adolescents. Wilkinson and Walford point out that
psychological distress is usually operationalized by measures of anxiety and
negative affect while psychological well-being is usually operationalized by
measures of life satisfaction, happiness and positive affect. Ryff (1989) extensively
explored the Well-Being Manifestation Measure Scale (Masse, Poulin, Dassa,
Lambert, Belair & Battaglini, 1998) that was used in this study. The dimensions of
well-being which were focused and operationalized are: autonomy, environmental
mastery, personal growth, positive relations with others, purpose in life and self-
acceptance. All of these factors can be considered as key components that make up
the definition of psychological well-being. Therefore, adolescents who exhibit
strength in each and every of these areas will be in a state of good psychological
well-being, while adolescents who struggle in these areas will be in a state of low
psychological well-being. There are various factors that affect adolescents' level of
psychological well-being. Roothman et al. (2003) conceptualise psychological
well-being by referring to affective, physical, cognitive, spiritual, self and social
processes. Van Eeden and Wissing (2002) describe psychological well-being as
being multi-dimensional with regard to facets of self that are involved (including
affect, cognition and behaviour), as well as with regard to the domains of life in
which these facets manifest themselves (e.g. intra- and interpersonal, social and
contextual, in love and work). A sense of coherence, satisfaction with life and affect-
balance are strong indicators of general psychological well-being (Van Eeden and
Wissing 2002).
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Gender and Locale Differences in Psychological Well-Being among Adolescents
According to Wissing and Van Eeden (2002), general psychological well-

being is an amalgamation of definite affective, cognitive, behavioural and
interpersonal virtues. Wissing and Van Eeden (2002) identified the following
qualities and features of general psychological well-being:
In agreement with Wissing and Van Eeden's (2002) characteristics of
psychological well-being, Ryff (2005) identified the following areas that contribute
to an individual's sense of well-being:
Self-acceptance- Self -acceptance implies that a person has a positive
attitude towards himself or herself, recognizes and accepts various characteristics of
the self and has a positive attitude towards past.
Personal growth- Personal growth means to experience feelings of constant
growth, potential, effectiveness, expanding knowledge and being receptive to new
experiences.
Purpose In Life- Having a purpose in life refers to the fact that a person has
goals and a sense of direction in life. An individual considers past and present
encounters as meaningful and holds beliefs that provide a reason for life.
Environmental mastery- To experience environmental mastery refers to the
feeling of competence, the ability to deal with a complicated environment and
creating or selecting personally appropriate contexts.
Autonomy- Self-determination, being independent, internal regulation of
your own behaviour, the ability to resist social pressures and evaluation of yourself
by your own personal standards are aspects of autonomy.
Positive relations with others- Positive relations with others imply that an
individual experiences trust, warmth and contentment in relationships. It also
indicates an ability to be capable of strong compassion, affection, closeness and
comprehending the concept of give-and-take in relationships.
Psychological Well-Being and Gender:
Psychological well being refers to the optimistic mental health and an
individual's search for being happy and satisfied in life. It is believed to be the most
important goal of life. The centre of all wishes, desires and motive of life is to be
happy (Yildiz, 2002). Kantariya (2017) studied psychological well-being among
male and female post-graduate students. The total sample consisted of 60 post-
graduate students. 30 males students and 30 females studying in M.A. (Master of
Arts) were selected from the various departments of Saurashtra University, Rajkot.
The result showed that there is no significant gender difference in psychological
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well-being among male and female post-graduate students. Joanne and Ferlis
(2014) found significant difference for the positive aspects of relationship with
others and autonomy based on gender. Amran and Khairiah (2014) also found no
significant difference of general well-being towards sex. Sagone and Caroli (2014)
found boys scored significantly high on self acceptance and environmental mastery
as compared to girls. Pirtle and Plata (2008), found male and female equal in
psychological well being. In some other studies, psychological well-being has
showed significant correlations to other measures of well-being, such as, sense of
vitality (Ryan and Frederick, 1997) and optimism (Scheier, Carver and Bridges,
2001). Nor Ezdianie, (2010) found that boys scored a higher psychological well-
being of the girls. Studies on gender differences in psychological well-being have
yielded contradictory findings (Ryff and Singer, 1998; Abbu-Rayya, 2005;
Roothman et al., 2003) So this area needs additional studies for the clarification.
Psychological Well-Being of Urban and Rural Adolescents:
In the development process of human being there is change at every stage
but none as drastic and dramatic as those occurring during adolescence. The child
who had been clinging for emotional, social and even physical security to his parents
later finds himself as an adolescent in a struggle when these supports are either
withdrawn or abandoned by him in his search for a new adult identity. Hope and
Bierman (1998) stated that the most influential factor of adolescent development
has three main components: location, location, and location. This is true because of
the fact that much of what shapes an adolescent is the surrounding environment, as
the social learning theory would provide. People in a rural area are much more
geographically isolated from one another, and the department store, movie theatre
and hospital are at greater distances than in urban areas. The environment is the key,
with the resources available to the community greatly contrasted between rural and
urban environments. This factor collectively accounts for the overall development
of the child, but is split amongst the major divisions of location; urban and rural.
Shaheen ( 2016), found that urban adolescents scored significantly higher
on composite well-being scores as compared to rural adolescents. Sharma (2014),
also found that urban students have better quality of life in comparison to rural
students. It was also found that there was significant difference between urban and
rural adolescents on different dimensions of psychological well-being as well as
composite well-being. It is apparent from the results that urban adolescents scored
significantly higher on psychological well-being as compared to rural adolescents.
Khan,et.al. (2010) found no significant difference in the scores of urban and rural
adolescents. There is a need to conduct more researches to assess the gender
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difference in psychological well being in India. In the light of the above studies, an
attempt was made to examine and assess psychological well-being among
adolescents belonging to urban and rural area.
Objectives: The present study was designed to achieve the following objectives:
1. To examine gender difference in psychological well- being among
adolescents.
2. To compare urban and rural adolescents on various dimensions of
psychological well-being.
Hypotheses: On the basis of above objectives, the following hypotheses were
formulated:
H1. There would be no significant gender difference in psychological well-being
among adolescents.
H2. There would be no significant difference between urban and rural adolescents
in psychological well being.
Method
Sample: A sample of 400 (200 boys and 200 girls) and (200 urban and 200 rural)
adolescents, was taken from 10+2 UP Board schools of Varanasi. The age range of
the participants was 15 to 18 years. They belonged to middle class socio-economic
status.
Tools
Psychological Well-Being Scale: Sisodia and Choudhary (2005). It is a likert type
scale and consists of fifty statements. All statements are positive. 5 marks to strongly
agree, 4 marks to agree, 3 marks to undecided, 2 marks to disagree and 1 mark to
strongly disagree responses are assigned. The sum of marks is obtained for the entire
scale. The higher the score, more is the well-being the five dimensions are
satisfaction, efficiency, sociability, mental health and interpersonal relations. The
test-retest reliability was 0.87 and the consistency value for the scale is 0.90. The
scale was validated against the external criteria and coefficient obtained was 0.94.
Personal Data Sheet: Personal data sheet was used by the researcher to obtain
personal information about the respondent's, gender, age, education level, school,
locality (Urban and Rural), etc.
Results
Mean, SD and t- test were applied to test the significance of mean difference
between scores on the above variables. The findings are presented in tables (1 to 2)
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and graphs also depict the well being.

Table1. Mean Difference of Various Dimensions on Psychological Well-Being
among Adolescents
Note: .05* Level of significance, .01** Level of significance, NS Not significant

PWB Psychological Well-Being
Results in table 1 show that male adolescents obtained higher mean score
on efficiency dimension (M=39.41) as compared to girls (M=38.49) whereas girls
obtained higher mean score of interpersonal relation (M= 41.21) as compared to
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boys (M= 40.65), but scores are not significant at any level of confidence. Result in
table reveals that boys obtained higher mean score on overall psychological well-
being as compared to girls (M=195.61; M=194.38), respectively but the difference
was not found to be significant at any level of confidence.
Table2. Mean difference between Urban and Rural Adolescents on Various
Dimension of Psychological Well-Being
Note: .05* Level of significance
Results in table 2 show that urban adolescents scored significantly higher

only on satisfaction (t= 2.03, p<.05) as compared to rural adolescents. Mean score
also shows that urban adolescents obtained higher score on interpersonal relation
(M=41.28) as compared to rural adolescents (M=40.58) whereas rural adolescents
obtained higher score on efficiency (M=39.00) as compared to urban adolescents
(M=38.90), but the difference was not found to be significant at any level of
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confidence. Further, there is no significant difference between urban and rural

adolescents in overall psychological well-being but urban adolescents scored higher
mean on overall PWB as (M=196.52) compared to rural adolescents (M=193.46).
Discussion
Gender and Psychological Well-Being:
Findings (Table-1) revealed that there was no significant gender difference
in psychological well-being. The male addescents obtained higher score on overall
psychological well-being as compared to girl adolescents, but the difference was not
found to be significant at any level of confidence. Result regarding psychological
well-being revealed that boy and girl adolescents did not differ significantly on any
dimension of psychological well-being. The result supported Kantariya (2017) who
found no significant gender difference psychological well-being among male and
female post-graduate students. In a country like India, where gender-bias is still
prevalent, the results are slightly surprising. There may be two reasons for this, one
that gender bias exists only in the society but does not affect the well-being of an
individual. Another reason may be that families accept children whole-heartedly
whether they are boys or girls and raise them without any bias. Girls are given the
same amount of rights and opportunities that boys are enjoying. In fact, both the
public and private sectors have sponsored various scholarships for students
irrespective of gender. The results of this study support Amran and Khairiah (2014)
who showed that no significant difference of general well-being towards gender.
Findings of the present study approve the idea of Robinson (2000) that the
relationship of family factors to the quality of intimate relationship among young
adults is the same for males and females. Research supports that boys and girls have
similar levels of happiness and overall life satisfaction. Shah and Siddiqui (2015)
also report no significant gender difference in psychological well-being among
university students. Pirtle and Plata (2008), finds that male and female are equal in
psychological well being. Furthermore, a study by Roothman et al. (2003) also that
found no significant gender difference on sense of coherence, satisfaction with life,
affect balance, emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and the components of self-
concept and of fortitude.
Psychological Well-Being of Urban and Rural Adolescents
Findings (Table-2) further revealed that urban addescents score
significantly higher on psychological well-being on satisfaction dimension (t=
2.03*, p<.05) as compared to rural adolescents. Mean score also reveals that urban
adolescents obtained higher score on overall psychological well-being as compared
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to rural adolescents, but the difference was not found to be significant at any level of
confidence. The results of this study extend support to Khan, Gangadhara , Lakshmi,
Gangadhara (2010) who found that no significant difference in the scores of urban
and rural adolescents. The reason may be that urban and rural adolescents are
happier, capable, and obtain more support from their parents and family. Today
rural/village areas are providing all facilities/opportunities for adolescents'
development and growth. So rural adolescents are getting better education and
better life to promote their psychological well-being (Srinath et as. 2005).
Conclusion
The results of the present study show that boys obtained higher score on
overall psychological well-being as compared to girls, but the difference was not
found to be significant at any level of confidence. Therefore, greater knowledge
concerning gender differences may precipitate greater opportunities for efficiency
and the further promotion of optimal psychological well-being in both boys and
girls adolescent. There was no demonstrable difference between the urban and rural
adolescents in terms of psychological well-being. In a post-feminist context this
incorporates the idea of an “equal opportunities” society; yet social stereotypes still
exist. All people are equal but not identical, and the possible differences between
people need to be considered in order to empower all individuals for self-
actualisation and to fulfill their potential (thereby promoting optimal psychological
well-being), being offered equal opportunities.
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Memory and Apprehension of Events, Subjective Well-Being, and Psychological
Well- Being. PhD Thesis, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg.
Hope, T.L., & Bierman, K.L. (1998). Patterns of Home and School Behavior Problems in
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Psikologi Dalam Kalangan Pelajar Universiti Awam, Seminar Kebangsaan
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Kantariya, Ashok S.(2017). Impact of Gender on Psychological Well-Being among Post-
Graduate Students . Psychology and Behavioral Science, Volume 2(1),pp. 001-
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Khan,M.A., Gangadhara, S., Lakshm, S. & Gangadhara, s. (2010). Determinants Affecting
Psychological Well-being of Urban and Rural Adolescents A Comparative Study.
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Masse, R., Poulin, C., Dassa, C., Lambert, J., Belair, S., & Battaglini, A. (1998). The
Structure of Mental Health Higher-Order Confirmatory Factor Analyses of
Psychological Distress and Wellbeing Measures. Social Indicators Research, 45,
475-504.
Nor Ezdianie, O. (2010), Kesejahteraan Psikologi Dalam Kalangan Pelajar IPTS.
Pirtle T, Plata M (2008). Meaning in Life among Latino University Students Perceptions of
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Roothman, B., Kirsten, D. & Wissing, M. (2003). Gender Differences in Aspects of
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Ryan RM, Frederick CM. (1997). On Energy, Personality and Health: Subjective Vi-Tality
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 147-157
Employee Engagement, Cognitive Flexibility and Pay

Satisfaction as Potential Determinants of Employees'
Turnover Intentions: An Overview
Prashant Das*, Virendra Byadwal** and Tushar Singh***
Abstract
The present paper is an attempt to provide an overview of the
problems of employees' turnover in Indian organizations. Due to the consequent
increase in the competition and requirement of appropriate pay in the developing
country like India, people are trying their best to attain a position that is respectable
as well as sufficient for their living. This paper brings in the issues on why
employees intend to leave their organizations. An overview of relevant literature
reveals that employee engagement, cognitive flexibility and pay satisfaction are
potential determinants of turnover intentions and have relevant importance in
retaining best employees in the organization despite of such cut-throat competition.
It is expected that this paper will help the managers to understand the reasons
causing increasing employee turnover as well as the procedures in retaining the best
employees in order to improve the graph of production and encouraging a sense of
loyalty for the organization.
Keywords : Turnover Intention, Cognitive Flexibility, Employee Engagement, Pay
Satisfaction.
The principal aim of every organization is to improve its structure and its
production. To achieve these goals organizations need and try to retain their most
reliable and expert employee. However, the current turnover rate of employees, in
various sectors, in India has turned out to be a critical concern for the performance
and long-term sustainability of the organizations. The results of a recent Mercer
survey (Smith, 2012) indicated an alarming rate of turnover intentions in about 66%
* Assistant Professor, Amity Institute of Behavioural and Allied Sciences, Amity University,
Lucknow Campus, Malhaur, Gomti Nagar Extension, Lucknow, U. P. INDIA- 226028
** Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, U. P. INDIA- 221005
*** Assistant Professor (Corresponding Author), Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U. P. INDIA- 221005; Email: tusharsinghalld@gmail.com
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Indian employees in the 16-25 year age range and about 54% overall employees.
The survey results also showed that about 76% of the employees are reported to be
satisfied with their jobs and 75% indicating that the reason behind this intention is
not because they are unhappy with their job or organization (Smith, 2012). These
results, thus, give rise to a significant question why the employees intend to leave
even though they are satisfied with the job as well as with their organization.
Turnover intention
Turnover intention is a crisis that challenges organizational efficiency and
production. It is defined as the reflection of “the (subjective) probability that an
individual will change his or her job within a certain time period” (Sousa-Poza &
Henneberger, 2002) and there exists a good correlation between turnover intent and
actual turnover (Mobley, 1977). Turnover intention, thus, is an immediate precursor
to actual turnover (Mobley, Horner & Hollingsworth, 1978; Tett & Meyer, 1993). It
is one of the largest though widely unknown costs an organization faces. Employee
turnover costs companies 30 to 50% of the annual salary of entry- level employees,
150% of middle level employees, and up to 400% for upper level, specialized
employees (Sibson and Company, 2007). According to Cascio (2000), turnover cost
can be classified into three categories namely separation, replacement, and training
cost. Separation costs are the costs that incur directly due to the turnover of the
employee. These include the expense of exit interviews with leaving employee,
payments of earned benefits, etc. Replacement costs are the costs involved in the
replacement of the leaving employee, such as the expenses of advertising the vacant
position. Training costs are related to the money that the company spends in
orienting and training the new entrant as the replacement for the former employee
(Griffeth, Hom & Gaertner, 2000). In addition to the financial cost, high turnover
also results in other operational problems such as shortage of staff until the new
recruitment, its resultant stress and the demoralization of other employees which
may lead to even higher turnover.
Consequences of turnover intention
Employees' turnover results in disastrous consequences for the
organization. Three significant effects are the impact on organizational cost,
operational disruption and demoralization of organizational membership.
The impact of turnover on organizational cost
Every turnover costs money to the organization. The turnover of an
employee results in the wastage of organization's money invested into that
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Employee Engagement, Cognitive Flexibility and Pay Satisfaction as Potential Determinants of Employees' Turnover Intentions: An Overview
employee through training and management. It costs further money to the

organization to do the same for a new employee. The company also pays to advertise
the vacancy and to recruit the new employee. Tziner and Birati, (1996) however
discuss the distinction between functional and dysfunctional turnover. If bad
performers choose to leave, known as functional turnover, this could carry
beneficial outcomes for the organization. However, dysfunctional turnover (cost of
the reduced productivity of the new worker during the period required for the level
of performance of the former employee is reached) can engender a loss of
productivity.
Operational Disruption
Staw (1980) argues that the turnover of the core and the central members
who are interconnected, highly interdependent and specialized can influence the
ability of other remaining members to fulfil work task. He further argued that argued
that “the higher the level of the position to be filled the greater the potential for
disruption” (Staw, 1980). He further suggests that organizations must train back up
personnel or employees with multiplicity skills to overcome this problem (Staw,
1980).
Demoralization of Organizational Membership
Turnover of an employee also impacts on the attitudes and behaviours of the
remaining members of the organization. Turnover of an employee for another
position in an external organization provokes a reflective sentiment with remaining
members, such as questioning their motivation to stay in the organization. Thus
turnover can cause the additional turnover by stimulating deterioration in attitudes
towards the organization (Staw, 1980). According to Staw (1980), the perceived
reason for turnover is an essential determinant for the demoralization of
organizational membership. If the reason for quitting is non-organizational (such as
family issues or location change), then the feeling of demoralization is less, but if the
reason is related to the organization (such as pay or supervisory support), then it will
likely lead to demoralization.
Factors associated with turnover intentions
Many factors can lead to employee turnover in an organization. These
factors might be related to the employer, the employees and/or the work
environment. Researchers have considered wages, company benefits, employee
attendance, and job performance to be important determinants of employee turnover
(Mobley, Griffeth, Hand, & Meglino,1979). Mobley et al. (1979) have noted two
factors that are related to the employee's turnover intention. The first factor is related
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to employee's evaluation of the organization's future expected value and the second
factor is related to the tension associated with the employee's present work
conditions. Recent researches in this area have considered the importance of
employee engagement, pay satisfaction and cognitive flexibility in bringing
organization's stability and improved production.
Employee Engagement
Kahn (1990) have defined employees' engagement regarding the
harnessing of organization members' selves to their work role by which they employ
and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role
performances. While for Schaufeli and Bakker's (2004) definition of engagement
has somewhat differed. According to them, engagement is “a positive, fulfilling,
work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and
absorption”. Lockwood (2007) has described the cognitive, emotional, and
behavioural components of employee engagement. Cognitive engagement,
according to him refers to the belief of the employees about their company, their
leaders and the workplace culture. The emotional aspect is related to the feeling
employees have about their company, their leaders and their colleagues. The
behavioural component refers to the number of effort employees put into their work
(e.g., brainpower, extra time and energy).
Employee engagement and turnover intention
For any organization to grow, the 'engagement' of the employee within the
organization has to be perfect, and it should be taken care of. Aleweld and Von
Bismarck (2002) reports three behaviours that Hewitt Associates considers for an
engaged employee. To them, an engaged employee is the one who always "say"
positive things about his/her organization to his/her fellow employees and
customers, wishes to "stay" with the organization and put additional discretionary
efforts to "serve" his/her organization.
Several researchers have shown employee engagement to be positively
associated with intent to remain with one's organization (Harter, Schmidt & Hayes,
2002; Schaufeli& Bakker, 2004). The positive association between job satisfaction
and intent to remain with one's organization is established in the literature (Mobley,
1977), it is, therefore, obvious that employee engagement would also have a positive
relationship with intent to stay. In fact, this relationship is substantially supported by
the literature. Towers Perrin Talent Report (2003) have shown that about 66% of
highly engaged employees reported that they have no plans to leave as compared to
36% of moderately engaged individuals and 12% of disengaged employees.
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Furthermore, 2% of highly engaged employees reported they are actively looking

for another job compared to 8% of moderately engaged and 23% of disengaged
employees. Gubman (2004) has also found that disengaged employee are more
likely to search for a new job actively. In his meta-analysis of the engagement
literature (Halbesleben, 2010) has observed that employee engagement and
intention to leave are strongly related (see also Koyuncu, Burke, & Fiksenbaum,
2006). Employee engagement also leads to the higher achievement of individual
work goals (i.e., productivity) (Schaufeli& Bakker, 2004); customer satisfaction
and profitability (Harter, Schmidt & Hayes, 2002). Engaged employees cause better
business outcomes. In fact, the Towers Perrin (2006) research reports that highly
engaged employees have beliefs that they can positively affect their company's
products quality, can do better customer service, and can positively affect the costs
in their job. The study also reported that highly engaged employees plan to stay with
their organization and perform 20% better on the job.
Cognitive Flexibility
The term 'cognitive flexibility' refers to an individual's ability to shift
cognitive sets and to adapt to one's changing environment (Dennis & Vander Wal,
2010). Martin and Anderson (1998) considers three dimensions of cognitive
flexibility namely awareness, willingness, and self-efficacy. According to them, the
essence of cognitive flexibility is the ability to seek novel solutions to problems and
be adaptive in various situations. Further, a cognitively flexible individual must be
aware of the options and alternatives to choose and s/he must be agreeable to such
adaptations, in multiple given situations. Finally, a cognitively flexible individual
needs to believe that he/she has the capacity to be flexible in any given situation
(Martin and Anderson, 1998). Flexible employees in the organization are the
crystals who allow the light and refract it to the whole organization for its
betterment. Here the term 'light' stands for the innovative idea and proactive skill of
the employee. With flexibility comes employees' interest in the work schedule and
reduced intention to turnover and disengagement. Cegala (1981) has indicated that
individuals who are more cognitively flexible are more attentive, perceptive, and are
more responsive to social interactions than those who have less flexibility.
Employees high in cognitive flexibility are thus expected to be more willing and
able to accept job transition that entails the possibility of failure.
Cognitive flexibility and turnover intention
Spiro and Jehng (1990) in their cognitive flexibility theory have proposed
that people who can create multiple representations of the task can easily interpret
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situational changes in the environment and, therefore, are cognitively more flexible.
They considered these people to be able to restructure their knowledge quickly and
to adapt their responses to radically changing situational demands. This theory
states that flexible employees have their way to interpret problems and necessitate
solutions to problems rather quitting job role.
Cognitively flexible individuals can perform any task assigned to them and
are willing to accept organizational goals, thereby bringing about greater affective
attachment to the organization (McDonald & Siegall, 1992). Because these
employees tend to have a less negative emotional response to the organization, we
infer that employees who are more cognitively flexible are better able to accept
challenges and willing to stay in the organization for their growth personally as well
as organizationally.
Studies suggest that cognitively flexible employees are more active in
organizational activities (Lau & Woodman, 1995). Thus, it can be assumed that
these employees will have a more positive opinion about their stay in the
organization and thus be less likely to doubt the necessity to leave and adapt
themselves to all situations profitably.
Employees' propensity to resist organizational change is largely determined
by their openness to experience (Zimmerman, 2008). Generally, employees who are
more open to experience consider the situation in which their organization is placed
and are more likely to accept changes needed to be taken. We infer that cognitively
flexible employees will probably not complain about, or have an uncooperative
attitude towards, any dimensions which would predict intent to turnover or actual
turnover.
Pay satisfaction
According to Lawler (1971), pay satisfaction or dissatisfaction is a function
of the discrepancy between employee's expectation of his/her pay and the pay s/he
receives. Several studies have considered pay satisfaction one major component of
job satisfaction (Frisina, Murray andAird, 1988). Lum, Kervin, Clark, & Reid
(1988) argues that pay satisfaction can be understood in terms of equity theory.
According to this view, pay satisfaction is caused by sentiments regarding the equity
of a person's pay. If an employee perceives high pay equity, s/he show greater
satisfaction with his or her job. However, when someone perceives his/her pay to be
less than another's, it increases the dissatisfaction and results in several unwanted
employee behaviours such as absenteeism, grievances, strikes, and turnover.
Pay satisfaction and turnover intention
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Lum, Kervin, Clark, & Reid (1988) has shown that pay satisfaction is
positively correlated with job satisfaction and negatively correlated with turnover
intent. Motowidlo (1983) has reported that pay satisfaction is more powerful
determinant of withdrawal cognition than general satisfaction, and that pay
satisfaction and withdrawal cognition significantly mediated the relationship
between pay and turnover intention. Similarly, in a meta-analytic study, Williams,
McDaniel, and Nguyen (2006) found that turnover and turnover intention were the
consequences of pay level dissatisfaction. More recently Singh and Loncar (2010)
explored the relationship among pay satisfaction, job satisfaction, and turnover
intention and found that all dimensions of pay satisfaction were correlated
negatively with turnover intention. Similarly, Carraher (2011) study about the
attitudes toward benefits and pay and found that benefits, pay, and satisfaction were
important in affecting turnover and were useful to retain employees.
Conclusion
Turnover within the Indian organization has recently turned out to be a
culture and employees are considering it as a regular practice to gain access to an
organization which gives them better pay as compared to previous one. Employees
focus on what they get from the employers in return for their loyalty and work for
their organization. Compensation fairness, satisfaction in pay and prospects of
career growth are greater among other benefits. Changing to a new job to get a better
package is common and particularly acts as a pull factor for turnover intention.
Iverson and Deery (1997) have concluded that lack of job security and lack of career
potential are leading causes of the turnover culture. They argued that when
employees enter into an industry with the perception of a short tenure and limited
promotional opportunities they perceive that turnover is acceptable. This culture is
more prevalent among the younger generation as they strive to get a better pay even
if they have to shift job at a rapid pace. With a caliber to work for long hours, the
youngsters are always in search of position which has an excellent package.
Given the cost implications and destructive tendencies of turnover to
organizations, it is important that more research is carried out in the area of intention
to quit. When managers perfectly understand why employees have a tendency to
leave, it is then that a workable retention strategy can be devised to arrest such
intention. In order to respond to the problem of turnover, it is necessary to
understand its most basic process. There is also the need for organizations to
properly align retention practices with the needs and values of employees. For
example, while the management of the organization studied and crafted its retention
strategy around nonmonetary benefits, employees may prefer pay rise that will
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commensurate with the inflationary trend in the country. Money may not necessarily
be a good retention variable (as variously argued), however, the unstable economic
environment, it is important to understand that money may significantly influence
retention and therefore, may explain why the retention practices take place. The
costs of high turnover can be considerable thus it has turned out to be a necessity for
the organization to appropriately redirect its retention intervention strategy in
consonance with the valence of employees. Only then can the organization retain a
sizeable number of its high performing employees in the face of unabated economic
woes. It would be too late and indeed counterproductive if the managers try to
respond after employees have left. Finally, it is envisaged that this review will lead
to increased awareness of retention process among managers and the need for
further research in the subject area.
Recommendations for managers
On the basis of this overview of literature related to the causes and
consequences of turnover intentions among employees, the following
recommendations can be suggested. First, the organizations should have a clear
plan for the career growth and promotion of each employee so that the committed
and talented employees know the prospects for their personal and professional
growth. In addition, the company should also provide adequate training so that its
employees are equipped with latest and appropriate skills. When employees start to
take the training courses as a means to improve their career opportunities, they gain
better skills and get closer to becoming the next 'best candidate'. Moreover, they also
perceive the time they are putting into their training or self-development as an
investment, and thus they are more likely to stay in the same organization to 'harvest'
their investment. This, in turn, would help to reduce their negative perception of
limited opportunity for advancement and self-growth. Second, organizations
should introduce flexible work arrangements for employees so that they have time
offs for personal work and time for rejuvenating themselves. Management should
optimize their internal culture to help the employees in building interpersonal
relationships which is very important for the survival of employees in the
organization and, thus, reduce the chances of employee's turnover (Das, Byadwal
and Singh, 2015. Third, compensation of employees is one of the most critical
issues of all turnover causes. Finally, organizations must provide a platform for
participation of employees in decision making. When the employees are given
opportunities for ownership, they value themselves more and are motivated to
indulge them in creative ideas.
To conclude, it is suggested that that retention strategies must be wide and varied to
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address the variety of reasons for which employees leave their organizations. These
strategies must be manifested in terms of increased employee satisfaction and an
increased sense of belonging to the organization.
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 158-166
Scaffolding as a Panacea for Children's

Learning Problems: An Overview
Namrata S. Bhardwaj* & Shubhra S Bhardwaj**
Abstract
This paper is an attempt to explain the concept of scaffolding and highlight its
implications in facilitating the learning by children. Scaffolding is defined as the
support system for children by teachers to help extend current skills and knowledge
to a higher level of competence .The skillful use of observation and the teacher's
knowledge of the child enable the teacher to design and employ the appropriate
dialogue, experiences, strategies, and/or models that will scaffold children as they
construct their understanding of the concepts that will extend their knowledge to
more advanced levels. This teaching style provides the incentive for students to take
a more active role in their own learning. The need to implement a scaffold occurs
when it is realized that a student is not progressing on some aspect of a task or
unable to understand a particular concept.
Keywords: Scaffolding, Children, Panacea, Learning problems, Five step model
ZPD. Intermental & Intramental levels.
The term scaffolding was first introduced and used in education by
psychologist Jerome Bruner (Bruner 1983, Ninio & Bruner 1978; Wood, Bruner,
and Ross, 1976) to describe the type of interaction that occurs within the Zone of
Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1933/1977 : Leong, Bodrova, Hensen, &
Henninger, 1999).
The zone of proximal development (ZPD), is the difference between what a
learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. It is a concept
introduced, yet not fully developed, by Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky
(18961934) during the last ten years of his life ( Stanlaw, 2005). Vygotsky stated that
a child follows an adult's example and gradually develops the ability to do certain
tasks without help. Vygotsky and some other educators believe that the role of
*C-305, Amprapali Princley Estate, Sector 76, Noida-201301

** Head, Department of Psychology, Gandhi Smarak PG College, Maltari, Azamgarh, U. P.
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education is to give children experiences that are within their zones of proximal
development, thereby encouraging and advancing their individual learning (Berk,
& Winsler,1995).. According to the concept of ZPD, a learner can learn some task on
his own but not all tasks he can perform without help. Figure -1 depicts the concept
Fig.1: In the middle circle, representing the zone of proximal development, students cannot complete
tasks unaided, but can complete them with guidance
Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976) further describe scaffolding as a support

system that helps children achieve success on tasks that would be too difficult for
them to achieve by themselves (Dorn, 2001, etc). Some others assume scaffolding as
anaologous to learning new motor skills, such as bike riding. Feedback from self and
others is ongoing. This support, or scaffolding, is needed as the child is learning to
do any task (Au, Mason & 15 Scheu, 1995).
Cooper (1997) states that the learner knows what riding a bike looks like;
but as makes his first attempts or approximations, he is not perfect or exact. Each
approximation allows the child to test his ideas and hypotheses about performing a
task. As children test these ideas, their mistakes are very important and essential to
learning (Cambourne, 1988). Gradually, the child's attempts become closer and
closer to skillful task performance riding (Dorn, French, & Jones, 1998). It helps
then learning new tasks and lessons ( Ninio & Bruner, 1978).
According to Stone (1993), learning first takes place on a social (intermental)
level before it takes place on an individual (intramental) level. In Stone's view, the
student is not a passive participant in teacher student interaction but scaffolding is
seen as a fluid, interpersonal process in which both participants are active
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Scaffolding as a Panacea for Children's Learning Problems: An Overview
participants. Both participants actively build common understanding or

intersubjectivity through communicative exchanges in which the student learns
from the perspective of the more knowledgeable other. Pol , Volman & Beishuizen
(2010), also opine that scaffolding is typically associated with the socio-cultural
theory of Vygotsky. Wood et al. (1976) adopted the scaffolding metaphor to explain
the role that adults can play in joint problem-solving activities with children (Dorn
& Soffos ,2001).
What is Scaffolding?
In general, scaffolding is construed as support given by a teacher to a student
when performing a task that the student might otherwise not be able to accomplish.
The first common characteristic in the various definitions of scaffolding is
contingency often referred to as responsiveness, tailored, adjusted, differentiated,
titrated, or calibrated support. The teacher's support must be adapted to the current
level of the students.
In family context, mothers extend the range of contexts and serve as
“communicative ratchets” for their children helping them to avoid sliding
backwards once they have made forward steps, teachers should also use this skill in
teaching and training the children (Bruner, 1978; Stewart, 2002). The desired
outcome is for students to need less and less support to complete a task successfully;
therefore, the teacher gradually provides less support until it has been removed
totally. Thus the basic purpose of scaffolding is to make child or student ultimately
perform the task independently, internalize the rules governing the task, and re-
create it alone and thus decrease the dependence on teacher or instructors.
Process of Scaffolding
In a scaffolding learning environment, students are free to ask questions,
provide feedback and support their peers in learning new material. Incorporating
scaffolding in the classroom makes teacher a mentor and facilitator of knowledge
rather than the dominant instructor. It involves some important steps.
Role modeling- teacher models how to perform a new or difficult task
Combined efforts- teacher and students work together to perform the task
Cooperative groups- students work with a partner or a small cooperative
group to complete the task.
Self performance stage - students can demonstrate their task mastery
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Fig. 2 presents a practical model of scaffolding. Suppose one wants to make child
learn the concept of Apple, this procedure can be used very successfully. Similarly
other problems can also facilitated by using the scaffolding approach to learning
Fig. 2. A practical model of scaffolding
Tools of Scaffolds: According to Alibali (2006), as students progress through a

task, trainer can use a variety of scaffolds to students to facilitate problem solving as
the situation requires.
Advance organizers -Tools used to introduce new content; flow charts to illustrate
processes; organizational charts, outlines that represent content; mnemonics to
assist recall; rubrics that provide task expectations.
Cue Cards- Given to individual or groups of students to assist in their discussion
about a particular topic or content or problem
Concept and mind maps- Maps that show relationships: Partially or completed
maps for students to complete; students create their own maps based on their current
knowledge of the task given to there.
Explanations- More detailed information, Written instructions for a task; verbal
explanation
Handouts -Prepared handouts that contain task- and content-related information,
but with less detail and room for student note taking.
Hints - Suggestions and clues to move students along
Prompts- A physical or verbal cue to remind to aid in recall of prior or assumed
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knowledge
Question Cards - Prepared cards with content- and task-specific questions given to
individuals or groups of students to ask each other pertinent questions about a
particular topic or content area.
Question Stems- Incomplete sentences which students complete: Encourages deep
thinking by using higher order ―What if questions.
Stories- Stories relate complex and abstract material to situations more familiar with
students: Recite stories to inspire and motivate learners.
Visual Scaffolds -Pointing (call attention to an object); representational; diagrams
such as charts and graphs; methods of highlighting visual information.
Five Step Model of Scaffolding
The purpose of scaffolding is to provide support to students and facilitate
learning. Complex topics are first broken into smaller pieces to allow for graduated
learning. One could apply scaffolding to pique interest and support students along
the way. The steps given below will help one implement and tailor this approach for
classroom and students' individual needs (Hogan and Pressley, 1997).
The model given here indicates that a teacher should basically facilitate the
child for learning, not just instructing to perform. It will be instrumental in
encouraging the children to enhance their confidence and overcoming the problems
in a constructive way.
Principles of Scaffolding :Making Scaffolding Successful
Some studies have revealed that the technique of scaffolding in classroom is an
excellent teaching method that can encourage many types of students. If the teachers
follow the principles of scaffolding, surprising results in learning by children can be
obtained. The following principles have been found to be very much useful in
applying scaffolding (Harris & Hodges, 1995).
Providing students a simplified version of a lesson, assignment, or reading,
and then gradually increases the complexity, difficulty, or sophistication over time.
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Describing a concept, problem, or process in multiple ways to ensure

understanding.
(See fig, 2) Giving an exemplar or model of an assignment they will be
asked to complete.
Giving a vocabulary lesson before they read a difficult text.
Describing clearly the purpose of a learning activity, the directions students
need to follow, and the learning goals they are expected to achieve.
Describing explicitly how the new lesson builds on the knowledge and
skills taught in a previous lesson (Transfer of learning).
Burch (2007) suggests that students in lower elementary grades or early
emergent literacy learners would clearly benefit from reading and writing
instruction that included the following strategic elements:
1. Leveled predictable texts
2. Small group guided reading and writing instruction
3. Systematic, strategic teacher instruction based upon performance-based
observation of student's interaction with texts and self-generated writing.
4. Integration of reading and writing lessons to support student acquisition of
reading and writing strategies.
5. Teacher/Student dialogues and conversations that support language acquisition
and development of student understanding regarding the way language works.
Challenges and Precautions
Pressley, Hogan, Wharton-McDonald, Mistretta and Ettenberger (1996) are of
the view that, no doubt scaffolding can be used to optimize learning for all students,
but it is a very demanding form of instruction . There are some challenges which a
teacher must keep in mind while thinking of employing the scaffolding approach.
* Using scaffolding when appropriate. Keep in mind that all students may not need
scaffolding for all tasks and materials. Provide scaffolding to those students only
who need it and only when they need it.
* Be knowledgeable of the curriculum. This will enable one to determine the
difficulty level of particular materials and tasks as well as the time and supports
necessary to benefit students.
* Practice generating possible prompts to help students. The first prompt given to a
student may fail, so facilitation must continue.
* The instructor must be positive, patient, and caring. Do not become discouraged if
students do not respond or are not successful as a result of initial scaffolding efforts.
Be friendly towards the children, it will bring good results
Evaluation of Scaffolding :
Keeping in view the findings of previous researches, the merits and demerits of
scaffolding may be summarized as under (Stanlaw, 2005).
Some Advantages of Scaffolding:
Scaffolding challenges students through deep learning and discovery.
It engages students in meaningful and dynamic discussions in small and
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large classes.
It motivates learners to become better students (learning how to learn).
It increases the likelihood for students to meet instructional objectives.
Scaffolding provides individualized instruction (especially in smaller
classrooms).
It affords the opportunity for peer-teaching and learning.
Scaffolds can be “recycled” for other learning situations.
It provides a welcoming and caring learning environment.
Disadvantages of Scaffolding:
· The planning for and implementing scaffolds is time consuming and
demanding
· Selecting appropriate scaffolds that match the diverse learning and
communication styles of students
· Poor knowledge about students will affect their outcomes adversely (their
cognitive and affective abilities)
· Lack of sufficient and trained personnel makes it difficult to implement it.
· Potential for misjudging the zone of proximal development; success hinges
on identifying the area that is just beyond but not too far beyond students'
abilities
· Inadequately modeling the desired behaviours, proves to be dangerous.
· The books for children often lack contents based on scaffolding
Conclusion
Scaffolding has been widely used with very young children in preschools and
kindergarten settings. More study and qualitative and quantitative research is
needed to explain the nuisances and complexities of scaffolding present within the
elementary school classroom context regarding the acquisition of reading and
writing. No doubt, there are inherent challenges also in scaffolding, yet it proves to
be a good tool in the hands of parents and teachers in solving the learning problems
of children.
Suggestions for future researches
The main challenge for scaffolding research appears to be its measurement.
Several difficulties with regard to the measurement of scaffolding have been
encountered (Pol et al., 2010).
First, scaffolding was often not measured in scaffolding research using a
clearly reliable and valid measurement instrument. Thus, a need for such an
instrument that can facilitate the analysis of scaffolding as a dependent variable and
the check on the intervention of scaffolding as an independent variable is apparent
Second, to determine the effectiveness of scaffolding in future research,
student measures are needed as these measures provide a clear indication of whether
the scaffolding was effective to start with or not.
Third, it is suggested that both teacher and student behavior and their
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discourse contributions are considered in future research as scaffolding entails

interaction. The coding of only teacher actions or strategies is not sufficient.
Fourth, methodological point for consideration in future research is the
merit of video observation for the analysis of scaffolding interactions.
Fifth, because the appearance of scaffolding depends so heavily on the
context, it is of great importance in future scaffolding research that the context be
specified into great detail.
Finally, the key characteristics of contingency, fading, and transfer of
responsibility need to be addressed in both the definition and analysis of scaffolding.
This may involve the conduct of different analyses using different-sized units, but
the definition and operationalization of the key characteristics of scaffolding should
consistent and unambiguous..
References
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E v i d e n c e f r o m e a r l y a l g e b r a .
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Harper-Collins
Berk, L & Winsler, A. (1995). Vygotsky: His life and works" and "Vygotsky's approach to
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Burch,J.R. (2007). A study examining the impact of scaffolding children's acquisition of
literacy in primary grades. Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the
Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College
Bruner, J. S. (1983). Child's talk: Learning to use language. New York: W.W. Norton.
Bruner, J. S. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.
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Printing). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
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Jarvella, & W. J. M. Levelt (Eds.), The child's conception of language (pp. 241-
256). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
Cambourne, B. (1988). The whole story: Natural learning and the acquisition of
literacy in the classroom. New York: Ashton-Scholastic.
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York: Houghton Mifflin.
Dorn, L. J., French, C., & Jones, T. (1998). Apprenticeship in literacy: Transitions across
reading and writing. York, ME: Stenhouse.
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Portsmouth, ME: Stenhouse.
Harris, T. L. & Hodges, R. E. (Eds.). (1995). The literacy dictionary: The vocabulary of
reading and writing. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Hogan, K., & Pressley, M. (Eds.). (1997). Scaffolding student learning: Instructional
approaches and issues. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
Leong, D., Bodrova, E., Hensen, R., & Henninger, M. (1999). Scaffolding early literacy
through play. New Orleans, National Association for the Education of the Young
Child (NAEYC) 1999 Annual Conference
Ninio, A., & Bruner, J. (1978). The achievement and antecedents of labeling. Journal of
Child Language, 5, 1-1
Pol , J.V.,Volman . M. & Beishuizen, J. (2010). Scaffolding in TeacherStudent Interaction: A
Decade of Research. Educ Psychol Rev DOI 10.1007/s10648-010-9127-6#
Pressley, M., Hogan, K., Wharton-McDonald, R., Mistretta, J., & Ettenberger, S. (1996). The
challenges of instructional scaffolding: The challenges of instruction that supports
student thinking. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 11(3), 138-146.
Stewart, M. T. (2002). Best practice” Insights on literacy instruction from an elementary
classroom. Newark, DE: International Reading Association; Chicago: National
Reading Conference.
Stanlaw, J. (2005). Vygotsky, lev semenovich (1896--1934). In Encyclopedia of
anthropology. Retrieved from Credo Reference Database
Stone, C. A. (1993). What is missing in the metaphor of scaffolding? In E. A. Forman, N. M.
Minick, & C. A. Stone (Eds.). Contexts for learning. Sociocultural dynamics in
children's development (pp. 169183). New York: Oxford University Press
Vygotsky, L. (1933/1978). The mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
(Original work published 1938)
Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. A. Kozulin, ED & Trans. Cambridge,
MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (Original work published 1934)
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2017, Vol.51 (1), Jan.-June, Page- 167-170
Life Satisfaction and Burnout

Sandhya Rai*
Abstract
The present study was undertaken to see the effect of life satisfaction on
burnout tendency of higher secondary teacher respondents within the age range of
30 to 45 years. A sample of 60 teacher respondents equally divided into sex, and
randomly selected for research on administration Alam & Srivastava's Life
Satisfaction Scale and Hatwal's Burnout Inventory were used as tools Results
showed that teachers experiencing high life satisfaction were found having
comparatively less burnout. Further, the results of 't' test show significant difference
at respectable level of significance.
Key wards : Life satisfaction, Burnout, Teachers.
A teacher is a compass that activates the magnets of curiosity, knowledge
and wisdom in the pupils (Garrison). But teaching is a difficult and yet often
underappreciated career. A teacher in classroom must assume the responsibility of
imparting knowledge in a variety of content areas acting as a model both morally
and socially, motivating the students to learn while maintaining enthusiasm and
working in conjunction with parents among many other duties. When we take into
consideration everything that goes into teaching this population, it is no wonder that
there is such a high rate of 'burnout'.
Burnout is defined as a debilitating psychological condition. Job burnout is
a condition that involves three clusters of symptoms-emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization and reduced personal accomplishments (Maslach, 1982). Job
burnout can be a vicious downward cycle. The most important response to job
burnout for the burned out person is to try to reduce his stress or workload. This may
be done by avoiding work, absenteeism, doing the bare minimum when at work, not
doing certain tasks that are experienced as more stressful and spending more time
doing other tasks that are considered less stressful.
Burnout is a consequence of stress and various stress producing variables,
such as overload, social over extension, beaurocratic pressures, lack of feedback,
*Dept. of Psychology, R.M.L. P.G. College, Belwana, Azamgarh U.P.
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Sandhya Rai
antonomy and appreciation which have been found to be significantly related to

burnout. There exists a general sense of agreement in the literature that burnout can
be caused by environmental/organizational factors, unresolved personal career
factors or more likely the interactions of both sets of factors.
It has been observed by several investigators that when job demands are
high, burnout symptoms increase. Numerous studies have demonstrated that
various psycho-educational factors i.e. mental health (Rabin et. al 2000), work
related factors (Melchior et.al. 1997), organizational structure (Schulez, Greenley &
Brown 1995), job satisfaction (Tsigilis et. al. 2006), occupational stress (Singh,
Pandey and Chaubey 2009), job characteristics (Dorman 2003), psychological
distress (Patton & Goddard 2003) etc. adversely affect the psychological makeup
resulting in burnout tendency of teacher respondents. Review of studies suggests
that there is a large body of evidence to show that there are various factors and
sources in the environment, which may be responsible for creating frustration and
finally lead towards burnout. In the best knowledge of the author no attempt has yet
been made to investigate the impact of life satisfaction on job burnout of teacher
respondents. The present research is a step in this direction.
Method
Sample : Sixty male and female teacher respondents of higher secondary schools
ranging within the age of 30 to 45 years were included in the sample from Azamgarh
district. Incidental-cum-purposive sampling was used for the purpose. In other
respects, they were matched far as practicable.
Tools
1. Life Satisfaction Scale : Q G Alam & Ramji Srivastava This inventory consists of
60 items related to six areas- Health, Personal, Economic, Marital, Social and Job.
Every item is to be responded either in Yes or No. This inventory is based on
personal adjustment.
2. Burnout Inventory : Tripti Hatwal This inventory is based on Maslach's Burnout
Inventory (MBI ) and consists of 24 items in all. In this inventory, items are designed
to measure the perceived burnout in terms of three dimensions - Emotional
Exhaustion (EE), Personal accomplishment (PA) and Depersonalization (DP).
Items in the inventory are both in positive and negative forms. Each item is rated on a
5 point scale.
Procedure : To study the impact of level of life satisfaction on burnout tendency of
teacher respondents, they were categorized into high and low life satisfaction
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Life Satisfaction and Burnout
groups, by administering Alam and Srivastava's Life Satisfaction Scale. After that,
they were administered Hatwal's Burnout Inventory.
Results & Discussion
Table 01 shows that life satisfaction is a potent determiner of burnout
tendency. The respondents belonging to Low Life Satisfaction group were found
more burned out (M=87.80±6.28) than the respondents of High Life Satisfaction
group (M=74.70±6.54). The obtained mean difference was found statistically
significant at respectable level of significance (t=7.94>.01).
The findings of the present investigation may be explained in terms of

several psycho-social factors. Teacher respondents experiencing high life
satisfaction were found less burned out because satisfaction in life reduces the level
of anxiety and tension (Bowling, Morog & Grundy 1996), improve the work
efficiency of man, makes the person happy and ensures continuation of the same act
(Solomon 1996), helps to develop positive attitude towards various elements of job
and make the capable of deriving pleasure from activities related to that job, and,
never create problems for others (Topperman & Kurtis 1995) , helps to develop
broad outlook of the world (Diwedi & Srivastava 1998) and acknowledge more
positive attitude towards themselves (Walters 1996).
Conclusion
Teacher respondents experiencing high life satisfaction tend to be
comparatively less burnt out whereas teachers experiencing low life satisfaction
were found to be more burn out .
Reference
Diwedi K.& Srivastava, N. (1998) A study of life satisfaction and biographical factors
affecting aged persons. Perspectives In Psychological Researches 21,122, 38-41.
Dormon, J.(2003) Testing a model for Teacher burnout. Australian Journal of Educational
and Developmental Psychology, 3, 35-47.
Melchior, M.E.W. et.al.(1997) Burnout and the work environment of nurses in psychiatric
long stay care settings. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, 33, 3, 158-164.
Maslach , C .(1982) Burn out- The cost of caring. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice
Hall. Inc.
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Sandhya Rai
Patton, W. & Goddard, R(2003) Psychological distress and burnout in Australian

employment service workers: Journal of Employment Counselling, 40, 1, 2-16
Rabin S. et.al. (2000) A multifaceted mental health training programme in reducing burnout
among occupational social workers Israel Journal of Psychiatry & Related Sciences 37,
1, 12-19.
Schulez, R.Greenley, T.R & Brown, R. (1995) Organization, management and client effects
of staff burnout. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 36, 4, 333-345.
Singh, S.K. , Pandey, R. & Chaube, A.K.(2000) Occupational stress and burnout among
medical professionals Indo-Indian of Social Science Research 3,176-83.
Tsigilis, N. et.al. (2006) Job satisfaction and burnout among early Greek early educators: A
comparison between public and private sector employees. Educational Research and
Review, 1, 8, 256-261.
Walter, J.B.(1996) Attraction of computer mediated social support. Working pattern,
Department of Communication Studies, North Western University.
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Vol. 51 Issue-1 Jan.

-June 2017 ISSN-0974-1089

Purvanchal University Academy

Vol. 51 Issue-1 Jan-June 2017 ISSN-0974-1089

Ja Patron : Prof. R.R. Yadava, Vice-Chancellor

Editorial Advisory Board

Editorial Office : Dept. of Psychology, B.H.U., Varanasi (U.P.) India

Indian Journal of Human Relations

Indian Journal of Human Relations (IJHR) is published half yearly by

Vol- 51 Issue-1 Jan-June 2017 ISSN-0974-1089

Contents Page No.

l Role of Gender in Internet Experience, and Internet Attitudes 1-9

Indian Journal of Human Relations

Place of Publication Jaunpur (U.P.)

Mob.: 9415380784 Prof. R. N. Singh

Role of Gender in Internet Experience, and Internet

students perception towards the computer and internet.

Gender, Internet Experience, and Internet Attitudes

Gender and Internet Attitudes :

A closer examination of the individual items on the 3 subscales of the IAS

Correlations were compute in order to determine the interrelationships

research should examine gender differences in computer skills and efficacy to

A Competitor Analysis of Adrenalin

Table -1 : Table showing the no.of modules offered by the competitors.

Table 2 : Table showing the offering of competitors.

Table 4 :Table showing the number of competitors present globally.

Table 5 : Table showing the no. of clients of the competitors.

Television, News and History:

electronic-produces narratives that are seen here as representations of human

restructuring of the audiences in contemporary society. Narrative is a form of

Television engages with the 'historical' (Groot, 2016) very often,

Jerome de Groot (2016) Consuming History: Historians and Heritage in Contemporary

Prevalence of Iron Deficiency Anaemia

endurance and change in mood and ability to concentrate (Balasubramanian N et al

Table 2. Average Age of Menarch and Attainment of Menarche

A pre-tested and pre-designed interview schedule was used to obtain the

Source : Life Insurance Corporation of India Agent Manual

Figure. 2: Comparison of Average Height (Cm) of Adolescent Girls with Standard

Source : Life Insurance Corporation of India Agents Manual

Table 6 : Percentage Distribution of BMI Gradation

Table 7: Percentage of signs of anaemia present among adolescent girls (n=60).

TABLE NO. 8 Percentage of Symptoms of Anaemia among Adolescent Girls

Table- 9: Prevalence of Anaemia among 60 Adolescent Girls by

Figure- 6. Percentage of Prevalence of Anaemia among Adolescent Girls

Gender, Emotional Intelligence and

an aspect of emotional intelligence could be measured as a mental ability (Mayer, Di

** p=.01; * p=.05; NS= Not significant

**= Significant at .01 level of confidence

It is obvious from table 2 that mean score of girls (M = 154.84, SD = 18.57) is

* Significant at .05 level of confidence; ** Significant at .01 level of confidence

Adolescent Lifestyle and Behavior:

*Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, S.A.K.P.G. College, Varanasi, U.P.

including increase in height and weight, completion of skeletal growth

Adolescence, as every teenager, parent, and youth professional knows, is a

This review highlights the importance of psychological first aid and

Spread understanding of the equal importance of mental and physical health

progression of LSCP should be based on insights derived from theoretical models of

Adjustment Problems among High and

Reddy K. 1(996) Emerging epidemic of cardiovascular disease in developing countries.

Gender Equality : Issues & Challenges

*Asstt. Professor, Faculty of Education, U.P. College, Varanasi (U.P.)

to women, varying from encouragement to cultivate one's natural talents to fair