TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 2

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY ......................................................................................... 4

1.2 BACKGROUND OF HISTORY .......................................................................................... 6

1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................... 7

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE ................................................................................................... 8

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................... 9

2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 9

2.2 SPRAY CHAMBER ........................................................................................................... 10

3.0 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................. 12

3.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 12

3.2 MATERIALS ................................................................................................................. 12

3.3 EQUIPMENTS............................................................................................................... 12

3.4 PROCEDURE ................................................................................................................ 14

3.4.1 START UP PROCEDURE .......................................................................................... 14

3.4.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE .............................................................................. 14

3.4.3 SHUT DOWN PROCEDURE ..................................................................................... 16

4.0 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................... 18

4.1 RESULT ............................................................................................................................. 18

4.2 DISSCUSSION ................................................................................................................... 19

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...................................................................... 22

5.1 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................. 22

5.2 RECOMMENDATION ...................................................................................................... 23

6.0 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 24

1
1.0 ABSTRACT

The conversion of water droplets into fine droplets was a major leap in controlling air pollution

in industries. The dispersion of smaller water droplets to trap the dust particle increases the

efficiency of the spray chamber. This experiment was conducted to determine the effect of sample

size and the effect of the droplet size upon separation efficiency, by using different nozzle which

is N1 and N2. The main materials used in this experiment was only water and two different sample

size of fine sand for comparison. The efficiency of collecting dust particles for N1 was 94.4%

while N2 only makes up to 60% of collection efficiency. The droplet size of 290 µm was proven

to be contributing the collection efficiency percentage higher than the 500 µm droplet size.

2
 1.0 INTRODUCTION

Air becomes the two main important needs to human beings beside water. Air consist
mixture of gases that fills the atmosphere, lets living planet breathe and giving life to the plants
and animals that make Earth such a vibrant place. Air is almost entirely made up of two gases (78
percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen), with a few other gases (such as carbon dioxide and argon)
present in absolutely minute quantities. Living things breathe ordinary air all day long with no ill
effects but recently, air pollution became serious issues around the world. This is because all
country experience drastic development therefore a lot of industry increase like mushroom after
rain. This scenario happens in China where their citizens need to buy clean air every single day
because the air pollution is at an alarming level.

As one of the ‘Asian Tiger’ economies, Malaysia has enjoyed remarkable growth over the
last few decades, with industrialization playing leading roles in this success story. But today,
despite a relatively positive environmental record, Malaysia faces problems of deforestation,
pollution of inland and marine waters, soil and coastal erosion, along with air pollution, water
pollution and the problem of waste disposal. Even though, Malaysia has enjoyed one of the least
polluted urban environments in Asia, however with the massive industrial development of recent
years, and an increase in urbanization and vehicle use, air pollution are of growing concern.
Environment department of Malaysia is working up to protect our air from pollution. Therefore,
spray chamber could be the effective ways to reduce the air pollution in Malaysia if this method
or practice is being used.

3
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

The goal of conducting this experiment is to determine the effect of sample size and the
effect of the droplet size upon separation efficiency, by using different nozzle. Spray chamber also
known as spray column or spray tower. A spray chamber used to achieve the mass and heat transfer
between a continuous gas phases that can contain dispersed solid particles and a dispersed liquid
phase. It consists of empty cylindrical vessel made of steel or plastic and nozzles that spray liquid
into the vessel (Willis, 1967). The inlet gas stream usually enters the bottom of the tower and
moves upward, while liquid is sprayed downward from one or more levels. This flow of inlet gas
and liquid in the opposite direction is called counter current flow.

Counter current flow exposes the outlet gas with the lowest pollutant concentration to the
freshest scrubbing liquid. Many nozzles are placed across the tower at different heights to spray
all of the gas as it moves up through the tower (Peng, 2018). Different nozzles use is to maximize
the number of fine droplets impacting the pollutant particles and to provide a large surface area for
absorbing gas. Particles are collected by liquid drops that have been atomized by spray nozzles.
Horizontal and vertical gas flows are used, as well as spray introduced co-current, counter current
or cross-flow to the gas.

Droplet size, gas velocity, liquid/gas ratio, and droplet trajectories are the factors affecting
the collection efficiency. For droplets, falling at their terminal velocity, the optimum droplet
diameter for fine-particles collection lies in the range 100 until 500µm. Diameter of about 10.0
can be achieve by gravitational settling scrubber. The liquid, gas ratio is in the range of 0.0001 to
0.01 m3 gas treated. Theoretically, the smaller the droplets formed, the higher the collection
efficiency achieved for both gaseous and particulate pollutants (Chen, 2018).However, the liquid
droplets must be large enough to not be carried out of the scrubber by the scrubbed outlet gas
stream. Therefore, to produce droplets that are usually 500–1000 µm in diameter spray towers use
nozzles. Although small in size, these droplets are large compared to those created in the venturi
scrubbers that are 10–50 µm in size. The gas velocity is kept low, from 0.3 to 1.2 m/s (1–4 ft/s) to
prevent excess droplets from being carried out of the tower.

4
 Spray towers must be larger than other scrubbers in order to maintain low gas velocities,
that handle similar gas stream flow rates. Another problem occurring in spray towers is that after
the droplets fall short distances, they tend to agglomerate or hit the walls of the tower.
Consequently, the total liquid surface area for contact is reduced, reducing the collection efficiency
of the scrubber.

During conducting the experiment, there are two types of nozzle used. First is Nozzle 1(N1)
that have droplet size of 290 µm and second nozzle used is Nozzle 2 (N2), that have droplet size
of 520 µm. 500 g of fine sand was used in this experiment. The fine sand was filled inside the feed
vessel and the experiment was run separately. This means, Nozzle 1 (N1) was run first and after
finish the experiment, started again the experiment using Nozzle 2 (N2). By opening Valve 1 (CV1)
for Nozzle 1 (N1) and opening Valve 2 (CV2) for Nozzle 2 (N2) to control the nozzle. The fine
sample was dried inside an oven at 200oC for 2 hours until the sample becomes sufficiently dry.
The weight of sand collected was weighed and recorded. The efficiency for N1 is 94.4 % and 60 %
for N2. The efficiency of the equipment was calculated by using this formula:

Diagram 1: Spray Chamber unit

5
1.2 BACKGROUND OF HISTORY

Spray chamber is one of the technologies used in industry to control air pollution. The
removal of particulates matter was done by countering the flow that contains the particulate matter
with a fine spray of water. The water weighs down the particulate matter and was then to be
removed at the end of operation. (Schnelle & Brown, 2016) The alteration from bulk liquid into
fine sprays for the feeder was the biggest step up. Since then, numerous spray devices have been
developed, and they are generally designated as atomizers or nozzles. (Lefebvre & McDonell,
2017) Many experimental and theoretical studies about the atomization method have been carried
out since the atomizer was used in the diesel engine in 1892. Other than the fine spray nozzles
effects the efficiency of a spray chamber, but the amount of nozzles used in the chamber also
affects the efficiency of spray chamber. Kemp, Hartwig & Herdman (2015) stated that the
reason for using many nozzles is to maximize the number of fine droplets impacting theparticulate
matters. Due to gravity, the particulate matter attached to the droplets, which sinks to the bottom.
Nowadays in several industrial processes, the conversion of bulk liquid into fine spray is very
important and has many applications in agriculture, meteorology, and medicine. So, the design to
develop a fine spray nozzle varies according to the application. This experiment was focused on
comparison for fine spray nozzle between theoretical and experimental.

6
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Currently, majority of the users using the spray nozzle that already sold in the market. The
spray nozzle that sold in the market has a weakness such as need high pressure and more water
consumption. Using high pressure mean consume more energy usage, using more volume of water
mean the droplet size of water still large and the nozzle need modification. The latest spray
chamber was also still discharge the waste water used into the sewer network where the residual
of the waste water could cause the other type of pollution outside of the plant.

Thus, we need is to produce a better type of nozzle. We need to produce the nozzle that use
low pressure with very fine water spray. Nowadays, the industrial produce many types of spray
nozzle for example air assist, air blast, rotary and pressure atomizer. These types of nozzle have
different shapes and various form of pressure atomizer but still using a high pressure and a larger
droplet size. Further research must be done in this field to improve the spray nozzle. It is very
important to study the new ways or technology to treat this waste water that was discharged from
the spray chamber.

7
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

In this experiment there were two objectives. The first objective was to determine the effect of
droplet size upon separation efficiency of the spray chamber unit, by using different nozzle.In this
experiment, there was two types of nozzle used. First is Nozzle 1(N1) that have droplet size of 290
µm and second nozzle used is Nozzle 2 (N2), that have droplet size of 520 µm. 500 g of fine sand
was used in this experiment. The fine sand was filled inside the feed vessel and the experiment
was run separately. This means, Nozzle 1 (N1) was run first and after finish the experiment, started
again the experiment using Nozzle 2 (N2). By opening Valve 1 (CV1) for Nozzle 1 (N1) and
opening Valve 2 (CV2) for Nozzle 2 (N2) to control the nozzle. The fine sample was dried inside
an oven at 200oC for 2 hours until the sample becomes sufficiently dry. The weight of sand
collected was weighed and recorded. The efficiency of the equipment was calculated by using this
formula:

The second objective was to observe the flow characteristic and it efficiency by using
different type of mist spray. The different type of mist spray inside the spray chamber will affect
the efficiency of the spray chamber. The flowrate and the size of water droplet that was used for
the spray chamber also increase the efficiency of the spray chamber by remove the dust and even
the smallest particle inside the spray chamber. The size of water droplet used will be study during
the experiment as to reduce the consumption of energy and the reduce volume of water supply
inside the spray chamber.

8
2.0 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Spray chamber is where a particulate matter or dust particle are converted into a fluid state
by spraying liquid droplets onto incoming particles from gas stream that enters the chamber in air
pollution control technology. A spray chamber system generally consist of a large volume of
separation chamber, an air blower, a detachable dust filter, a water supplying valve, a feed
container and spray nozzles. However, as years went by, intensive research and studies led the
development of modernized spray chamber resulting in additional features such as water
recirculation system, a mist eliminator and a differential pressure transmitter to asses head loss
across the spray chamber. These features aids in increasing the collection efficiency of dust
particles. Using only water as the medium, spray chamber outshines from other process that uses
not only chemicals but also higher energy consumption.

Due to its multidisciplinary function, not only does the spray chamber can remove
particulates, however it can also removes water where the feed transforms from liquid state into a
dried particulate form as stated by Anandharamakrishnan, 2015. The method was known as spray
drying. In 1901, this application technology was first applied in food industries and patented by
the German Mr Stauf where he uses the nozzles to spray the milk into a chamber filled with warm
air as reported by Caballero, Finglas, and Toldra. The discovery led the advancement of food
technology in extension of food sustainability.

9
2.2 SPRAY CHAMBER

Collection efficiency depends on droplet size, gas velocity and pressure. The optimum
droplet diameter for fine-particles collection lies within the range of 100 until 500µm referring to
Rao, 2006. Theoretically speaking, the smaller the droplets formed, the higher the collection
efficiency achieved for both gaseous and dust particulates. Spray chambers usually install nozzles
to produce droplets that are usually 100–1000 µm in diameter. This is because spray chamber are
not built to collect smaller dust particle due to have quite low contacting power. The water droplets
are rather large compared to those produced in the venturi scrubbers which was ranging from 10
to 50 µm in size.

Another factor in contributing the dust collection efficiency is the pressure or the water
flowrate. The increase of pressure at the mouth of the nozzle spray will reduce the droplet size,
increase the flowrate, making the water droplets distributes smaller and further thus providing
more surface area for contact with dust particles. Moreover, the gas velocities was kept low, from
0.3 to 1.2 m/s (1 to 4 ft/s) to prevent excess droplets from being carried out of the chamber.

The removal of dust particles from the gas stream was done by capturing the dust particles
in liquid droplet, thus weighing down the droplets away from the gas stream and accumulates at
the base of the chamber. The spray nozzle plays a major role in the system. The liquid are dispersed
in the spray chamber due to the spray nozzle. The droplet size, spray impact or pattern depends on
the type of spray nozzles designed. The dispersed water droplets will be in contact with the dust
particles and are separated by gravity. To increase the number of water droplets capturing the
particulate matter, the nozzles are placed across the spray tower aside from providing larger surface
area for absorbing gas (Ashgriz, 2011). Overall, more contact between the droplets and dust
particles increases the collection efficiency of dust particles.

10
 Figure 2.1: Spray tower system.

The collection efficiency of the spray chamber system can be calculated using the equation:

Weight of sample
collected
η= ×100%
weight of sample loaded

The more weight of sample or dust collected at the end of the experiment, the higher the collection
efficiency of dust particulate in a spray chamber. The simple yet robust design of spray chamber
where it does not require any chemicals or reagents can further improve simply by altering the size
of the chamber or the diameter of nozzle spray to meet the requirements of the consumer. One of
the advantages of using spray chamber is the capability of handling flammable and explosive dust
by neutralizing. Not only does a spray chamber can remove particulates, it is also capable in
providing cooling air to the chambers. However, the collected waste may be contaminated and
unrecyclable. Due to this problem, the waste might be too expensive to handle for disposal.

11
3.0 3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter explained about the difference of nozzle spray used in the experiment of spray
chamber. The table 3.3 has shown the different particle size of nozzles used in the experiment as
the manipulated variable which are 290 μm and 520 μm. The sample size was kept constant to
investigate the efficiency between nozzle N1 and N2. All equipments used for experiment and
experimental procedures were arranged in order. The research methodology will be further
discussed in this chapter.

3.2 MATERIALS

This section presents the materials required for the experiment.

1. Water as a medium

2. 500g of sand

Figure 3.2: Material-used fine sand

3.3 EQUIPMENTS

12
This section presents the equipments required for the experiment.

1. Spray chamber

 Nozzle (Water Spray)

 Mist Eliminator

Figure 3.2: Spray Chamber

13
3.4 PROCEDURE

3.4.1 START UP PROCEDURE

1. All valves were closed except for valve V9.

2. The centrifugal water pump, P1 was switched on.

3. The frequency of air pump was set to 20 Hz.

3.4.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. The water source valve was opened.

2. Isolation valve was opened and the control valve was adjusted to set the nozzle
pressure, PT1. The operation guide is based on Table 3.3.

Table 3.3: Operation Guide for AP03 Spray Chamber System

Set
Droplet Isolation Control
Nozzle Pressure, Flow meter
Size (µm) valve Valve
PT1
N1 290 V1 2 bar FM1 = 0.07 CV1
N2 520 V2 2 bar FM2 = 0.40 CV2

3. Flow rate of water flow meter FM1 and FM2 were recorded depending on the
nozzle to be tested (Table 3.3).

4. The water level in the spray chamber was left until it reached the desired level
indicate by the line on the chamber. The valve V9 was adjusted once to maintain
the water height.

5. 500g sand poured into the feed vessel with the feed control valve. Then, valve
V11 was slightly opened so that the sample flows down steadily.

14
6. 2 minutes were waited for the sand delivered into the air stream to ensure all dust
cleared from the pipeline and the centrifugal water pump P1 and air pump were
switched off.

7. Valve V9 was slowly opened to let dust-laden water in the spray chamber flow
down by gravity to dust collecting bucket.

8. When all water has flowed down from the chamber, let the dust settle down in
the bucket. The dust was trapped in the water particles.

9. The bucket was taken out carefully to avoid the dust sample from spill. The
excess water was drained. The dust was collected on a suitable oven tray. The wet
dust sample is heat up in an oven at 180oC for 2 hours until the sample becomes
sufficiently dry.

10. The collected sample is weighed on a digital mass balance and the final weight
was recorded.

11. The efficiency is calculated:

weight of sample collected

  100%
Efficiency, weight of sample loaded

12. The chamber was cleaned by pumping water with a bigger nozzle to clean the
sand. The bucket is used to collect the drained sand. The feed pipeline is cleaned
from the wet sand by opened the feed pipeline. Then, the experiment was preceded
for other nozzle listed in Table 3.3.

15
3.4.3 SHUT DOWN PROCEDURE

1. The chamber was cleaned by pumping the water by using a bigger nozzle.

2. Drain valve was opened to let the water drained from the spray chamber.

3. The feed pipeline was cleaned from the wet sand by opening the feed pipeline
valve.

4. The centrifugal water pump and air pump were switched off.

5. Main power was switched off.

16
 Start

Set up the spray

nozzle

Proceed with the

experiement

Change the
nozzle N1 to N2

Collecting data

Data analysis
(effeciency)

End experiment

Figure 3.4: Flowchart of spray chamber experiment

17
4.0 4.0 DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULT

This chapter explains the result that have taken in this experiment. Data were tabulated and
calculated based on the equation related to this study.

Table 4.1: The weight of the sample collected at the outlet of dust filter.

Weight of
Weight of
Weight of Weight of bucket +
bucket + Total weight collected
Nozzle sample the bucket weight of
weight of dry (g)
loaded (g) (g) wet sample
sample (g)
(g)

N1 500 1104 1604 1576 472

N2 500 1035 1535 1335 300

18
4.2 DISSCUSSION

This experiment was conducted to study the effect of droplet size upon separation efficiency
of the spray chamber unit, by using different nozzle. A spray tower or also known as spray chamber
consists of mainly a spray (separation chamber, a water re-circulation system, a feed container
with a valve, an air blower, an outlet dust filter and an air flow meter with control valve. It is made
of durable clear PVC measuring approximately 0.3 m diameter and 2 m tall 2. To produce five
different droplet sizes, five different spray nozzles have been installed inside the chamber. A mist
eliminator was introduced at the top section of the chamber in order to prevent any water droplets
from escaping. The water re-deregulation tank consists of a water tank water pump, liquid flow
meters, pressure gauge and regulator.

In this experiment, there are two types of nozzle used which is Nozzle 1(N1) that have
droplet size of 290 µm and second nozzle used is Nozzle 2 (N2), which have the droplet size of
520 µm. The flowrate and the size of the droplet will affect the efficiency of the spray chamber
where the smallest particle was aim to be removed from the spray chamber. The collection
efficiency also depending the droplet size, gas velocity, liquid/gas ratio and the droplet trajectory.
For this experiment, 500 g of fine sand was used as the sample. The sand was filled inside the feed
vessel and the experiment was run separately. For set 1, only Nozzle 1 (N1) will run first and after
finish the experiment, started again the experiment using Nozzle 2 (N2). By opening Valve 1 (CV1)
for Nozzle 1 (N1), and opening Valve 2 (CV2) for Nozzle 2 (N2) to control the nozzle. After
completed all the run, the sample was dried inside an oven at 200oC for 2 hours until the sample
becomes sufficiently dry. The weight of sand collected was weighed and recorded. The efficiency
of the equipment was calculated by using this formula:

weight of sample collected

  100%
Efficiency, weight of sample loaded

Graph below showed the result of experiment particulate emission control by Spray Chamber:

19
 Graph 1: Dust collected (g)
600
500 500
472
500
Dust Collected (g)

400
300
300

200

100

0
N1 (290 µm) N2 (520 µm)
Droplet Size (µm)

dust added dust collected

Graph 1: Dust collected

Graph 2: Efficiency of Spray Chamber (%)

100 94.4
90
80
70
Efficiency (%)

60
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
N1 (290 µm) N2 (520 µm)
Droplet Size (µm)

Graph 2: Efficiency of pulse spray chamber

Based on the graph above, Nozzle 1 (N1) shows higher collection efficiency which is 94.4%
compared to Nozzle 2 (N2) which the collection efficiency only 60.0%. So from the result obtained,
it can be concluded that smaller nozzle particle size will give higher collection efficiency compared
to larger size of droplets. This is due to the fact which is induced by diffusion and impaction where
the smaller and denser droplets will have high efficiency in capturing smaller sized particles.
Impaction will increase as the size of the liquid droplets decreases as the presence of more droplets
within the vessel increases the likelihood that particles will impact on the droplets. As more
20
particles hit the droplet, collection efficiency will also increase as more particles can be collected.
However, in this experiment diffusion is not being considered as it is only effective for particles
sized less than 0.5 μm. The size of the water droplet also affected the efficiency of the dust
collection as the bigger the size of the droplet, the efficiency to remove the dust also increase. In
the same time, the rate of water supply enter can be reduced and the energy consumption of the
reactor also can be decreases. The results obtained in this experiment proves the theory which
stated that collection efficiency increases with an increase in relative velocity and a decrease in
liquid-droplet size.

21
5.0 5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSIONS

Based on the overall research with the problem statement and objectives that was outlined,
it is found that to study the efficiency of the spray chamber the factor that need to be taken was the
sample size that was used and the droplet size upon the separation. As indicated in the introduction,
he objective of this experiment was to study the effect of sample size and the effect of the droplet
sizing that can affected the separation efficiency.

There are two size of nozzle that was used in this experiment where is for the first
experiment, the nozzle that was used was a nozzle particle size of 290 μm Nozzle 1 (N1). The
particle size that was used for this nozzle was 520 μm Nozzle 2 (N2) and the efficiency achieved
was 94.4% while for the sample size of 520 μm Nozzle 2 (N2), the efficiency achieved was 60.00%.
This can conclude that the collection efficiency was increase as the size of the droplet or nozzle
particle size decrease. The nozzle particle size of 290 μm achieved highest collection efficiency
which is 94.4% compared to the droplet of 520 μm, where the efficiency collection achieved was
60.00%.

The experiment was success as the result achieved was comply with the theory. Based on
the theory that was stated in the introduction which is stated that the collection efficiency increases
with an increase in relative velocity and the decrease the liquid-droplet size. The size of the water
droplet also affected the efficiency of the dust collection as the bigger the size of the droplet, the
efficiency to remove the dust also increase. This is because the bigger the sample size, the easier
it will be for the water droplets to capture the sample. However, some errors were encountered
while conducting the experiment which are due to the faultiness of the equipment. Thus, the
objectives of this experiment were achieved.

22
5.2 RECOMMENDATION

To improve this research and analysis, there are several recommendations that can be made
which can be helps in improving the accuracy and the conservation measures.

After the research was conducted, there are some preventive ways should be taken to
improve the quality of the result which is the connection between parts of the device should be
check properly and fully equips where must make sure all of the part can be functioning in every
aspect of the device. So that, during the collection of the result or during recorded the result, the
data obtained can be more accurate. Another suggestion to improve this experiment was must
make sure that the equipment for collecting the result or the sample for this experiment must rinse
so that the product can be fully collected from the spray chamber.

By doing this precaution method as well, the efficiency of the spray chamber also can be
increase and the result obtained can be more accurate. The importance of cleaning and rinsing the
equipment before conducting the experiment was to avoid and make sure there was no residues
left inside the equipment from the previous experiment.

The expected contribution from this experiment was to reduce the air pollution emission
from directly exposed or emitted to the atmosphere. The directly emitted dust or small particle
which was mostly produced from the industrial was mostly causing the air pollution. From
conducting this kind of experiment or research, the new technology or the new ways of reduce the
air pollution from directly emitted to the atmosphere can be discover. This research or the
experiment also can help in reducing the health risk where the pollution was arising from the
uncontrollable emission of the small particle or dust from the atmosphere.

23
6.0 6.0 REFERENCES

Ashgriz, N. (2011). Handbook of Atomization and Sprays: Theory and Applications. London:
Springer Science & Business Media.

Caballero, B., Finglas, P., & Toldra, F. (2015). Encyclopedia of food and health. New york:
Academic Press.

Chen, B. (2018). Atomization and surface heat transfer characteristics of cryogen spray cooling
with expansion-chambered nozzles. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 121.
15-27

Kemp, I. C., Hartwig, T., & Herdman, R. (2015). Spray drying with a two-fluid nozzle to
produce fine particles: Atomization, scale-up, and modeling, Drying Technology. Drying
technology, 1243-1252.

Lefebvre, A. H., & McDonell, V. G. (2017). Atomization and sprays. New York: CRC press.
Schnelle, K. B., & Brown, C. A. (2016). Air Pollution Control Technology Handbook. New
York: CRC Press.
Rao, C. S. (2006) “Environmental Pollution Contro Engineering”, 2nd Edition, New Age
International : New Delhi.

Willis, J. B. (1967). Atomization problems in atomic absorption spectroscopy. A study of a typical

nebulizer, spray chamber and burner system. Molecular Spectroscopy. 23(4). 811-830Peng, Z.
(2018). Characteristics of near-nozzle spray development from a fouled GDI injector. Fuel.
219. 17-29.

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