Chapter 14

Exploring Engineering
Chapter 14
Bioengineering
Topics to be Covered
 What is bioengineering
Impact damage to the human body
 Fracture criterion
 Injury potential
 Gadd Severity Impact Parameter
 Examples
What is Bioengineering?
Bioengineering is a combination of biology,
medicine, and engineering.
Biology Medicine
Bioengineering Engineering
Neural Engineering
Neural Engineers use modeling and analysis to
understand and control the nervous system.
Advances in neuroscience and
microfabrication have opened the doors to
exciting applications in neuroprosthetics,
biosensors and hybrid biocomputers.
Fluorescent Stained Myocyte
Microfabrication Surface
Cell and Tissue Engineering
Cell and Tissue Engineering allows one to repair or
replace the function of natural tissue with
bioengineered substitutes.
Principles of engineering, chemistry, and biology
are combined to create tissue substitutes from
living cells and synthetic materials.
New Companies: Advanced Tissue Tissue Engineered Skin

Sciences, Inc. Organogenesis
Bioinformatics & Genomics
Bioinformatics combines computer science with
biomedicine to develop tools for identifying and
understanding the genetic blueprint of life.
Genome Annotation (DNA sequence identification
of genes)
Discover genetic basis for disease (cancer, diabetes)
Develop new diagnostic devices (cDNA chip)
cDNA Array
Future of Bioengineering
Human Genome Sequence
Heart Cell Regeneration
Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis
Bioinformatics
Bio-Molecular Modeling
Genetic Engineering of Animals
Genetic Engineering of Proteins, Drugs
Cell and Tissue Engineering
Neural Engineering
Biomaterials
Accelerations That Kill
High velocity doesn't produce harmful injuries, but
high acceleration or deceleration can be fatal. The
common term "g" is a measure of acceleration.
Everything is said to feel normal at 1 g, twice as heavy
at 2g, and weightless at 0 g.
The standard for sudden impact acceleration on a
human that would cause severe injury or death is
about 65 g's.
Military aircraft are so fast and nimble that evasive
maneuvers can add 9 times the acceleration of
gravity to the weight of a pilot's body. It can cause
fatigue, blackout, or death as gravity drives blood and
oxygen from the brain, lungs, and heart.
Planes, Cars and Coasters
Aircraft, car crashes, and roller coaster rides are
common examples of high g situations. Roller coasters
undergo a maximum of 3 to 4 g's for brief periods.
Military pilots may be exposed to 9 g's for short
periods of time.
An acceleration of 4 to 6g's is held for more than a few
seconds could result in blackout or death. The car
crash of Princess Diana of Wales in 1997 produced
between 70 - 100 g's.
In 1985 Sammy Miller set the fastest 1/4 mile time to
date of 3.58 seconds at 386 mph in his Vanishing Point
rocket car. His average acceleration over the quarter-
mile was 4.6 g’s.
Car Racing
The British Ultima GTR accelerates from 0 to 60. mph in
2.6 secs, and from 0 to 100. mph in 5.30 secs.
ΔV = [60 - 0 miles/hr](5280 ft/mile)(1 hr/3600 s) = 88
ft/s. So aavg:0-60 .= ΔV/Δt = (88 ft/s)/(2.6 s) = 33.8 ft/s2
Since g = 32.2 ft/s2 in the English unit system,
aavg:0-60 = 33.8/32.2 = 1.05 g, and
aavg:0-100 = 147/5.30 = 27.7 ÷ 32.2 = 0.86 g
This car also brakes from 100. to 0 mph in 3.60 seconds,
which produces a deceleration (negative acceleration)
of aavg:0-100 = (0 – 147)/3.60 = - 40.7 ÷ 32.2 = -1.26 g
Rocket Cars
Phenomenal times of 0-60 mph in 0.2 seconds and 0-
100 mph in 0.3 seconds are normal for rocket cars.
They produce accelerations of 14 - 15 g’s.
Sammy Miller’s rocket car had around 25,000 hp and
did 0-60 in 0.16 seconds (17 g’s). He had to lie almost
flat on his back in the car; otherwise, the incredible
acceleration would have caused him to black out. He
said that every time he raced the car his nose and ears
bled.
The Fastest Ever
The fastest ever quarter
mile was run by Kitty O’Neil
in the ‘The Conklin Comet’
at El Mirage in California in
1977. She achieved 412
mph with an elapsed time
of 3.235 secs. The car is a
hydrogen peroxide fuelled
rocket dragster with a
engine producing 7,500lbs
of thrust.
Danica Patrick
Makes IndyCar History
Danica Patrick became the first female
winner in IndyCar history April 20,
2008, taking the Indy Japan 300.
Patrick finished 5.8594 seconds ahead
of pole-sitter Helio Castroneves on
the 1.5-mile Twin Ring Motegi oval
after leader Scott Dixon pitted with
five laps left and Dan Wheldon and
Tony Kanaan came in a lap later.
Forensic Engineering
Forensic engineering is the investigation of
materials, products, structures or components that
fail or do not operate/function as intended, causing
personal injury or damage to property.
The consequences of failure are dealt by the law of
product liability. The subject is applied most
commonly in civil law cases, although may be of
use in criminal law cases.
Generally the purpose of a forensic engineering
investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure
with a view to improve performance or life of a
component, or to assist a court in determining the
facts of an accident.
It can also involve investigation of intellectual
property claims, especially patents.
The Human Nervous System
Spinal column
Brain
Disks
Vertebrae
Spinal cord
Brain Injuries Due to Whiplash
Brain injuries
Spinal cord
injury
Extrusion Spinal cord
injury
Vertebra fracture
Vertebra fracture
Hyperflexion Hyperextension
Stress-Speed-Stopping-Distance-
Area (SSSA) Criterion
Suppose a body of mass m is subjected to a deceleration of ‘a’.
Then the force experienced by the body = mV2/2DS.
Now suppose that this force is experienced as the contact of an
area A of the head or body with a surface. Then the stress can be
calculated as follows: Stress, σ = mv2/2ADS
This useful relationship may be called the stress-speed-stopping-
distance-area (SSSA) criterion. It states that, technically, it’s not
enough to say that “speed kills”. What kills is the combination of
high speeds, short stopping distances, and small contact areas!
v = 13.4
Note: a = v/t then F = ma = mv/t. Since Area = Ds
the area under the V – t plot is Ds, then
V
Ds = ½ Vt, and t = 2Ds/V and
F = mV2/2Ds t
0 ts t
How Many g’s?
The human body should not be subjected to more than 30.
g’s. Above 30. g’s the damaging effects of acceleration or
deceleration on the human body can range from loss of
consciousness to ruptured blood vessels to concussion to
the breaking of the bone and to trauma or death.
The 30 g criterion serves as an initial rule of thumb for the
design of safety devices.
However, very high decelerations, measured in hundreds of
g’s, can be survived - if the exposure is short enough.
Deceleration at moderate g levels, on the other hand, can
prove fatal if the exposure is long enough.
Injury Criterion
An unconscious 8 weeks old infant was admitted to a
hospital and found to have bilateral, subdural and
retinal haemorrhages. He died the following day.
The parents explanation for the infant’s injuries was
that the infant had been in a baby-rocker and that they
had seen the rocker being rocked vigorously by their
14 months old daughter on two separate occasions.
A biomechanical analysis of the infant in the baby-
rocker was used to estimate the maximum forces
generated. These forces were then compared with
those necessary to cause the subdural haemorrhage.
Conclusions
An instrumented infant dummy placed in a child rocker
was subjected to a series of rocking impulses, applied
by both a young child and an adult. A range of physical
parameters was recorded and calculated.
Head injury models were derived from dummy
simulations based on animal experiments and
mathematical modeling, accident investigation and
reconstruction, adult volunteer and cadaver studies.
The experiments do not support the account offered
by the parents that the injuries suffered by the infant
were sustained in the baby-rocker in the manner
described.
Mathematical Model:
The Gadd Severity Index (GSI)
The Gadd Severity Index was developed with data from tests
on human cadavers, and supported with real accident data.
A human head can sustain values as high as 1,000 without
serious injury as long as the peak value does not last for more
than 10 or 15 milliseconds. For comparison, a hammer hitting
a nail into wood gives a value of about 3,000, a baseball hitting
a concrete wall is about 10,000, and a hammer hitting a
concrete wall is about 3,600,000.
GSI is the
1,000
equation of Experimental
Average acceleration, g
300
Points
2.5
GSI = a tS 100
this line
30
10
Exploring Engineering .001 .01 .1 1 10

Duration, s
100 1000
Text Example 1
A car traveling at 30. miles per hour runs into a sturdy stone wall.
Assume the car is a totally rigid body that neither compresses nor
crumples during the collision. The wall “gives” a distance of DS = 0.03
meters in the direction of the collision as the car is being brought to
a stop. Assuming constant deceleration, calculate the deceleration.
0.5 m 0.47 m
t=0
V = 30 mph V = 0 mph
Initial state After impact, seconds later

just before impact v=
V =13.4 m/s
velocity
Area = Stopping distance
DS = 0.03 m
0 ts
ts t
Text Example 1 Continued
Need: Deceleration = ____ m/s2
Know - how: First sketch the situation to clarify what is occurring at
the impact. Then use Velocity - time graph to model the collision. The
slope of Velocity - time graph is acceleration.
Solve: We first need to calculate the stopping time, ts , to decelerate

from 30. mph (13.4 m/s) to 0. From Chapter 10, if deceleration is
constant, we know that distance equals the area under the V – t graph
or DS = 0.03 [m] = ½ × 13.4[m/s] × ts [s] where ts is the stopping time.
Therefore ts = 0.06/13.4 = 0.0045 s.
Also the deceleration rate is the slope od the V-t graph,
∆V/∆t = (0 - 13.4)/ (0.0045 - 0) = -2980 = -3,000 m/s2
(about 306 g’s)
Text Example 2
The car and its belted driver of Example 1 suffers the same
constant deceleration of 306 g or 3,000 m/s2. What is the
force he or she experiences during the collision if their
mass is 75 kg? Assume the car is a totally rigid body that
neither compresses nor crumples during the collision.
DS
30 mph
Text Example 2 Continued
Need: Force stopping 75 kg driver on sudden impact in SI.
Force = _____ N
Know: The driver’s weight is 75 [kg] × 9.8 [m/s2] = 735 N and
deceleration rate is 306 g.
How: F = ma = mg × a/g
Solve: F = 735 × 306 = 2.24 × 105 N (or ~50,000 lbf!).
Even though the driver is belted in position, this is a very

substantial force. What are the effects on human tissue of such
large forces?
Structure of the Body’s Long Bones
Dense outer bone Marrow
layer channel
Femur Sectional
view
Compact and
spongy bone
(made up of
osteoblasts,
collagen, and
calcium phosphate)
Bone Mechanical Properties
125
100 Longitudinal
σ MPa
75
50 Transverse
25
0 5 10 15 20 25
ε × 10-3
Seat Belts & Crumple Zones
30 mph 30
30mph
mph V=0
30 mph 30 mph v= 0
A B C
The purpose of a seat belt is to attach the driver

to a rigid internal passenger shell while the rest
of the car shortens by crumpling. A seat belt is
most effective when a car significantly crumples
during a collision.
Crumple Zone
The crumple zone is the area of a
car designed to absorb energy
upon impact. Engineers
deliberately place weak spots in a
car's structure to enable the
metal work to collapse in a
controlled manner to direct
energy from the impact from the
passenger area, and channeled
to the floor, bulkhead, roof, or
hood. Energy from the impact is
converted into heat and sound
(loud noise).
Crumple Zone
Crash bunny
Late night!
Exercise
A car is traveling 30. mph hits a wall. The car has a
crumple zone of zero and the passenger is not
wearing a seat belt. The passenger’s head hits the
windshield, and is stopped in the distance of 0.10 m.
The area of contact of the head and the windshield is
0.010 m2.
1) Provide a graph of V - t and F - t of the skull with
the windshield.
2) If the compressive strength of bone is 3.0 × 106
N/m2, will the collision break the skull?
Exercise 1 Solution
Need: V - t graph of the collision and F = _____ N
Know: v = 30. mph = 13.4 m/s; Ds = 0.10 m and
A (contact) = 0.010 m2. Skull mass = 5.0 kg.
How: V-t graph area relates to Ds and hence the time of
impact.
This gives the deceleration and thus the acting force.
Solve: Ds = ½ V0 × ts; hence ts = 2 × 0.10/13.4 [m][s/m] =
0.0149 s. Deceleration rate = V0/ts = 13.4/0.0149 [m/s][1/s]
= 899 m/s2. Force on head at contact is m × a = 5.0 × 899
[kg][m/s2] = 4490 = 4,500 N and lasting 0.015 s.
13.4 Force, N
m/s Ds= ½ V0 × ts
45000
V = 0.10 m
0 0 t, s
ts t ts = .015 s
Exercise 2 Solution
Need: Max allowable stress on skull exceeded = _____ (yes/no)
Know: Contact area = 0.010 m2 and force is 4,500 N.
Compressive Strength of head bone = 3.0 × 106 N/m2.
How: Compute force per unit area (which is the same as the
energy per unit volume) of collision, and compare to
compressive strength of head bone.
Solve: Force = 4,500 N, so Force/Area = stress = 4,500 /0.01
[N][1/m2] = 4.5 × 105 N/m2 (greater than the compressive
strength of bone, so no, the skull will not be broken, but other
very serious injuries may still occur within the head or neck).
Another Exercise
A rear facing child safety seat holds a child of mass 12 kg
rigidly within the interior of a car. The area of contact
between the seat and the child is 0.10 m2. The car undergoes
a 30. mph collision. The car’s crumple zone causes the
distance traveled by the rigid interior to be 1.0 m. Give the
stress experienced by the child’s body in terms of a fraction
of the breaking strength of bone assuming an infant’s bone
breaks at a stress of 10. N/m2.
Child
Exercise Solution
Need: Stress experienced by child’s body = ____ ÷ breaking stress
of bone.
Know: Impact at 30. mph = 13.4 m/s; deceleration distance = 1.0 m and
contact area = 0.10 m2. Breaking stress in infant’s bone = 10. MN/m2.
How: Find duration of accident tf from V – t diagram. Find deceleration
from V0 and tf. Find force from F = ma and find stress from force/area.
Compare to breaking stress of 10. MN/m2.
Solve: From V – t diagram, 1.0 m = ½ ×13.4 × tf [m/s][s]
so that tf = 2.0/13.4 = 0.15 s.
Hence deceleration rate for infant = 13.4/0.15 = 90. m/s2.
Force on baby = 12. × 90. [kg][ m/s2] = 1.08 × 103 N.
Stress = 1.08 × 103/0.10 = 1.08 × 104 N/m2.
As fraction of breaking stress, 1.08 × 104/ 10. × 106 = 1.08 × 10-3
Bones should hold and infant should be safe.
One More Exercise
A car strikes a wall traveling 30. mph. The driver’s cervical
spine (basically the neck) first stretches forward relative to the
rest of the body by 0.01 m, and then recoils backward by 0.02
m, as shown below. Assume the spine can be modeled by a
material of a modulus E = 10. GPa and a strength of 1.00 × 102
MPa. Will the maximum stress on the cervical spine during
this “whiplash” portion of the accident exceed the strength of
the spine? the length of the cervical spine is 0.15 m.
V = 30. mph V=0

V < 30. mph
T1 T2 T3
Before stopping While stopping After stopping
Exercise Solution
Need: Stress on cervical spine = _____ (greater than/equal to/less than)
tensile strength of spine?
Know: V0 = 30. mph = 13.4 m/s; cervical spine length = 0.15 m.
During stopping period, T2, spine stretches forward 0.01 m and on stopping
at T3 backwards by 0.02 m. Elastic constants are E = 10. GPa and
“transverse” strength of 1.00 × 102 MPa for this failure mode.
How: Compute stress on spine from its strain. Compare to its strength.
Solve: Maximum stretch of cervical spine = 0.02 m.
Maximum strain of spine = 0.02/0.15 [m][1/m] = 0.133
Stress on cervical spine = modulus × strain = 1010 × 0.133 = 1.3 × 109 N/m2.
Compare maximum stress on spine to tensile strength of spine:
1.3 × 109 N/m2 (max stress) > 108 N/m2 (strength)
Stress on cervical spine is greater than its tensile strength.
Summary
Bioengineering is the application of engineering, biology,
and medicine to define and solve problems in medicine,
health care, and other fields. Some examples of
bioengineering include the design and development of
Artificial kidneys, hearts, heart valves, blood vessels, arms,
legs, hips, knees, and other joints.
Medical imaging techniques (ultrasound, MRI, CT, and others).
Engineered organisms for chemical and pharmaceutical
manufacturing.
Blood oxygenators, dialysis machines, and diagnostic
equipment.

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Chapter 14

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Exploring Engineering

Fluorescent Stained Myocyte

New Companies: Advanced Tissue Tissue Engineered Skin

Exploring Engineering .001 .01 .1 1 10

Initial state After impact, seconds later

Solve: We first need to calculate the stopping time, ts , to decelerate

Even though the driver is belted in position, this is a very

The purpose of a seat belt is to attach the driver

V = 30. mph V=0

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