Limit state concept

The aim of this method is that the structure should be able to withstand safely all the load that
are liable to act on it throughout its life and it should also satisfy the serviceability requirements
of limiting deflection and cracking. Limit state is defined as the acceptable limit of safety and
serviceability requirements before failure. The most important limit states which are considered in
design as are follows:
(i) Limit state of collapse.

(ii) Limit state of serviceability

Limit State of Collapse

This limit state is also called as strength limit state as it corresponds to the maximum load
carrying capacity i.e., the safety requirements of the structure. The limit state of collapse is
assessed from collapse of the whole or part of the structure. As per this limit state, the resistance
to bending, shear, torsion and axial loads at every section shall not be less than that produced by
the most unfavorable combination of loads on that structure. The following limit states of
collapse are considered in design:

(i) Limit state of collapse in flexure (bending)

(ii) Limit state of collapse in compression

(iii) Limit state of collapse in shear

(iv) Limit state of collapse in torsion.

Limit State of Serviceability

A structure is of no use if it is not serviceable. Thus, this limit state is introduced to prevent
excessive deflection and cracking. It ensure the satisfactory performance of the structure at
working loads. It is estimated on the basis of elastic theory or working stress method because
deformation is of significance under working load and not at collapse. Limit state of serviceability
of following limit states:

(i) Limit state of deflection

(ii) Limit state of cracking

(iii) Limit state of vibration

The structure should be designed which considering all the appropriate limit state of safety and
serviceability and on the basis of most critical limit state and then checked for all other limit
states.

Characteristic Strength of Materials

The characteristic strength is based on the statistical analysis of the test results because there are
variations in the strength of the material used. In order to simplify the analysis, it may be
assumed that the variation in strength follows a normal distribution curve which is symmetric
about the mean value as shown below in Fig. 3.1.

Characteristic Strength of Materials

Therefore, characteristic strength = Mean strength – k S

where S is the standard deviation, k=1.64, corresponding to 5% probability

Characteristic Strength of Concrete

The term characteristic strength means that value of strength of material below which not more
than 5% of the test results are expected to fall. It is denoted by fck is N/mm2. The value of fck for
different grades of concrete are specified by IS code 456:2000 and given in Table 1.1
TABLE 1.1. Grades of Concrete, Characteristic Strength of Concrete
Group Designation Characteristic Compressive Strength, fck (N/mm2)
M10 10
M15 15
Ordinary
Concrete M20 20

M25 25
M30 30

M35 35

M40 40

M45 45

M50 50
Standard
Concrete M55 55

M60 60
M65 65

High Strength M70 70

Concrete
 M75 75

M80 80

Characteristic Strength of Steel

The characteristic strength of steel is taken as the minimum yield stress or 0.2 percent proof
stress specified by various Indian standards. In the case of mild steel it is taken as equal to
minimum yield strength and is the case of HYSD bars it is taken as equal to 0.2 percent proof
stress the values of characteristic strength of various types of steel are given in Table 1.9

TABLE 1.9.
S.No. Type of Reinforcement Sub-Type Relevant Indian Standard
(a) Cold worked mild steel bars IS 432-1996 (Part-I)
(b) Hot rolled mild steel bars IS 1139-1966 (Part-II)
1. Mild steel plain bar
(a) Cold worked deformed bars IS 1786-1979
(i) Grade Fe 415

(ii) Grade Fe 500

High yield strength
deformed bars (Tor steel) (b) Hot rolled deformed bars IS 1139-1966 (Part-II)
2.
3. Hard drawn steel wire fabric Wire mesh IS 1566-1967
Angles, T-sections Joists,
Channels etc.
4. Rolled steel members IS 226:1975
(i) Thermo-mechanically
treated bars (TMT)
(ii) Corrosion resistant steel
(CRS) bars
5. Latest in use deformed bars

Characteristic Load or ultimate load

The characteristic load is the ultimate load that is liable to come on structure during its lifetime.
For simplicity, the variation in the loading is also assumed to follow a normal distribution cure,
the characteristic load or ultimate load is given as:

Characteristic load or ultimate load = Mean load + 1.64 S

Characteristic load is that value of load which has a 95 percent probability of not being exceeded
during the life time of the structure. In absence of any data, loads given in various standards shall
be assumed as the characteristic loads. The following standards may be used for this purpose.
IS 875 (Part 1) – for dead loads

IS 875 (Part 2) – for imposed loads

IS 875 (Part 3) – for wind loads

IS 875 (Part 4) – for snow loads

IS 1893 (Part 1) – for earthquake loads

Stress Strain relationship for concrete and

Stress Strain relationship for steel
Stress Strain relationship for concrete
Stress Strain relationship for concrete : The experimental or actual stress strain curve for
concrete is very difficult to use in design Therefore, IS code 456:2000 has simplified or idealized it as
shown in Fig. 4.1.

relationship between the stress-strain

distribution in concrete

 For design purpose, the compressive strength of concrete in the structure in taken as 0.67 times
the characteristic strength. The 0.67 factor is introduced to account for the difference in the
strength indicated by a cube test and the strength of concrete in actual structure.
 The partial safety factor (rmc), equal to 1.5 is applied in addition to this 0.67 factor.
 The initial portion of the curve is parabolic. After a strain of 0.002 (0.2%), the stress becomes
constant with increasing load, until a strain of 0.0035 is reached and here the concrete is
assumed to have failed.
Stress Strain relationship for steel
Stress Strain relationship for steel : The stress-strain curve for mild steel, Fe 415 and Fe 500 are
shown in Fig. 4.2 and 4.3.
 stress strain curve for mild steel

stress-strain-curve-for-high-strength-deformed-
bars.

For mild steel, the value of characteristic stress is taken as yield stress and the design curve is
obtained after applying a factor of safety of 1.15 to yield stress. The design stress for steel is equal to

i.e., 0.87 fy. For high strength bars (Fe 415 and Fe 500), the yield point is not distinct, hence yield
stress is taken as 0.2 percent proof stress and factor of safety is applied to it.
Design Strength Values for Steel
(i) For mild steel and

(ii) For Fe 415,

(iii) For Fe 500,

.
TABLE 4.1. Design Stresses at Specified Strains.
Fe 500 steel : Fe 415 steel :

Strain Stress (N/mm2) Strain Stress (N/mm2)

0.00174 347.8 0.00144 288.7

0.00195 396.6 0.00163 306.7

0.00226 391.3 0.00192 324.8

0.00277 413.0 0.00241 342.8

0.00312 423.9 0.00276 351.8

0.00417 434.8 0.00380 360.9

(a) Fe 500 steel (b) Fe 415 steel

COMPARISON OF WORKING STRESS METHOD AND

LIMIT STATE METHOD
Working Stress method and Drawbacks of the working stress
method
Working Stress method

Drawbacks of the working stress method,

This method of design was the oldest one. It is based on the elastic theory and assumes that both
steel and concrete and elastic and obey Hook’s law. It means that the stress is directly
proportional to strain up to the point of collapse. Based on the elastic theory, and assuming that
the bond between steel and concrete is perfect, permissible stresses of the materials are
obtained. The basis of this method is that the permissible stresses are not exceeded any where in
the structure when it is subjected to worst combination of working loads.

In this method, the ultimate strength of concrete and yield strength or 0.2% proof stress of steel
are divided by factors of safety to obtain permissible stresses. These factors of safety take into
account the uncertainties in manufacturing of these materials. As per IS 456, a factor of safety of
3 is to be used for bending compressive stresses in concrete and 1.78 for yield/proof strength of
steel.

Drawbacks of the working stress method

The main drawbacks of the working stress method of design are as follows :

(i) It assumes that concrete is elastic which is not true as the concrete behaves inelastically
even on low level of stresses.

(ii) It uses factors of safety for stresses only and not for loads. Hence, this method does not
give true margin of safety with respect to loads because we do not know the failure load.

(iii) It does not use any factor of safety with respect to loads. It means, there is no provision for
the uncertainties associated with the estimation of loads.

(iv) It does not account for shrinkage and creep which are time dependent and plastic in
nature.

(v) This method gives uneconomical sections.

(vi) It pays no attention to the conditions that arise at the time of collapse.

The working stress method is very simple and reliable but as per IS 456:2000 the working stress
method is to be used only if it is not possible to use limit state method of design. Working stress
method is the basic method and its knowledge is essential for understanding the concepts of
design.

Limit State Method

Stress and strain distribution in a singly reinforced

beam as per IS 456

This is the most rational method which takes into account the ultimate strength of the structure
and also the serviceability requirements. It is a judicious combination of working stress and
ultimate load methods of design. The acceptable limits of safety and serviceability requirements
before failure occurs is called a limit state. This method is based on the concept of safety at
ultimate loads (ultimate load method) and serviceability at working loads (working stress
method). The two important limit states to be considered in design are :
(i) Limit state of collapse.

(ii) Limit state of serviceability.

Limit State of Collapse

This limit state corresponds to the strength of the structure and categorized into following types :

(a) Limit state of collapse : Flexure.

(b) Limit state of collapse : Shear and bond.

(c) Limit State of collapse : Torsion.

(d) Limit state of collapse : Compression.

Limit State of Serviceability

This limit state corresponds to the serviceability requirements i.e., deformation, cracking etc. It is
categorized into following types :

(a) Limit state of deflection.

(b) Limit state of cracking

(c) Limit state of vibration.

This method is based upon the probabilities variation in the loads and material properties. Limit
state method takes into account the uncertainties associated with loads and material properties,
thus uses partial factors of safety to obtain design loads and design stresses.

The limit state method is based on predictions unlike working stress method which is
deterministic in nature, assumes that the loads, factors of safety and material stresses are known
accurately. In the limit state method, the partial safety factors are derived using probability and
statistics and are different for different load combinations, hence giving a more rational and
scientific design procedure.

COMPARISON OF WORKING STRESS METHOD AND LIMIT STATE

METHOD
Sl.
No. Working Stress Method Limit State Method

This method is based on the elastic theory This method is based on the actual
which assumes that concrete and steel are stress-strain curves of steel and
elastic and the stress strain curve is linear concrete. For concrete the stress-
1. for both. strain curve is non-linear.
 In this method the factor of safety are In this method, partial safety factors
applied to the yield stresses to get are applied to get design values of
2. permissible stresses. stresses.

Design loads are obtained by

multiplying partial safety factors of
3. No factor of safety is used for loads. load to the working loads.

4. Exact margin of safety is not known. Exact margin of safety is known.

This method gives thicker, sections, so less This method is more economical as it
5. economical. gives thinner sections.

This method is based upon the

This method assumes that the actual loads, probabilistic approach which
permissible stresses and factors of safety depends upon the actual data or
are known. So it is called as deterministic experience, hence it is called as non-
6. method. deterministic method.

What is the difference between the safety factor and the

load factor in limit state design?
A) Safety factor is for stress(resisting capacity) of the material or member and load
factor is for loads acting on that particular material or member.Simply,suppose there
is a load of 100 kN acting on a concrete member whose stress value is 100 N per mm
2(for example) , then in limit state design,design of this member will be done for a
factored load i.e more than 100 kN (Factored load = normal load * load factor) by
taking factored stress of the material / member(Factored stress = Normal stress /
safety factor) i.e less than the actual stress capacity of the member.

B) Main point you should remember :

While designing any structure,

1.we underestimate strength of the materials used in the structure and

2.we overestimate the loads that will come on to the structuree

In order to ensure for long life of the structure.

In limit state method of design of STEEL structures

Two partial safety factors are used :

Load factor say L and resistance factor say R .

Load factor is used in calculating design loads and resistance factor used in
calculating design strength.

By definition,

1)Design load= charecterstic load*load factor

2)Design strength= charecteristic strength/resistance factor

for live loads+ dead loads, L=1.5

for dead loads+wind loads,L=1.5

for dead loads+wind loads+live loads,L=1.2

For materials to resist 1) yield stress, R=1.1

2)buckling stress,R=1.1

3) ultimate tensile stresses, R=1.25

As per IS 800: 2007

C) Load factor is used to overestimate the load.

For example: factor live load = 1.5 x Live load

Here 1.5 increases the load.

Now factor of safety is used to underestimate the strength of material.

Example: we use factor of safety 1.5 for concrete means we write

.36*fck*b*Xu= .87* fy* Ast

Here .36 and .87 are factor of safety. They decrease the strength of concrete to .36
times of its characteristic strength and strength of steel by .87 times of its strength.

This is a general approach used in nearly all designs in LSM.

What Is Yield Stress?

Stress and strain are directly related to each other: as one increases, the other increases as
well. So, the more stress that an object experiences, the more it deforms until the object fails.
All objects will begin experiencing elastic deformation at first, but once the stress on the
object exceeds a certain amount, it will experience plastic deformation. When that switch
happens, the object has reached its yield stress.
Typically, every material has the same stress-strain relationship, though the size of each
portion may be different. Elastic deformation is linear. The slope of the line is dependent on
the material the object is made out of. Plastic deformation is not linear, making it more
difficult to model.
Take a look at this graph. The elastic deformation is in red and you can see that it's linear,
while plastic deformation, which is in blue, is not.

Yield Point
Some material also has a yield point, a point where there is a sharp increase in the object's
strain that does not correlate with an increase in stress. The yield point happens after an
object has reached its yield stress.