Mac Gill Canada Equilibrio Acido Base

CHAPTER Acid-Base Equilibrium Systems
17
Chapter Concepts
17.1 Acid Deposition
• Acid deposition, which includes acid
rain, is caused by natural processes in the
atmosphere and by industrial activity.
17.2 Understanding Acids and Bases

• In the Brønsted-Lowry theory, an acid is a
substance capable of donating a proton,
H+, and a base is a substance capable of
accepting a proton.
17.3 Acid-Base Equilibriums

• The percent ionization of a weak acid or
a weak base is related to its equilibrium
constant, Ka or Kb.
• The ion product constant for pure water,
Kw, is the equilibrium constant for the
ionization of water into its ions.
• For a conjugate acid-base pair,
Ka × Kb = Kw.
• The constants Ka and Kb can be used
to determine pH, pOH, [H3O+(aq)], and
[OH–(aq)] of acidic and basic solutions.
• The direction of an acid-base reaction can
be predicted by using the values of Ka and
Kb for an acid and base reacting together.
17.4 Titration Curves and Buffers

• An acid-base titration curve is a plot of
the pH of a solution as a function of the
volume of titrant added.
• Buffer solutions resist change in pH when a
small amount of an acid or a base is added.
In Alberta, the advance and retreat of ice sheets over millions of years has carved
the landscape you see today. In most locations, Alberta is covered by the material
left behind when the last ice sheets melted, about 10 000 years ago. Some of this
silt, sand, and gravel was transformed by immense pressure into sandstone, shale,
and other types of sedimentary rocks. Most of Alberta’s fresh drinking water
has passed through these sedimentary rocks. Although fresh water resources,
especially lakes, are threatened worldwide by acid deposition formed as the result
of industrial activity, most natural sources of water in Alberta have not been
affected much by acid rain. Alberta’s lakes are nearly acid-free because the soils
and sandstones prevalent in the province act as natural buffers. In the Launch
Lab, you will investigate the buffering activity of water samples. You will use
equilibrium concepts from the previous chapter to calculate the pH of solutions
of weak acids and bases. Finally, you will investigate acid-base reactions, prepare
a buffer solution, and examine how a buffer solution resists change in pH when
small amounts of acid or base are added to it.
678 MHR • Unit 8 Chemical Equilibrium Focussing on Acid-Base Systems
3297_Chapter 17_Opener.indd 678 3/30/07 1:08:53 PM

Launch Lab
Buffering Ground Water: A Delicate Balance

Many areas in Alberta have alkaline soils and rocks that neutralize acid deposition. In this lab, you
will represent different types of soil and rock by using samples of granite or quartz, and marble.
Different types of ground water will be modelled by adding water to these solids. You will compare
the impact of acid rain on the models of ground water you prepare.
Safety Precautions
Wash your hands when you have completed the Launch Lab.
Materials
• dilute vinegar solution • universal indicator paper • stirring rod
• granite or quartz chips (pH paper) • retort stand
• marble chips • pH meter (optional) • burette clamp
• sample of local soil or rock • 100 mL graduated cylinder • a label or a grease pencil
• 250 mL beakers (5) • 50 mL burette
Procedure
1. Create a table in your notebook to record your observations using the following headings:
acid rain added (mL), tap water + acid rain (pH), granite or quartz + water + acid rain
(pH), marble + water + acid rain (pH), and local soil or rock + water + acid rain (pH).
Leave six rows under the headings to fill in your data.
2. Pour 120 mL of the dilute vinegar solution into a beaker labelled “acid rain.” Measure and
record the pH of the solution. Set up a retort stand, burette clamp, and burette. Fill the
burette with the simulated acid rain solution. Record the initial volume.
3. Measure 100 mL of tap water into a labelled beaker. Measure and record the pH. Add
5.0 mL of acid rain to the tap water. Stir, then measure and record the pH. Repeat until
a total of 20.0 mL of acid rain has been added. Put the solution aside.
4. Place a few granite or quartz chips into a labelled beaker, then add 100 mL of tap water. Stir
the mixture, then measure and record the pH of the solution. Add 5.0 mL samples of acid
rain to the beaker. After each addition, stir and measure the pH. After 20.0 mL of acid rain
has been added, put the solution aside.
5. Repeat Procedure step 4 using a few marble chips. Repeat again using local soil or rock.
6. Set aside each labelled beaker until your next class. Stir each solution before you make
a final measurement of the pH. Pour the solutions down the sink, being careful not to
discard any solid chips. Return the chips to your teacher.
Analysis
1. Use a spreadsheet program to graph the data in your table. Spreadsheet programs allow data
to be plotted in different ways. Which type of graph is best for your data? Explain. ICT
2. Rank the water samples from least resistant to change in pH when acid rain was added to
most resistant. Does your ranking agree with other students?
3. Compare the pH of each sample after the last addition of acid rain with the measurement
made after the solution was left standing. If any measurement changed, suggest a reason for
the change.
Chapter 17 Acid-Base Equilibrium Systems • MHR 679
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SECTION
Acid Deposition
17.1
Section Outcomes In the complete absence of pollution, rain would still be acidic. Carbon dioxide in the
In this section, you will:
atmosphere dissolves slightly in water and reacts with water to form carbonic acid:
• identify several sources CO2(g) + H2O() H2CO3(aq)
of pollutants that cause
acid deposition H2CO3(aq) + H2O() HCO3–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
• write chemical equations
describing the formation Carbonic acid ionizes and reaches equilibrium with hydrogen carbonate ions, HCO3–(aq),
of acids in acid rain carbonate ions, CO32–(aq), and hydronium ions, H3O+(aq). Because of dissolved
• apply Le Châtelier’s carbonic acid and other naturally occurring acids in rain, the pH of unpolluted
principle to the emission rainwater is about 5.3. Acid rain is the term used to describe the lowering of pH of rain
of a pollutant from
to less than pH 5 and is caused by human activities. However, acid deposition is a better
automobile engines
• distinguish between the term, because acid can also precipitate through other means. For instance, dry acidic
ability of different rocks particles can settle out from the atmosphere, while acidic snow and fog can also cause
to buffer ground water damage. Acid deposition is the total effect of acid falling in rain, in snow, or as fine solid
particles. Figure 17.1 shows some of the ways that acid deposition can occur.
Key Terms
( /
acid rain
!CIDDEPOSITIONAS(3/AND
acid deposition (./DISSOLVEDINRAINANDSNOW
3/
liming 2EATION
WITH/ ./
3/XAND./XIN
FACTORYEMISSIONS
/ ,AKESBOUNDED ,AKESBOUNDEDBY
BYSOILHIGHIN SOILLOWINLIMESTONE
!CIDFOG LIMESTONEARE CANBECOME
./INAUTO BUFFERED UNNATURALLYACIDIC
EMISSIONS
Figure 17.1 Modern industrial societies produce various emissions that contribute to acid
deposition.
Acid Deposition: SOx and NOx (“Sox” and “Nox”)

The most important cause of acid deposition is the presence of dissolved oxides of sulfur
ChemistryFile (SO2(g) and SO3(g)) and oxides of nitrogen (NO(g) and NO2(g)) in water droplets in
the atmosphere. These gases are sometimes collectively referred to as SOx and NOx,
Web Link
Find out more about acid often called “sox” and “nox.” Metal ores and many fuels, especially coal and some natural
deposition and summarize gas supplies, contain compounds of sulfur. When these fuels are burned, or metal ores
some points you would are smelted to purify the metal, sulfur combines with oxygen in the air:
like to raise in a letter to
your federal member of
S8(s) + 8O2(g) → 8SO2(g)
Parliament. What are the Sulfur dioxide reacts with water in the atmosphere, forming sulfurous acid:
consequences of acid
deposition in Canada? What
SO2(g) + H2O() H2SO3(aq)
are the principal sources Sulfur dioxide can also react with oxygen in the air to form sulfur trioxide:
of acid deposition from
industry? How is Alberta’s
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
air quality managed and Sulfur trioxide reacts with water to form sulfuric acid:
monitored?
SO3(g) + H2O() H2SO4(aq)
@
www.albertachemistry.ca
www
3297_Chapter 17.indd 680 3/30/07 1:12:12 PM

Figure 17.2 This part of
the plant at Syncrude’s
facility in Fort McMurray
splits large molecules in
crude oil into the smaller
molecules that are used
for fuel. The company is
expanding its output of oil
and will spend more than
$350 million to reduce
SO2(g) emissions.
In Alberta, the pollutants that cause acid rain come mainly from removing sulfur
from natural gas and oil (see Figure 17.2), and from burning coal that contains sulfur
compounds, such as pyrite, FeS2(s). Natural gas often contains significant amounts of
hydrogen sulfide. Because this poisonous sulfur compound has a characteristic smell,
gas containing it is called sour gas. Sour gas must be removed before the natural gas is
distributed. This removal process is known as sweetening the gas. A large percentage of
the sulfur removed through this method can be recovered through the Claus process.
Sulfur dioxide is formed, however, when excess compounds that contain sulfur are
burned off in a flare stack. It is also formed when coal is burned at a power station.
Another major source of acid rain comes from dissolved nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen
and oxygen combine at the high temperatures generated in the engines of cars, trucks,
and in furnaces:
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)
Then, a slower reaction with oxygen in the air forms nitrogen dioxide:
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
Nitrogen dioxide reacts with moisture in the atmosphere to form nitrous acid,
HNO2(aq), and nitric acid, HNO3(aq):
2NO2(g) + H2O() HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)
Automobile Exhaust and Le Châtelier’s Principle

There is essentially no reaction between nitrogen and oxygen at room temperature,
because Kc for the reaction is very small:
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g) Kc = 4.7 × 10–31 at SATP
The reaction is endothermic from left to right. You can use Le Châtelier’s principle
to predict that this reaction will shift to the right at higher temperatures. At the
temperature inside an automobile engine, about 1100 K, the value of Kc is approximately
6 × 10–9. The exhaust gases cool down too rapidly for nitrogen monoxide to decompose
back into O2(g) and N2(g). Thus, automobile and diesel engines, as well as furnaces,
produce nitrogen monoxide pollution, contributing to acid deposition. Engines operate
more efficiently at high temperatures, so it is not practical to reduce the amount of
pollution by lowering the temperature at which an engine operates.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 681 3/30/07 1:12:17 PM

A B C
Granite is a mixture of crystals formed Chalk, limestone, and marble are Quartz is the common name of silicon
when molten rock cools slowly deep different forms of calcium carbonate, dioxide, SiO2(s). Oxygen and silicon
within the ground. CaCO3 (s). Most limestone is formed by are the two most abundant elements
the accumulation of seashell fragments (by mass) in our planet’s crust.
from ancient seas over millions of years. Amethyst, the birthstone for February,
Marble is formed from limestone by is quartz coloured by the presence of
Figure 17.3 heat and pressure under Earth’s crust. iron oxide.
Acid Deposition and Lakes

Acid deposition can damage living things on land or in the water. Trees and other
forms of plant life have been destroyed in some area. However, lakes often are the most
seriously affected because they collect rain and run-off from a wide area. Different
organisms have different tolerances for acidic water. Snails, for example, cannot tolerate
water with a pH below 6.0. Perch and pike die at about pH 5.0 while eel and brook trout
survive to about pH 4.5.
It is often not the pH of the water itself that affects aquatic animals but the minerals
that are leached from rocks and soil by the acidic water. Toxic metals including
aluminium, mercury, and lead, are more soluble in acidic water than in neutral water.
Mercury and lead can accumulate in fish with lethal results. Dissolved aluminium
interferes with gill function. The blockage of the gills is usually not fatal but can cause
stress that results in reduced body size and weight.
The Role of Soil and Rocks as Natural Buffers

Acid deposition does not affect Alberta as much as other parts of Canada because
the soil and rock offers natural protection (Figure 17.3). Alkaline soils cover much
of Alberta and this neutralizes the effect of acid deposition. In Central and Southern
Alberta, the soils contain limestone. Limestone, CaCO3(s), neutralizes the hydronium
ions from acid deposition:
2H3O+(aq) + CaCO3(s) Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + 3H2O()
The carbon dioxide formed in this reaction dissolves to form carbonic acid. The result is
that the acids in acid rain (such as sulfuric acid) are replaced by carbonic acid. Carbonic
acid ionizes much less than the acid it has replaced, so the result is a lower concentration
of hydronium ion, H3O+(aq), thus a higher pH. Conversely, the Canadian Shield, which
covers much of Eastern, Central, and Northern Canada, is made of granite rock. Granite
does not contain carbonates to neutralize the effects of acid deposition, so fish and
plants in many lakes in this region have been adversely affected by acid deposition.
•••
Q Which rock type is most effective at neutralizing the effects of acid deposition?
1
Q Your local member of Parliament believes that the government should aim to
2
completely eliminate the effects of acid rain. Suppose you are an aid to this
member of Parliament. Draft a memo explaining why this goal is unreasonable.
•••
3297_Chapter 17.indd 682 3/30/07 1:12:18 PM

Protecting Lakes from Acid Shock
In some regions, snow can collect acid deposition
throughout the winter. In the spring, when the
snow melts, a relatively concentrated surge of acidic
water runs into lakes and streams. This severe acid
shock causes many fish to die suddenly. When spring
acid shock is expected to harm a lake, the lake and
surrounding watershed may be treated with limestone.
In a process known as liming, limestone is added to
the water to neutralize acid deposition and buffer
lake water against a rapid change in pH. The calcium
carbonate in limestone raises the pH of the water,
reduces the solubility of toxic metal ions, and supplies
calcium ions, an essential plant nutrient. A simple way
to lime a lake is to shovel the limestone into the wake
of a moving boat or to drop it from a helicopter (see
Figure 17.4). To counter spring acid shock, lime can be
spread from a snowmobile while the lake is frozen. Figure 17.4 When a lake lacks natural limestone to buffer the
In a previous chemistry course, you learned about effect of acid rain, liming improves the overall water quality.
weak acids such as carbonic acid that is naturally
found in rain. You know that weak acids ionize to a very small extent before they reach
equilibrium. In Chapter 16, you learned new methods for working with equilibrium
ChemistryFile
reactions. In the next section, you will apply these methods to acids and bases. FYI
Generally, the young of
most species are less
Section 17.1 Summary resistant to environmental
• Carbon dioxide in the air reacts with rainwater to form carbonic acid which makes stress than the adults are.
natural rainwater slightly acidic. Fish eggs are vulnerable
to acid levels in lakes and
• Emissions from motor vehicles release nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. Power streams, and they have
and heating plants that burn fossil fuels and ore smelting plants release sulfur oxides trouble hatching when
into the atmosphere. the pH of the water falls
below 5. Similarly, when
• When nitrogen and sulfur oxides react with water in the atmosphere, they form pH levels fall below 6, 60%
nitrous acid, nitric acid, sulfurous acid, and some sulfuric acid which fall to Earth of salamander eggs do
as acid deposition. not survive. The eggs that
do hatch often produce
• Acid deposition harms plant and animal life. The pH of lakes and streams can become salamanders with serious
dangerously low. birth defects. Because
salamanders lay their
• Alberta’s predominately limestone geological formations buffer pond and lake water.
eggs in temporary ponds
• Acidic lakes and ponds can be treated with limestone to reduce the damage caused by created by spring rainfall
acidic shock in the spring when acidic snow melts and flows into the bodies of water. and snowmelt, they are
especially vulnerable to
spring acid shock.
SECTION 17.1 REVIEW
1. List three major sources of emissions that cause acid 4. Combustion reactions result in much greater emissions
deposition. Name the gases associated with each type of of carbon dioxide than of SOx or NOx. Explain why
emission. there is less concern over the contribution to acid
2. Which areas of Canada would you expect to have the rain from the CO2(g) emitted compared with the
highest emissions of the gases causing acid deposition? contribution to acid rain from SOx and NOx.
3. Why might a lake or stream have a lower pH in the 5. How does acid rain affect building materials?
spring than at any other time of the year? 6. List three strategies you could use to lower emissions
of gases that cause acid deposition.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 683 3/30/07 1:12:19 PM

SECTION
Understanding Acids and Bases
17.2
Section Outcomes The Brønsted-Lowry Theory of Acids and Bases
In this section, you will: When you learned about acids and bases before, the modified Arrhenius theory
• define acid-base provided a simple way to understand acid-base reactions. But the Arrhenius theory
reactions as proton- is limited by its assumption that all acid-base reactions occur in water. Because many
transfer reactions
• write Brønsted-Lowry
acid-base reactions take place in solvents other than water, the limitations of the
equations for acid-base Arrhenius theory of acids and bases were removed by a more general theory proposed
reactions and identify independently in 1923 by Johannes Brønsted, a Danish chemist, and Thomas Lowry, an
conjugate acid-base pairs English chemist (see Figure 17.5). The Brønsted-Lowry theory recognizes acid-base
• identify amphiprotic
reactions as a chemical equilibrium having both a forward and a reverse reaction that
compounds and write
Brønsted-Lowry equations involve the transfer of a proton.
to explain their acid-base
reactions
• recall the names and
The Brønsted-Lowry Definitions of Acids and Bases
formulas of some An acid is a substance that can donate a proton, H+.
polyprotic acids and A base is a substance that can accept a proton, H+.
polyprotic bases
• distinguish between
strong acids and bases,
and weak acids and bases
Key Terms
Brønsted-Lowry theory
of acids and bases
conjugate acid-base pair
conjugate base
conjugate acid
amphiprotic
polyprotic acid
polyprotic base
strong acid
weak acid
strong base
weak base
Figure 17.5 Johannes Brønsted (1879–1947), left, and Thomas Lowry (1874–1936), right.
Because Brønsted published many more articles about ions in solution than Lowry, some
chemistry resources refer to the “Brønsted theory of acids and bases.”
Like an Arrhenius acid, a Brønsted-Lowry acid must contain H in its formula. Not every
compound that contains a hydrogen atom is an acid, only those able to provide a proton,
H+. This means that all Arrhenius acids are also Brønsted-Lowry acids. However, many
molecules other than OH–(aq) can be a Brønsted-Lowry base. In addition, water is not
the only solvent that can be used in a Brønsted-Lowry acid-base reaction. The only
requirement for an acid-base reaction according to the Brønsted-Lowry theory is that
one substance must be capable of providing a proton, and another substance must be
capable of receiving the same proton. In other words, an acid-base reaction involves the
transfer of a proton. Note that the word “proton” refers to the nucleus of a hydrogen
atom—an H+ ion that has been removed from the acid molecule. It does not refer to a
proton removed from the nucleus of another atom, such as oxygen or sulfur, which may
be present in the acid molecule.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 684 3/30/07 1:12:22 PM

The idea of proton transfer has major implications for understanding the nature of
acids and bases. According to the Brønsted-Lowry theory, any substance that behaves as
an acid can only do so if another substance behaves as a base at the same time. Similarly,
if a substance behaves as a base, another substance must behave as an acid at the same
time. For example, consider the reaction between hydrochloric acid and water shown
in Figure 17.6. In this reaction, hydrochloric acid is an acid because it donates a proton,
H+, to water. According to the Brønsted-Lowry theory, the water molecule is a base
because it accepts the proton. When the water molecule accepts the proton, it becomes a
hydronium ion, H3O+(aq).
(
(
ģ ģ ģ ģ
( #L
ģ ģ
ģ
ģ / ͵ / ( ģ
ģ #L
ģ ģ
ģ
ģ
(
(
Figure 17.6 The Brønsted-Lowry theory explanation of the reaction between hydrochloric
acid and water
Two molecules or ions that differ because of the transfer of a proton are called a
conjugate acid-base pair. (Conjugate means “linked together.”) The conjugate base
of an acid is the molecule that remains when a proton is removed from the acid. The
conjugate acid of a base is the molecule formed when the base receives the proton from
the acid. An acid-base reaction always contains two conjugate acid-base pairs. In the
reaction between hydrochloric acid and water, the chloride ion is the conjugate base
of hydrochloric acid. Water acts as a base in this reaction, and the hydronium ion is its
conjugate acid.
In the Brønsted-Lowry theory, every acid has a conjugate base, and every base has
a conjugate acid. The ionization of ethanoic acid in water is represented in Figure 17.7.
Ethanoic acid is a Brønsted-Lowry acid because it provides a proton, H+, to the water. In
receiving the proton, the water molecule is acting as a base in this reaction and becomes
a hydronium ion. Notice that this reaction proceeds in both directions, and equilibrium
is established. When ethanoic acid reacts with water, only a few molecules react to form
ions. The position of equilibrium lies to the left, and the equilibrium constant for the
reaction is small. Because the equilibrium lies to the left, the reverse reaction is favoured.
In the reverse reaction, the hydronium ion gives up a proton to the ethanoate ion. Thus,
in the reverse reaction, the hydronium ion is a Brønsted-Lowry acid and the ethanoate
ion is a Brønsted-Lowry base. The acid on the left, CH3COOH(aq), and the base on
the right, CH3COO–(aq), differ by one proton, so they are a conjugate acid-base pair.
Similarly, H2O() and H3O+(aq) are a conjugate acid-base pair, because they too differ
by one proton.
ETHANOICACID WATER HYDRONIUMION ETHANOATEION
(
/ ( /
#( # / ǈ / ( #( #
/ ( ( /
(
ACID BASE CONJUGATEACID CONJUGATEBASE
CONJUGATEPAIR Figure 17.7 Conjugate
acid-base pairs in the
ionization of ethanoic
CONJUGATEPAIR
acid in water.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 685 3/30/07 1:12:26 PM

•••
Q In what way(s) is the Brønsted-Lowry theory more general than the Arrhenius
3
theory of acids and bases?
Q Name two substances that are Brønsted-Lowry bases that would not be
4
considered Arrhenius bases.
Q Must a Brønsted-Lowry acid contain H ? Must a Brønsted-Lowry base

5 +
contain OH–(aq)?
•••
Chemists sometimes use a shorthand method of representing reactions involving weak

acids and weak bases in general discussions. They use HA to represent a weak acid and
B to represent a weak base. To illustrate these symbols, Figure 17.8 shows reactions of
the general weak acid with water and the general weak base with water.
Figure 17.8 In the first
HA + H2O H3O+ + A-
reaction, the general acid,
HA, donates a proton (H +) acid water hydronium ion conjugate base
to water and becomes
the conjugate base, A-. In
B + H2O OH- + BH+
the second reaction, the base water hydroxide ion conjugate acid
general base, B, accepts
a proton from water and If you compare the first reaction in Figure 17.8 with the reaction in Figure 17.7, you
becomes the conjugate
will see that the weak acid, HA, represents ethanoic acid and the conjugate base, A-,
acid, BH +.
represents the ethanoate ion. Also notice that, in the first reaction in Figure 17.8,
water is acting as a base when it accepts the proton from HA. The hydronium ion is
the conjugate acid. In the second reaction, water is acting as an acid when it donates a
proton (H+) to the base, B. The hydroxide ion is the conjugate base. Water can act as
either an acid or a base.
Sample Problem
Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs Step 3 Identify the conjugate base on the right side of the
equation as the particle with one less proton than
Problem the acid on the left side of the equation. Identify
Hydrogen bromide is a gas at room temperature. It is the particle on the right that has one proton more
soluble in water, forming hydrobromic acid. Identify the than the base on the left as the conjugate acid.
conjugate acid-base pairs in the reaction between HBr(g)
and water to form H3O+(aq) and Br–(aq). Act on Your Strategy
Step 1 HBr(g) + H2O() → H3O+(aq) + Br–(aq)
What Is Required?
Step 2 Hydrogen bromide donates a proton, so it is the
You need to identify the two sets of conjugate
Brønsted-Lowry acid in the reaction. Water accepts
acid-base pairs.
the proton, so it is the Brønsted-Lowry base.
What Is Given? Step 3 The conjugate base is Br–(aq), and the conjugate
You know that hydrogen bromide forms hydrobromic acid is H3O+(aq). The conjugate acid-base pairs
acid in aqueous solution. are HBr(g)/Br–(aq) and H2O()/H3O+(aq).
Plan Your Strategy

Step 1 Write a chemical equation.
Step 2 On the left side of the equation, identify the acid
as the molecule that donates a proton. Identify the
base as the molecule that accepts the proton.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 686 3/30/07 1:12:27 PM

CONJUGATEACID BASEPAIR Check Your Solution
The formulas of the conjugate acid-base pairs differ by
ACID CONJUGATEBASE one proton, H+.
("RAQ (/Ű ͵(/AQ "RAQ
BASE CONJUGATEACID
CONJUGATEACID BASEPAIR
Sample Problem
More Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs Plan Your Strategy

Step 1 Identify the proton-donor on the left side of the
Problem equation as the acid. Identify the proton-acceptor
Ammonia is a pungent gas at room temperature. on the left side of the equation as the base.
Its main use is in the production of fertilizers and
Step 2 Identify the conjugate acid and base on the right
explosives. You may be familiar with the odour of
side of the equation by the difference of a single
ammonia because it is used in some glass cleaners.
proton from the acid and base on the left.
Ammonia is very soluble in water, forming a solution
with the properties of a base, such as turning red litmus
Act on Your Strategy
blue. Because the Arrhenius theory defines a base as a
The conjugate acid-base pairs are NH3(aq)/NH4+(aq)
substance containing a hydroxide ion that can ionize,
and H2O()/OH–(aq).
aqueous ammonia, NH3(aq), cannot be an Arrhenius
base. Use the Brønsted-Lowry theory to identify the CONJUGATEACID BASEPAIR
conjugate acid-base pairs in the reaction between
aqueous ammonia and water: ACID CONJUGATEBASE
NH3(aq) + H2O() NH4 +(aq) + OH–(aq)
.(AQ (/Ű ǈ.( AQ /(AQ

BASE CONJUGATEACID
What Is Required?
You need to identify the conjugate acid-base pairs.
CONJUGATEACID BASEPAIR
What Is Given?
The chemical equation is given. Check Your Solution
The formulas of the conjugate acid-base pairs differ by
one proton, H+, as expected.
Practice Problems
1. Name and write the formula of the conjugate 3. When perchloric acid dissolves in water, the
base of each molecule or ion: following reaction occurs:
a) HF(aq) HClO4(aq) + H2O() → H3O+(aq) + ClO4–(aq)
b) HCO3–(aq)
Identify the conjugate acid-base pairs.
c) H2SO4(aq)
d) N2H5+(aq) 4. Identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in the
following reactions:
2. Name and write the formula of the conjugate
a) HS–(aq) + H2O() H2S(aq) + OH–(aq)
acid of each molecule or ion:
b) O2–(aq) + H2O() 2OH–(aq)
a) NO3–(aq)
c) H2S(aq) + NH3(aq) NH4+(aq) + HS–(aq)
b) OH–(aq)
d) H2SO4(aq) + H2O() H3O+(aq) + HSO4–(aq)
c) H2O()
d) HCO3–(aq)
3297_Chapter 17.indd 687 3/30/07 1:12:27 PM

ChemistryFile Both an Acid and a Base: Amphiprotic Substances
FYI Substances, such as water, that can act as a Brønsted-Lowry acid in one reaction and as
The word “amphiprotic” a Brønsted-Lowry base in a different reaction are said to be amphiprotic. Amphiprotic
can be split into two parts, substances can be molecules, as in the case of water, or ions with a hydrogen atom that
the prefix amphi- and the can ionize, such as HSO4–(aq). A polyprotic acid has more than one proton that can
ending -protic. The prefix
amphi- comes from a Greek
ionize. After the first ionization, the ion must contain another hydrogen atom that can
word meaning “on both also ionize. For example, carbonic acid is diprotic, meaning that it has two protons that
sides.” The ending -protic can ionize:
refers to a proton. Thus, an
H2CO3(aq) + H2O() HCO3–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
amphiprotic substance is
literally on both sides of HCO3–(aq) + H2O() CO32–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
a proton transfer. In one
The hydrogen carbonate ion, HCO3–(aq), is an acid when it reacts with water. In the
reaction, it is capable of
donating a proton; and presence of hydronium ions, HCO3–(aq) accepts a proton and acts as a base:
in another reaction, it is HCO3–(aq) + H3O+(aq) H2CO3(aq) + H2O()
capable of accepting a
proton. Can you think of Thus, the hydrogen carbonate ion is amphiprotic. The carbonate ion, CO32–(aq), is a
another word beginning polyprotic base. A polyprotic base is a substance capable of accepting more than one
with the prefix amphi-? proton. Another common polyprotic base is the sulfite ion:
SO32–(aq) + H2O() HSO3–(aq) + OH–(aq)
HSO3–(aq) + H2O() H2SO3(aq) + OH–(aq)
Sample Problem
An Amphiprotic Ion Plan Your Strategy

Step 1 As an acid, HSO3–(aq) must donate a proton
Problem to water.
The hydrogen sulfite ion, HSO3–(aq), is amphiprotic.
Step 2 As a base, HSO3–(aq) must accept a proton
Write a chemical equation to show how the ion reacts
from water.
with water first as an acid and then as a base.
What Is Required?
Step 1 HSO3–(aq) + H2O() SO32–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
You need to write two chemical equations. In the first
equation, HSO3–(aq) must act as an acid. In the second Step 2 HSO3–(aq) + H2O() H2SO3(aq) + OH–(aq)
equation, the ion must act as a base.
Check Your Solution
What Is Given? When HSO3–(aq) acts as an acid, the conjugate base, SO32–
The formula of the hydrogen sulfite ion, HSO3–(aq), (aq), has one less proton. When HSO3–(aq) acts as a base,
is given. the conjugate acid, H2SO3(aq), has one more proton.
Practice Problems
5. Hydrogen sulfide is a gas at room temperature. It 6. a) Write a chemical equation to show the hydrogen
has a very unpleasant smell and is not very soluble carbonate ion, HCO3–(aq), acting as an acid in the
in water, forming a dilute solution of hydrosulfuric presence of OH–(aq).
acid, H2S(aq). b) Write a chemical equation to show HCO3–(aq)
a) Hydrosulfuric acid is diprotic. Write two acting as a base in the presence of HF(aq).
chemical equations to show the ionization of 7. Sodium dihydrogen phosphate, NaH2PO4(s), is
H2S(aq) in water. soluble in water. Write chemical equations to show
b) The hydrogen sulfide ion is amphiprotic. Write that H2PO4–(aq) is amphiprotic. Label each equation
a chemical equation to show HS–(aq) acting as a as an acid or a base reaction, as appropriate.
base in water.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 688 3/30/07 1:12:28 PM

Predicting the Direction of Reaction for an Acid-Base Reaction Table 17.1 Relative
Strengths of Selected Acids
All acid-base reactions involve two conjugate acid-base pairs. On the left side of the and Bases
equation, you can label the acid and base. On the right side of the equation, you can
Acid Base
identify the conjugate base and conjugate acid. How does the strength of each species
HC Cl-
determine the direction of the reaction?
H2SO4 HSO4-
Recall the reaction of hydrochloric acid with water:
HNO3 NO3-
HCl(aq) + H2O() → H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq) H3 O+ H2O
acid base conjugate conjugate H2SO3 HSO3-
acid base -
HSO4 SO42-
)NCREASING"ASE3TRENGTH
)NCREASING!CID3TRENGTH
You know this reaction goes completely to the right, because hydrochloric acid is a H3PO4 H2PO4-
strong acid. Since HCl(aq) must lose its proton more easily than H3O+(aq) does, HF F-
HCl(aq) is a stronger acid than H3O+(aq). You could also consider the reaction in CH3COOH CH3COO-
terms of the bases, H2O() and Cl–(aq). Water gains a proton more readily than H2CO3 HCO3-
Cl–(aq) does; therefore, water must be a stronger base than Cl–(aq). The following H2S HS-
generalization can help you predict the direction of an acid-base reaction: An acid- HSO3 - SO32-
base reaction usually proceeds to the right if the stronger acid and stronger base are on the H2PO4- HPO42-
left side of the equation and products are favoured. This makes sense because a stronger NH4 + NH3
acid more easily donates a proton, and a stronger base more easily accepts the proton. HCO3- CO32-
Over many years, chemists have performed countless experiments involving acids HPO4 2- PO42-
and bases. The data from these experiments have enabled chemists to rank acids and
H2O OH-
bases according to their strengths in relation to one another, as shown in Table 17.1. You
can use this table to predict the direction in which an acid-base reaction will proceed.
Sample Problem
Predicting the Direction Act on Your Strategy

of an Acid-Base Reaction Step 1 On the left side of the equation, CH3COOH(aq)
is the acid. On the right side of the equation,
Problem HSO4–(aq) acts as an acid.
Predict the direction in which the following reaction will Step 2 In Table 17.1, HSO4–(aq) is above
proceed. Briefly explain your answer. CH3COOH(aq); therefore, HSO4–(aq) is the
SO42–(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) stronger acid. The stronger acid more easily gives
HSO4–(aq) + CH3COO–(aq) up a proton, so the equilibrium is to the left.
What Is Required? Reactants are favoured in this reaction.
You need to determine whether reactants or products are SO42–(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)
favoured at equilibrium. weaker acid HSO4–(aq) + CH3COO–(aq)
stronger acid
What Is Given?
You have the chemical equation and Table 17.1. Check Your Solution
Comparing the relative strengths of HSO4–(aq) and
Plan Your Strategy CH3COOH(aq), ethanoic acid is weaker. The reaction
Step 1 Identify the species acting as an acid on each side proceeds from the stronger acid toward the weaker acid.
of the equation.
Step 2 Use Table 17.1 to find the stronger acid. The
reaction proceeds from the stronger acid toward
the weaker acid.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 689 3/30/07 1:12:28 PM

Practice Problems
8. Predict the direction for the following reactions. 10. Write equilibrium equations for each of the
State whether reactants or products are favoured, following reactions. State whether the reactants or
and give reasons to support your decision: the products are favoured. (Consult Table 17.1 or the
a) NH4+(aq) + H2PO4–(aq) table in the Appendix G.)
NH3(aq) + H3PO4(aq) a) aqueous carbonic acid is combined with
b) H2O() + HS–(aq) OH–(aq) + H2S(aq) ammonia
c) HF(aq) + SO42–(aq) F–(aq) + HSO4–(aq) b) sodium hydrogen sulfite is dissolved in water
9. In which direction will the following reactions (Hint: the sodium hydrogen sulfite dissociates
proceed? In each case, explain your decision: completely into sodium ions and hydrogen sulfite
a) HPO42–(aq) + NH4+(aq) ions. What happens to the hydrogen sulfite ion in
H2PO4–(aq) + NH3(aq) water?)
b) H2SO4(aq) + H2O() → HSO4–(aq) + H3O+(aq) c) hydrofluoric acid is mixed with potassium nitrate
c) H2S(aq) + NH3(aq) HS–(aq) + NH4+(aq) (Consider the hint in part b.)
d) all possible reactions between water and
phosphoric acid
Section 17.2 Summary

• Brønsted and Lowry developed a theory of acids and bases that was more general than
that of Arrhenius.
• A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor.
• A Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton acceptor.
• According to the Brønsted-Lowry theory, an acid must react with a base and vice versa.
• When an Brønsted-Lowry acid donates a proton, it becomes the conjugate base of
the acid.
• When an Brønsted-Lowry base accepts a proton, it becomes the conjugate acid of
the base.
• A compound that can either donate or accept a proton is called an amphiprotic
substance.
• Water in an amphiprotic substance.
• An acid-base reaction proceeds to the right if the acid on the left is stronger than the
acid on the right.
SECTION 17.2 REVIEW
1. At one time, sodium ethanoate was used as a fungicide. 3. Boric acid, H3BO3(s), is a household chemical that
It is a good electrolyte and in water the ethanoate ion is deadly to all insects. Boric acid is a weak, triprotic
reacts as follows: acid. Write three equations that show that boric acid is
CH3COO–(aq) + H2O() triprotic in water.
CH3COOH(aq) + OH–(aq) 4. Identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in the following
Identify the conjugate acid-base pairs. reactions:
a) H2PO4–(aq) + CO32–(aq)
2. Predict the direction for the reaction between
HPO42–(aq) + HCO3–(aq)
dihydrogen phosphate ions and aqueous ammonia: –
b) HCOOH(aq) + CN (aq)
H2PO4–(aq) + NH3(aq) NH4+(aq) + HPO42–(aq) HCOO–(aq) + HCN(aq)
State whether reactants or products are favoured, and c) H2PO4–(aq) + OH–(aq) HPO42–(aq) + H2O()
give reasons to support your decision.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 690 3/30/07 1:12:29 PM

SECTION
Acid-Base Equilibriums
17.3
Section Outcomes Many common foods (such as citrus fruits), pharmaceuticals (such as Aspirin™ and
some sedatives), and some vitamins (such as niacin and vitamin B3) are weak acids. In
• calculate acid ionization Section 17.2, you learned that you can write equilibrium equations for weak acids and
constants, Ka, and base you can predict whether reactants or products are favoured. The equilibrium reactions
ionization constants, Kb, for weak acids and bases are essentially the same as any other equilibrium reaction and
given the concentration
can be treated mathematically in the same way. The equilibrium constant is denoted as
of a weak acid or base and
the pH of the solution Ka instead of Kc and is called the acid ionization constant.
• solve acid-base
equilibrium problems Acid Ionization Constant
using an approximation
method By using the general formula HA to represent any monoprotic acid, the equilibrium of
• measure an acid a weak monoprotic acid in aqueous solution can be written as follows:
ionization constant by HA(aq) + H2O() H3O+(aq) + A–(aq)
preparing a solution of a
weak acid and measuring This is a heterogeneous equilibrium containing a pure liquid, water. Remember, that
the pH of the solution pure liquids (and pure solids) have constant concentrations. In dilute solutions, the
• calculate the ionization
concentration of water is almost constant. For these reasons the concentration of water
constant for a conjugate
base or a conjugate acid,
is, in effect, included in the equilibrium constant and is not written in the equilibrium
given Ka or Kb , respectively expression. The equilibrium expression for this reaction is
• predict whether products
[H3O+][A-]
or reactants are favoured Ka = __
in an acid-base reaction
[HA]
This expression is called the acid ionization expression or Ka expression. In a weak acid,
Key Terms the number of acid molecules that ionize is small, so the position of equilibrium lies far
to the left. The concentration of acid is larger than the concentration of the other ions
acid ionization constant, Ka
percent ionization in solution. For this reason, values of Ka for weak acids are always small numbers. The
base ionization constant, Kb smaller the value of Ka, the weaker is the acid. Very weak acids have Ka values that are less
ion product constant for than 1 × 10–15. Appendix G lists the acid ionization constants for selected acids at 25 °C.
water, Kw
You will notice that the Ka value of the hydronium ion is relatively large compared with
other weak acids; however, the hydronium ion is still a weak acid. Strong acids have very
large Ka values that are much greater than 1.
Sample Problem
Acid Ionization Expressions Solution

H2SO3(aq) + H2O() HSO3–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Problem [HSO3-][H3O+]
Sulfurous acid, H2SO3(aq) is a weak diprotic acid. Write Ka1 = __ = 1.4 × 10–2
[H2SO3]
an acid ionization expression for each of the ionizations
HSO3–(aq) + H2O() SO32–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
that take place in an aqueous solution of sulfurous acid.
[SO32-][H3O+]
Include the value of Ka. Ka2 = __ = 6.3 × 10–8
[HSO3-]
ChemistryFile
FYI
Niacin is found in many foods, including Indian corn. The niacin in
Indian corn, however, cannot be absorbed in the intestinal tract. In
regions where this food is a major part of the diet, niacin deficiency
can occur. The addition of calcium oxide or wood ash to cooking
water forms a basic solution that allows niacin to be absorbed
from the corn. This is the first step in the preparation of tortillas.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 691 3/30/07 1:12:29 PM

Practice Problems
11. Write the Ka expression for each acid ionizing in 12. Carbonic acid, H2CO3(aq), is a weak diprotic acid.
an aqueous solution. Include the value of Ka from Write an acid ionization expression for each of the
Appendix G: ionizations that take place in an aqueous solution
a) nitrous acid, HNO2(aq) of carbonic acid.
b) benzoic acid, C6H5COOH(aq) 13. Phenol, C6H6O(aq), is a weak monoprotic acid
c) citric acid, H3C6H5O7(aq) used as a disinfectant. The Ka expression is
d) hydrogen citrate ion, HC6H5O72–(aq) [C6H5O-][H3O+]
Ka = __. Write the ionization
[C6H6O]
reaction for phenol in an aqueous solution.
MathTip Acid Ionization Constant and Percent Ionization

In the ICE table, [H2O()] is In the previous chapter, you calculated Kc values given initial concentrations and
left blank because it is not the concentration of one substance at equilibrium. Using the same approach, you
included in the expression can calculate a value for the Ka of a weak acid when its initial concentration and the
for Ka. The [H3O+(aq)] in pure pH of the aqueous solution are known. This is because the pH of the solution can be
water is 1.0 × 10–7 at 25 °C.
used to calculate the hydronium ion concentration, which is one of the equilibrium
This is the initial [H3O+(aq].
However, compared concentrations. As you know, only a few molecules of a weak acid ionize. The percent
with the equilibrium ionization of a weak acid is the fraction of molecules that ionize compared with the
concentration of hydronium initial concentration of the acid, expressed as a percentage. The percent ionization
ion, 1.0 × 10–7 is not
depends on the value of Ka for the acid, as well as the initial concentration of the weak
significant in the problems
you will solve. To show this, acid. The following Sample Problem shows how to calculate the Ka of a weak acid and its
write ~0 (“almost zero”) in percent ionization.
the ICE table for the initial
[H3O+(aq)].
Sample Problem
Determining Ka and Percent Ionization

Problem Plan Your Strategy
Propanoic acid, CH3CH2COOH(aq), is a weak Step 1 Write the equation for the ionization equilibrium of
monoprotic acid that is used to inhibit mould formation propanoic acid in water. Then set up an ICE table.
in bread. A student prepared a 0.10 mol/L solution of Step 2 Write the expression for the acid ionization
propanoic acid and found the pH was 2.96. What is constant.
the acid ionization constant for propanoic acid? What
Step 3 Calculate [H3O+(aq)] using [H3O+(aq)] = 10–pH.
percentage of its molecules were ionized in the solution?
Note that [C2H5COO-] = [H3O+]
What Is Required? Step 4 Use the stoichiometry of the equation and
You need to find Ka and the percent ionization for [H3O+(aq)] to complete the ICE table. Calculate Ka.
propanoic acid. Step 5 Calculate the percent ionization by expressing the
What Is Given? fraction of molecules that ionize out of 100.
You have the following data:
Initial [C2H5COOH(aq)] = 0.10 mol/L
pH = 2.96
3297_Chapter 17.indd 692 3/30/07 1:12:32 PM

Step 1 Use the equation for the ionization equilibrium
of propanoic acid in water to set up an ICE table.
C2H5COOH(aq) + H2O() C2H5COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

[C2H5COOH(aq)] (mol/L) [H2O()] (mol/L) [C2H5COO-(aq)] (mol/L) [H3O+(aq)] (mol/L)
I nitial 0.10 0 ∼0
C hange −1.1 × 10-3 +1.1 × 10-3 +1.1 × 10-3
Equilibrium 0.10 - 1.1 × 10-3 1.1 × 10-3 1.1 × 10-3
Step 2 Remember, pure water is not included in the Check Your Solution
expression for Ka. The value for Ka and the percent ionization are reasonable
[C2H5COO-][H3O+] for a weak acid.
Ka = __
[C2H5COOH]
Step 3 Calculate the value of [H3O+(aq)].
MathTip
As you know, powers of ten do not count in the number
[H3O+(aq)] = 10–pH
of significant digits in a measurement. For this reason,
[H3O+(aq)] = 10–2.96 the part of a logarithm that depends on the power of ten
does not count in the number of significant digits in the
[H3O+] = 1.1 × 10–3 mol/L
logarithm. For example, the number 3.57 × 104 has three
significant digits. The logarithm of 3.57 × 104 is 4.5527.
Step 4 Recall that [C2H5COO-] = [H3O+]
The numeral 4 to the left of the decimal represents the
(1.1 × 10-3)2 exponent of 10, so it does not count in the number of
Ka = __
0.10 - (1.1 × 10-3) significant digits. The numerals to the right of the decimal
= 1.2 × 10–5 determine the 3.57, so they count as significant digits.
mol (Hint: Find the logarithm of 3.57 × 108.) Therefore, the
1.1 × 10-3 _ logarithm of 3.57 × 104 with the correct number of
__ L
Step 5 Percent ionization = × 100% significant digits is 4.553. If the concentration of hydronium
mol
_
0.10 ion is 1.1 × 10–5 mol/L, there are two significant digits. The
L
pH is 4.96, correct to two significant digits.
= 1.1%
Practice Problems
14. In low doses, barbiturates act as sedatives. 16. Wild almonds taste bitter (and are dangerous to eat!)
Barbiturates are made from barbituric acid, a because they contain hydrocyanic acid, HCN(aq).
weak monoprotic acid that was first prepared by When a chemist prepared a 0.75 mol/L solution of
the German chemist Adolph von Baeyer in 1864. HCN(aq), the pH was found to be 4.67. What is the
The formula of barbituric acid is HC4H3N2O3(s). acid ionization constant, Ka ?
A chemist prepares a 0.10 mol/L solution of 17. Many sunscreen lotions contain salts
barbituric acid. The chemist measured the pH of of para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA). #//(
the solution and recorded the value as 2.50. What The structure of PABA is shown here:
is the acid ionization constant for barbituric acid? A saturated solution of PABA was
What percentage of its molecules were ionized? prepared by dissolving 4.7 g in a 1.0 L
15. The word “butter” comes from the Greek butyros. solution. The pH of the solution was
Butanoic acid, HC4H7O2(aq), (common name found to be 3.19. Calculate the acid .(
butyric acid) gives rancid butter its distinctive odour. ionization constant, Ka, for PABA.
If the pH of a 1.00 × 10–2 mol/L solution of butanoic 18. Aspirin™ (acetylsalicylic acid) is a monoprotic
acid is 3.41, calculate the acid ionization constant acid with molar mass of 180. An aqueous solution
for butyric acid. What percentage of butyric acid containing 3.3 g/L was found to have pH = 2.62.
molecules in this solution is ionized? What percentage of acetylsalicylic acid molecules
were ionized in the solution?
3297_Chapter 17.indd 693 3/30/07 1:12:32 PM

You can determine the value of Ka for a particular acid by measuring the pH of a
solution of the acid and determining the concentration of the acid. In your previous
chemistry course, you learned how to perform a titration experiment to determine the
molar concentration of a solution of an acid or a base. You reviewed indicators in the
Unit 8 Preparation. In the following investigation, you will use your titration skills and
knowledge of acid equilibrium to determine the value of Ka for a weak acid.
INVESTIGATION 17.A Target Skills

Using experimental data to calculate
equilibrium constants
Determining Ka for Ethanoic Acid • Wash your hands when you have completed the
To find the concentration of an acid in a titration investigation.
experiment, you can use a pipette to place a known
volume of the acid into an Erlenmeyer flask and then Materials
add a few drops of an indicator to the flask. Next, you • unknown concentration • 100 mL beakers (2)
can use a burette to add a basic solution with known ethanoic acid solution, • pH meter or pH paper
concentration to the Erlenmeyer flask until the indicator CH3COOH(aq) • 250 mL beaker for waste
changes colour. In this investigation, you will be given a • known concentration solutions
sample of ethanoic acid with an unknown concentration. sodium hydroxide • burette and burette clamp
You will measure the pH of the solution using pH paper solution, NaOH(aq) • retort stand
or a pH meter if one is available. Then you will perform • meniscus reader
a titration experiment to find the molar concentration • dropper bottle containing • funnel
of the ethanoic acid solution. Using this data, you will phenolphthalein • pipette bulb or pipette
calculate Ka for ethanoic acid and find the percentage of • distilled water pump
ethanoic acid molecules that ionized in the solution. • 10 mL pipette • 150 mL Erlenmeyer flask
• labels • sheet of white paper
Question
What is the acid ionization constant of ethanoic acid? Procedure
What percentage of its molecules ionize in an aqueous 1. Your teacher will give you the concentration of
solution? NaOH(aq). Record this concentration in your
notebook, as well as the volume of the pipette.
Prediction
Design a table to record your titration data.
Predict the value of Ka and the percent ionization of
CH3COOH(aq). 2. Label a clean, dry 100 mL beaker for each liquid.
Obtain about 40 mL of ethanoic acid and
Safety Precautions approximately 70 mL of NaOH(aq).
3. Measure the pH of the ethanoic acid solution using
pH paper, or a pH meter if one is available. Record
• Sodium hydroxide is toxic and is harmful if swallowed this value.
or inhaled. Both ethanoic acid and sodium hydroxide
are corrosive. Immediately wash any spills on your 4. Rinse a clean burette with about 10 mL of
skin or clothing with plenty of cool water and inform NaOH(aq). Discard the rinse into the 250 mL
your teacher. Also inform your teacher immediately if beaker. Then set up a retort stand, burette clamp,
you spill sodium hydroxide or ethanoic acid on the lab meniscus reader, and funnel. Fill the burette with
bench or floor. NaOH(aq). Make sure that the solution fills the tube
below the burette tap and contains no air bubbles.
• Phenolphthalein solution may irritate skin, eyes, and
Remove the funnel.
mucous membranes. This solution is flammable. Keep
away from open flames.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 694 3/30/07 1:12:33 PM

8. Rinse the pipette and burette with distilled water.
Leave the burette tap open and store the burette
upside down.
Analysis
MENISCUS 1. Write the chemical equation for the neutralization
READER reaction you performed.
BURETTECLAMP
2. Calculate the molar concentration of the ethanoic
acid, [CH3COOH(aq)]. Use the ratio in which the
acid and base react, determined from the chemical
equation.
3. Calculate [H3O+(aq)] using your measurement of
the pH of the ethanoic acid solution.
4. Write the expression for Ka, the ionization constant
of ethanoic acid in water.
5. Obtain a clean 10 mL pipette and a suction bulb 5. Set up an ICE table and substitute equilibrium
or pipette pump. Rinse the pipette with a few mL concentrations into your expression for Ka. Calculate
of CH3COOH(aq) and discard the rinse. Pipette the value of Ka and the percentage of ethanoic acid
10.00 mL of CH3COOH(aq) into the Erlenmeyer molecules that ionized in solution.
flask. Add two or three drops of phenolphthalein
indicator. Place a sheet of white paper under the flask. Conclusion
6. Perform the titration. The endpoint is a faint pink 6. Calculate the percentage difference between your
colour that remains after swirling the contents value for Ka of ethanoic acid and the accepted value.
of the Erlenmeyer flask for at least ten seconds. State two sources of error that might account for
Measure the volume of base required to reach the any differences.
endpoint. Repeat the titration as time permits until 7. Compare your value for Ka and the percentage
you have at least two sets of data that agree with of ethanoic acid molecules that ionized with the
each other within 2%. values determined by others in your class. Discuss
7. Discard waste liquids into the beaker you have been the results.
using for this purpose. Give the beaker containing
waste liquids from your experiments to your teacher Application
for safe disposal. 8. Do the values you calculated for [H3O+(aq)] and
[CH3COOH(aq)] demonstrate that ethanoic acid
is a weak acid? Explain.
The Ion Product Constant for Water

The most common solvent for acids and bases is water. Pure water contains a few ions
produced by the ionization of water molecules:
2H2O() H3O+(aq) + OH–(aq)
At 25 °C, only about two water molecules in a billion ionize. This is why pure water
is such a poor conductor of electricity. In pure water at 25 °C, the concentration of
hydronium and hydroxide ions is 1.0 × 10–7 mol/L. The concentrations must be equal,
because the ionization of water produces an equal number of hydronium and hydroxide
ions. The equilibrium constant for the ionization of water is given the symbol Kw .
Kw = [H3O+][OH–]
3297_Chapter 17.indd 695 3/30/07 1:12:33 PM

Kw is called the ion product constant for water. At 25 °C, Kw = 1.0 × 10–14. As in
the expression for Ka, the concentration of water is not included in the equilibrium
expression for Kw . When an acid is added to pure water, the acid molecules ionize
and increase the concentration of H3O+(aq). The increased [H3O+(aq)] pushes
the equilibrium reaction between water molecules to the left, in accordance with Le
Châtelier’s principle. Therefore, when an acid is added to water, [H3O+(aq)] increases,
and [OH–(aq)] decreases. Similarly, when a base is added to pure water the increased
[OH–(aq)] pushes the equilibrium reaction between water molecules to the left, and
[H3O+(aq)] decreases. The value of Kw stays at 1.0 × 10-14.
•••
Q How can the ion product for water stay at 1.0 × 10

6 -14 (at 25 °C) if you add an
acid to the water?
Q Why is the ionization of water usually not significant when you calculate the
7
pH of a solution of an acid or a base?
Q Consider the ionization of a weak acid in water, such as ethanoic acid:

8
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O() CH3COO–(aq) + H3O+(aq)

Use Le Châtelier’s principle to predict how the percent ionization of the acid
will be affected by diluting the acid.
•••
The Relationship between pH and pOH

The ion product constant for water can be used to calculate [OH–(aq)] when the pH of a
solution has been measured.
Kw = 1.0 × 10–14 = [H3O+][OH–]. Taking logarithms of both sides,
–14.0 = log[H3O+] + log[OH–]. Reversing each sign, 14.0 = –log[H3O+] – log[OH–].
Because pH = –log[H3O+] and pOH = –log[OH–], the relationship simplifies to
14.0 = pH + pOH (at 25 °C).
The Base Ionization Constant Kb

The equilibrium of weak bases uses concepts similar to the equilibrium of weak acids.
Because the lone pair of electrons on a nitrogen atom can bond with H+ from water,
many nitrogen-containing compounds are Brønsted-Lowry bases. Ammonia and many
amines are common examples of weak bases containing nitrogen. Many plant-based
compounds, such as caffeine in coffee and piperidine in black pepper, are also weak bases.
A weak base, represented by B, reacts with water to form an equilibrium solution of ions:
B(aq) + H2O() HB+(aq) + OH–(aq)
The equilibrium constant for this general reaction is given the symbol Kb.
[HB+][OH-]
Kb = __
[B]
Kb is called the base ionization constant. Note that the expression for Kb does not include
pure water, for the same reasons water was not included in the Ka expression for an acid.
The conjugate base of a weak acid can also act as a weak base. For example, the
fluoride ion is a weak base:
F–(aq) + H2O() HF(aq) + OH–(aq)
[HF][OH-]
Kb = __
[F-]
3297_Chapter 17.indd 696 3/30/07 1:12:34 PM

You can calculate Kb for a weak base in aqueous solution if the initial concentration of
the base and the concentration of OH–(aq) are known. Chemists almost always measure
the pH of a solution, and the [OH–(aq)] can be calculated from this measurement by
using the equilibrium constant for the ionization of water.
Sample Problem
Calculating Kb for a Weak Base Step 4 Write the expression for the base ionization
constant. Substitute equilibrium terms into the
Problem expression and calculate Kb.
One of the uses for aniline, C6H5NH2(), is in the
manufacture of dyes. Aniline is soluble in water and Act on Your Strategy
acts as a weak base. When a solution containing 5.0 g/L Step 1 Calculate the molar concentration of the solution.
of aniline was prepared, the pH was found to be 8.68. Molar mass of aniline, C6H5NH2(), = 93.12 g/mol
g
Calculate the base ionization constant for aniline. 5.0 _
[C6H5NH2(aq)] = _ L
g
What Is Required? 93.12 _
You need to find Kb for aniline. mol
mol
= 0.0537 _
What Is Given? L
You have the following data: Step 2 Calculate [OH–(aq)].
The formula for aniline is C6H5NH2() pOH = 14.0 – 8.68
The solution contains 5.0 g/L C6H5NH2(aq) = 5.32
pH = 8.68
[OH–(aq)] = 10–5.32
Plan Your Strategy = 4.79 × 10–6
Step 1 Calculate the molar concentration of the solution Step 3 Use the equation for the ionization equilibrium
using the molar mass of aniline and the mass of of aniline in water to set up an ICE table.
aniline dissolved in one litre of solution.
Step 4 Write the expression for Kb. Substitute
Step 2 Calculate the hydroxide ion concentration using equilibrium terms into the expression.
the following:
[C6H5NH3+][OH-]
pH + pOH = 14.0 Kb = __
[C6H5NH2]
[OH–(aq)] = 10–pOH
(4.79 × 10-6)(4.79 × 10-6)
Step 3 Write the equation for the ionization equilibrium = ___
0.0537
of aniline in water. Then set up an ICE table. = 4.3 × 10–10
C6H5NH2(aq) + H2O() C6H5NH3+(aq) + OH-(aq)

[C6H5NH2(aq)] (mol/L) [H2O()] (mol/L) [C6H5NH3+(aq)] (mol/L) [OH-(aq)] (mol/L)
I nitial 0.0537 0 ∼0
C hange −4.79 × 10-6 +4.79 × 10-6 +4.79 × 10-6
Equilibrium (0.0537 −4.79 × 10-6) +4.79 × 10-6 +4.79 × 10-6
MathTip Check Your Solution

Remember, in the ICE table [H2O()] is left blank. The value for Kb is reasonable for a weak base. The answer
Compared with the equilibrium concentration of has the correct number of significant digits (two).
hydroxide ion, 1.0 × 10–7 is not significant in the
problems you will solve. To show this, write ~0
(“almost zero”) in the ICE table for the initial [OH–(aq)].
3297_Chapter 17.indd 697 3/30/07 1:12:34 PM

Practice Problems
19. Write the chemical equation for each base ionizing in 22. Codeine, C18H21NO3(s), is added to some cough
an aqueous solution: medicines. When a 0.020 mol/L aqueous solution
a) ammonia, NH3(aq) of codeine was prepared, the pH of the solution was
b) trimethylamine, (CH3)3N(aq) found to be 10.26. Calculate Kb for codeine.
c) hydrogen sulfite ion, HSO3–(aq) 23. A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) describes
d) carbonate ion, CO32–(aq) pyridine, C5H5N(), as a clear liquid with a putrid
20. Write the Kb expression for each base in the previous odour. A 16 g/L solution of pyridine has pH = 9.23.
question. Use these data to calculate Kb for pyridine.
21. When a 0.25 mol/L aqueous solution of methylamine
was prepared, the pH of the solution was found to be
10.04. What percentage of methylamine molecules
ionized in the solution?
Calculating the pH of a Solution of a Weak Acid or a Weak Base

Below are a few general steps to guide you when you need to solve an acid or a base
equilibrium problem. You recall that in calculations involving the equilibrium constant,
if the concentrations of reactants were at least 1000 times greater than Kc, you could
make the approximation that the concentrations of the reactants at equilibrium were
the same as the initial concentrations. The situation is the same when using acid and
base ionization constants. The steps below give you a method for determining whether
to use the approximation method. This rule is sometimes called the rule of a thousand.
Read the steps below and then study the Sample Problem to find out how to apply the rule.
• Write the chemical equation. Use the chemical equation to set up an ICE table
for the reacting substances whenever initial acid or base concentrations are
known. Enter into the table any values that are given in the problem.
• For problems in this textbook, you can assume that the concentrations of
H3O+(aq) and OH–(aq) in pure water are negligible compared with the
concentrations of these ions when a weak acid or a weak base is dissolved in water.
• For problems that give the initial concentration of the acid, HA, compare the
initial concentration of the acid with the acid ionization constant.
• If [HA] >1000 × Ka, the change in the initial concentration is not significant
compared with the initial [HA]. Therefore, [HA] at equilibrium can be
considered to be the same as it was initially.
• If [HA] < 1000 × Ka, the change in the initial concentration may be significant
compared with the initial [HA]. You cannot use the approximation method.
• For a base B, compare [B] to 1000 × Kb to determine whether the change in the
initial concentration is or is not significant compared with the initial [B].
3297_Chapter 17.indd 698 3/30/07 1:12:35 PM

Sample Problem
[HCOO-][H3O+]
Calculating the pH of a Weak Acid Step 2 Ka = __
[HCOOH]
x2
Problem 1.8 × 10-4 = _
Methanoic acid, HCOOH(), is present in the sting of (0.25 - x)
certain ants. What is the pH of a 0.25 mol/L solution of x2 + 1.8 × 10-4x - 4.5 × 10-5 = 0
methanoic acid? Step 3 The substitutions resulted in a quadratic equation
so compare 1000 × Ka to the initial concentration
What Is Required?
of methanoic acid.
You need to calculate the pH of the solution.
1000 × 1.8 × 10-4 = 0.18
What Is Given? [HCOOH] = 0.25
You know the concentration of methanoic acid: 0.25 > 0.18 so you may use the approximation
[HCOOH(aq)] = 0.25 mol/L that [HCOOH] at equilibrium is the same as its
The acid ionization constant for methanoic acid is listed initial concentration of 0.25 − x 0.25.
in Appendix G: Ka = 1.8 × 10–4. x2
Step 4 1.8 × 10–4 = _
0.25
Plan Your Strategy x2 = 4.5 × 10–5
Step 1 Write the equation for the ionization equilibrium of x = 6.71 × 10–3
methanoic acid in water. Then set up an ICE table. mol
x = 6.71 × 10–3 _
L
Step 2 Write the equation for the acid ionization constant.
= [H3O+(aq)]
Substitute equilibrium terms into the equation.
Step 5 pH = –log 6.71 × 10–3
Step 3 If you get a quadratic equation in Step 2, test to
= 2.17
find out if you may use an approximation.
The pH of a solution of 0.25 mol/L methanoic acid
Step 4 Solve the equation for x.
is 2.17.
Step 5 Calculate the pH by using the equation
pH = –log [H3O+(aq)] Check Your Solution
The pH indicates an acidic solution, as expected. Data
Act on Your Strategy that were given in the problem have two significant digits,
Step 1 and the pH has two digits following the decimal place.
HCOOH(aq) + H2O() HCOO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
[HCOOH(aq)] (mol/L) [H2O()] (mol/L) [HCOO-(aq)] (mol/L) [H3O+(aq)] (mol/L)
I nitial 0.25 0 ∼0
C hange −x +x +x
Equilibrium 0.25 − x x x
Practice Problems
24. Calculate the pH of a sample of vinegar that contains 27. Hexanoic acid, commonly known as caproic acid,
0.83 mol/L ethanoic acid. What is the percent C5H11COOH(s), occurs naturally in coconut and palm
ionization of the ethanoic acid? oil. It is a weak monoprotic acid, with Ka = 1.3 × 10–5.
25. A solution of hydrofluoric acid has a molar A certain aqueous solution of hexanoic acid has pH of
concentration of 1.00 mol/L. What is the pH of the 2.94. How much acid was dissolved to make 100 mL of
solution? What percentage of its molecules ionize? this solution?
26. Hypochlorous acid, HOCl(aq), is used to make
bleach. A chemist finds that 0.027% of hypochlorous
acid molecules are ionized in a 0.40 mol/L solution.
What is the value of Ka for the acid?
3297_Chapter 17.indd 699 3/30/07 1:12:35 PM

Sample Problem
Calculating the pH of a Weak Base 3.6 × 10−3 > 3.3 × 10-3 so you can use the
approximation that [Q] at equilibrium is the
Problem same as its initial concentration, or
The characteristic bitter taste of tonic water is due to the 3.6 × 10−3 − x 3.6 × 10-3
addition of quinine. Quinine, C20H24N2O2(s), is a naturally x2
Step 4 3.3 × 10-6 = _
occurring, white crystalline compound. It is also used to 3.6 × 10-3
treat malaria. The base ionization constant, Kb , for quinine x2 = 1.188 × 10-8
is 3.3 × 10–6. What is the hydroxide ion concentration and x = 1.09 × 10-4
pH of a 3.6 × 10–3 mol/L solution of quinine? mol
x ≈ 1.1 × 10-4 _
L
What Is Required? = [OH-(aq)]
You need to find [OH(aq)] and pH.
Step 5 pOH = –log 1.09 × 10–4
What Is Given? = 3.96
Kb = 3.3 × 10–6 pH = 14.00 – pOH
Concentration of quinine = 3.6 × 10–3 mol/L pH = 10.04
Plan Your Strategy Check Your Solution
Step 1 Let Q represent the formula of quinine. The pH of the solution is greater than 7, as expected for
Write the equation for quinine acting as a basic solution. The answer has the correct number of
a base in water. Then set up an ICE table. significant digits (two).
Step 2 Write the expression for the base ionization
constant. Substitute equilibrium terms into MathTip
the equation.
If an acid or a base has a complex molecular formula, you
Step 3 If the you get a quadratic equation in Step 2, test can represent the formula using a shortened notation,
to find out if you may use an approximation. such as Q for quinine. Remember that a Brønsted-Lowry
Step 4 Solve the equation for x. acid always provides a proton to water, and a Brønsted-
Lowry base always accepts a proton from water.
Step 5 Calculate the pH by using the equations
pOH = –log [OH–(aq)]
pH = 14.00 – pOH

Step 1
Q(aq) + H2O() HQ+(aq) + OH-(aq)
[Q(aq)] (mol/L) [H2O()] (mol/L) [HQ+(aq)] (mol/L) [OH-(aq)] (mol/L)
I nitial 3.6 × 10-3 0 ∼0
C hange -x +x +x
Equilibrium (3.6 × 10-3 - x) x x
[HQ+][OH-]
Step 2 Kb = __
[Q]
(x)(x)
3.3 × 10-6 = __ Quinine helps to prevent malaria,
3.6 × 10-3 - x but it has a bitter taste that is
x2 + 3.3 × 10-6 x - 1.188 × 10-8 = 0 characteristic of a base. This
unpalatable taste made quinine
Step 3 The substitutions resulted in a quadratic equation an unpopular medicine among
so compare 1000 × Kb with [Q] to see if you may the British who colonized India.
Tonic water contains dissolved
use an approximation. quinine, and the gin and tonic
1000 × 3.3 × 10-6 = 3.3 × 10-3 cocktail was invented to help
[Q] = 3.6 × 10-3 make taking quinine easier.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 700 3/30/07 1:12:35 PM

Practice Problems
28. An aqueous solution of household ammonia, manufacture of several prescription drugs, including
NH3(aq), has a molar concentration of 0.105 mol/L. methamphetamine. Calculate [OH–(aq)] and pOH
Calculate the pH of the solution. of a 1.5 mol/L aqueous solution of methylamine.
Kb (NH3) = 1.8 × 10-5 Kb (CH3NH2) = 4.6 × 10-4
29. Hydrazine, N2H4(), has been used as a rocket 32. At room temperature, trimethylamine, (CH3)3N(g),
fuel. The concentration of an aqueous solution of is a gas with a strong ammonia-like odour. Calculate
hydrazine is 5.9 × 10–2 mol/L. Calculate the pH of [OH–(aq)] and the percentage of trimethylamine
the solution. molecules that react with water in a 0.22 mol/L
Kb (N2H4) = 1.3 × 10-6 aqueous solution.
30. Morphine, C17H19NO3(s), is a naturally occurring Kb ((CH3)3N) = 6.3 × 10-5
base that is used to control pain. A 4.5 × 10–3 mol/L 33. An aqueous solution of ammonia has a pH of 10.85.
solution has a pH of 9.93. Calculate Kb for morphine. What is the concentration of the solution?
31. Methylamine, CH3NH2(g), is a fishy-smelling
gas at room temperature. It is used in the
The Relationship Between Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs

Recall that Table 17.1 on page 689 shows an inverse relationship between the strength
of an acid and its conjugate base. Strong acids have weaker conjugate bases, and weak
acids have stronger conjugate bases. Note that this relationship is relative to the strength
of the acid. For instance, the conjugate base of a weak acid is stronger than the weak
acid because Ka for the weak acid is less than Kb for the conjugate base. But this does
not mean that the conjugate base is necessarily a “strong base”. In fact, relative to these
“strong bases,” the conjugate base may be considered to be a “weak base,” but it is still
stronger than the weak acid of its conjugate acid-base pair. There is also an important
relationship between Ka and Kb for a conjugate acid-base pair. This relationship can be
seen using the following specific example.
Ethanoic acid ionizes in water:
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O() H3O+(aq) + CH3COO–(aq)
The acid ionization constant for ethanoic acid is:
[CH3COO-][H3O+]
Ka = __
[CH3COOH]
The conjugate base of ethanoic acid is CH3COO–(aq). The ethanoate ion acts as a base
in water as follows:
CH3COO–(aq) + H2O() CH3COOH(aq) + OH–(aq)
The base ionization constant for the ethanoate ion is
[CH3COOH][OH-]
Kb = __
[CH3COO-]
The product Ka × Kb is
[CH3COO-][H3O+] [CH3COOH][OH-]
Ka × Kb = __ × __ = [H3O+][OH-] = Kw
[CH3COOH] [CH3COO-]
Kw Kw
Kw = Ka × Kb Ka = _ Kb = _
Kb Ka
3297_Chapter 17.indd 701 3/30/07 1:12:36 PM

Sample Problem
Equilibrium Constants for Conjugate b) The conjugate acid of ethylamine is C2H5NH3+(aq).

Acid-Base Pairs From Table 2 in Appendix G, Kb for
C2H5NH2(aq) = 4.7 × 10–4.
Problem Kw
a) Calculate Kb for the conjugate base of benzoic acid, Ka = _
Kb
C6H5COOH(aq). 1.0 × 10-14
=_
b) Calculate Ka for the conjugate acid of ethylamine, 4.7 × 10-4
C2H5NH2(aq). = 2.1 × 10–11
Ka for C2H5NH3+(aq) is 2.1 × 10–11.
Solution
a) The conjugate base of benzoic acid is the benzoate
ion, C6H5COO–(aq). MathTip
From Table 1 in Appendix G, Ka for C6H5COOH(aq)
The relationship Kw = Ka × Kb applies only to a conjugate
= 6.3 × 10–5. acid-base pair, such as CH3COOH(aq)/CH3COO–(aq)
Kw or NH3(aq)/NH4+(aq). When you use the equation to
Kb = _
Ka calculate Ka or Kb, make sure the chemical formula of the
1.0 × 10-14 acid and base you are using differ by just one proton.
=_
6.3 × 10-5
= 1.6 × 10–10
Kb for the benzoate ion, C6H5COO–(aq), is 1.6 × 10–10.
Sample Problem
Predicting the Direction of an Step 1 Identify the acid on the left side of the equation,
Acid-Base Reaction and the conjugate acid on the right side of the
equation.
Problem Step 2 Calculate Ka for the conjugate acid using
Predict the direction for the reaction between ammonium Kw
ions and carbonate ions in aqueous solution: Ka = _
Kb
NH4+(aq) + CO32–(aq) NH3(aq) + HCO3–(aq) Step 3 Compare the two Ka values. The weaker acid has
State whether reactants or products are favoured, and give the smaller Ka value. The reaction proceeds toward
reasons to support your decision. the weaker acid.
Ka for HCO3–(aq) = 4.7 × 10–11.
Kb for NH3(aq) = 1.8 × 10–5.
Step 1 NH4+(aq) is the acid on the left side of the
What Is Required? equation. On the right side of the equation,
You need to determine whether reactants or products are HCO3–(aq) acts as the acid.
favoured at equilibrium. Step 2 NH4+(aq) is the conjugate acid of the base,
NH3(aq). Kb for ammonia is 1.8 × 10–5.
What Is Given?
Calculate Ka for NH4+(aq).
You know the chemical equation.
Kw 1.0 × 10-14
Ka for HCO3–(aq) = 4.7 × 10–11. Ka = _ = _ = 5.6 × 10-10
Kb 1.8 × 10-5
Kb for NH3(aq) = 1.8 × 10–5.
Step 3 Comparing Ka for HCO3–(aq) = 4.7 × 10–11
Plan Your Strategy with Ka for NH4+(aq) = 5.6 × 10–10, the hydrogen
The reaction will proceed in the direction of the carbonate ion is a weaker acid. Therefore, the
weakest acid. reaction proceeds to the right. Products are
favoured in the reaction.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 702 3/30/07 1:12:36 PM

Check Your Solution
Both acids in the reaction are expected to be weak. The
calculation of Ka for the ammonium ion looks reasonable.
A number with a larger negative exponent is smaller than
another number with a smaller negative exponent.
Practice Problems
34. For each of the following acids, write the name 37. Hydrosulfuric acid is a weak diprotic acid:
and formula of its conjugate base. Use Appendix G H2S(aq) + H2O() HS–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
to calculate Kb for the conjugate base: Ka1 = 8.9 × 10–8
a) hydrocyanic acid, HCN(aq)
HS–(aq) + H2O() S2–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
b) nitrous acid, HNO2(aq)
Ka2 = 1.0 × 10–19
35. Write the formula for the conjugate acid of
To calculate Kb for the sulfide ion, should you use Ka1
methylamine, CH3NH2(aq), and pyridine,
or Ka2 for hydrosulfuric acid? Explain. Calculate Kb
C5H5N(aq). Then use the data below to decide
for S2–(aq).
which of these conjugate acids is stronger.
Explain your choice. 38. Predict the direction for the reaction between
Kb(CH3NH2) = 4.6 × 10-4 dihydrogen phosphate ions and aqueous ammonia:
Kb(C5H5N) = 1.7 × 10-9 H2PO4–(aq) + NH3(aq) NH4+(aq) + HPO42–(aq)
36. Which is the stronger Brønsted-Lowry base, CN–(aq) State whether reactants or products are favoured, and
or F–(aq)? Give a reason for your choice. give reasons to support your decision.
Ka for H2PO4–(aq) = 6.2 × 10–8.
Kb for NH3(aq) = 1.8 × 10–5.

• The equilibrium for the ionization of a weak acid can be treated in a similar way as the
equilibrium for any reaction.
• The equilibrium constant for the ionization of an acid is called the acid ionization
constant and is given the symbol, Ka.
[H3O+][A-]
• The equilibrium expression for an acid is Ka = __, where HA represents any
weak acid and A− is its conjugate base.
[HA] ChemistryFile
• You can use the same strategy when solving problems involving Ka that you used when FYI
In principle, every anion
solving problems involving Kc. is capable of acting as
• The ion product constant for water is symbolized Kw and is expressed as a Brønsted-Lowry base.
Kw = [H3O+][OH−]. However, the anion
formed from a strong
• At 25 °C, Kw = 1.0 × 10−14. acid is extremely weak.
[HB+][OH-]
• The base ionization constant is: Kb = __. (Remember the inverse
[B] relationship between an
• At 25 °C, pH + pOH = 14. acid and its conjugate base,
• The rule of 1000 allows you to determine whether you can use the approximation that summarized in the equation
for a conjugate acid-base
the equilibrium concentration of a weak acid (or base) is approximately equal to the pair: Ka × Kb = Kw). For
initial concentration. example, the chloride ion
Kw Kw
• Kw = Ka × Kb and Ka = _ and Kb = _ Cl–(aq) is not able to remove
Kb Ka a proton from water.
Because the conjugate
bases of strong acids are so
weak, they are sometimes
called ineffective bases.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 703 3/30/07 3:46:21 PM

SECTION 17.3 REVIEW
1. Sodium hydrogen phosphate, Na2HPO4(s) is soluble in 4. For each of the following acids, write the formula of its
water. conjugate base and calculate Kb.
a) Show that HPO42–(aq) is amphiprotic. a) ascorbic acid, C6H8O6(aq) (Ka = 9.1 × 10–5)
b) Write the acid ionization constant expression, Ka. b) ethanoic acid, CH3COOH(aq) (Ka = 1.8 × 10–5)
c) Write the base ionization constant expression, Kb. c) methanoic acid, HCOOH(aq) (Ka = 1.8 × 10–4)
d) Ka for HPO42–(aq) is 6.2 × 10–8. Kb for HPO42–(aq) 5. Use the data in Appendix G to decide which is the
is 1.6 × 10–7. Will an aqueous solution of sodium stronger acid, CH3NH3+(aq) or C2H5NH3+(aq).
hydrogen phosphate be acidic or basic? Explain Explain your choice.
your answer.
6. For each of the following acid-base reactions, predict
2. Which of the following would you expect to be the whether reactants or products are favoured. Explain
stronger Brønsted-Lowry acid? Briefly justify each your answers:
choice: a) NH4+(aq) + H2O() NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
a) H3O+(aq) or H2CO3(aq) b) HSO4–(aq) + H3O+(aq) H2SO4(aq) + H2O()
b) HSO4–(aq) or H3PO4(aq) c) HSO3–(aq) + HS–(aq) H2S(aq) + SO32–(aq)
c) H2AsO4–(aq) or HAsO42–(aq) d) CO32–(aq) + HF(aq) HCO3–(aq) + F–(aq)
3. Which of the following would you expect to be the
stronger Brønsted-Lowry base? Briefly justify each
choice:
a) H2O() or SO32–(aq)
b) F–(aq) or Cl–(aq)
c) OH–(aq) or O2–(aq)
3297_Chapter 17.indd 704 3/30/07 1:12:37 PM

SECTION
Titration Curves and Buffers
17.4
Section Outcomes In your previous chemistry course, you titrated strong acids and bases to determine
their concentration. In doing so, you used an indicator to determine the endpoint. The
• interpret various titration endpoint of a titration occurs when the indicator changes colour and you stop adding
curves and distinguish acid or base. There are many acid-base indicators, and together they cover the whole
between the endpoint range of possible pH values. Figure 17.9 shows the colours and endpoints of various
and the equivalence point
indicators. The colour change of an indicator should be as dramatic as possible. For
in the titration
• identify buffers in living example, if the equivalence point in a titration is at about pH 8, most chemists would
systems and describe prefer to use phenolphthalein rather than phenol red. Phenol red changes colour from
them using the Brønsted- yellow to red, and it is harder to distinguish the orange colour at the endpoint than the
Lowry theory colourless to pink change of phenolphthalein.
• investigate a buffer
solution e=

#RYSTALVIOLET
Key Terms
4HYMOLBLUE
titration curve $INITROPHENOL
buffer solution
buffer capacity "ROMOPHENOLBLUE
"ROMOCRESOLGREEN
-ETHYLRED
!LIZARIN
"ROMOTHYMOLBLUE
0HENOLRED
0HENOLPHTHALEIN
!LIZARINYELLOW2
Figure 17.9 Many indicators are available with different endpoints. Thymol blue
and alizarin are diprotic. They change colour over two different ranges.
Indicators Are Weak Acids

What makes the indicator change colour? Indicators are, themselves, weak acids. In the
acid form, the indicator is one colour and the conjugate base is another colour. You can
write a general equilibrium equation for indicators, as follows, where HIn represents the
acid form of the indicator and In− represents the conjugate base.
HIn(aq) + H2O() → H3O+(aq) + In−(aq)
colour 1 colour 2
The structures of indicators can be somewhat complex. For example, Figure 17.10 shows
the structures of phenolphthalein in the acid and conjugate base forms.
/( /ĕ
/(
Figure 17.10 When ǈ /

the pH of a solution of / ĕ
phenolphthalein increases, /
the molecule loses two
protons and changes / COLOURLESS / PINK
significantly in structure. BELOWP( ABOVEP(
3297_Chapter 17.indd 705 3/30/07 1:12:37 PM

You have probably noticed that different indicators change colour at a wide range of pH
values. The range of the colour change depends on the strength of the acid. As you know,
the Ka of a weak acid indicates the relative strength of the acid. Table 17.2 lists the range of
the colour change and the Ka of some of the indicators that are illustrated in Figure 17.9.
Notice the relationship between the exponent of Ka and the pH range of the colour change.
Table 17.2 pH Range and Ka or Some Indicators
pH Range of
Indicator colour change Ka
thymol blue 1.2−2.8 2.2 × 10−2
8.0−9.6 6.3 × 10−10
bromocresol green 3.8−5.4 1.3 × 10−5
methyl red 4.8−6.0 1.0 × 10−5
bromothymol blue 6.0−7.6 5.0 × 10−8
phenol red 6.6−8.0 1.0 × 10−8
phenolphthalein 8.2−10.0 3.2 × 10−10
alizarin yellow R 10.1−12.0 6.9 × 10−13
When you titrate to an endpoint, you do not know how the pH of the solution changes
while you are adding base (or acid). To determine the pH of the solution with each
additional volume of added base, you need to use a pH meter. When you do so, you can
plot a titration curve. The graphs of titration curves can provide information about the
nature of the acid (or base) that you are titrating.
The Titration Curve for a Strong Acid with a Strong Base

PHENOLPHTHALEIN

P(
P(AT
EQUIVALENCEPOINT
Figure 17.11 The curve
for a strong acid–strong
base titration, such as
hydrochloric acid with
METHYLRED
sodium hydroxide. The

range over which an
indicator changes colour
must lie on the portion of
the titration curve where
the pH changes rapidly. 6OLUMEOFSTRONGBASEADDEDM,
A graph of the pH of the titration mixture against the volume of added acid (or base)
is called a titration curve. Figure 17.11 shows the titration curve for a strong acid,
such as HCl(aq), with a strong base, such as NaOH(aq). The titration of a strong acid
with a strong base forms a solution with pH = 7 at equivalence. Any indicator that
changes colour in the approximate range from pH 4 to pH 10 could be used for a
strong acid–strong base titration. Examples of good indicators for this type of titration
include methyl red, phenolphthalein, and bromothymol blue. Many chemists prefer
3297_Chapter 17.indd 706 3/30/07 1:12:40 PM

phenolphthalein because the colour change from colourless (in acidic solution) to pink
(in basic solution) is easy to see.
How is the titration curve different if the acid or base is weak? Weak acids and weak
bases contain ions that react with water in equilibrium reactions. In these cases, the
shape of the titration curve will be different, and the pH at equivalence will not be 7.
Titration Curve for a Weak Acid with a Strong Base

PHENOLPHTHALEIN


for a weak acid–strong
P(
N base titration, such as

RREGIO
BUFFE ethanoic acid with sodium
e=\gZViZgi]Vc, hydroxide. In this case,
ViZfj^kVaZcXZed^ci
equivalence occurs when
40 mL of sodium hydroxide
METHYLRED has been added. Note

that the middle of the
buffer region is at the half-
titration point, when half

(20 mL) of the NaOH(aq)
6OLUMEOFSTRONGBASEADDEDM, has been added.
When a weak acid (such as ethanoic acid) is titrated with a strong base (such as sodium
hydroxide) the reaction forms an aqueous solution of a salt:
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCH3COO(aq) + H2O()
Sodium ethanoate ionizes in aqueous solution as follows:
NaCH3COO(aq) → CH3COO–(aq) + Na+(aq)
Remember that the cation generated by the ionization of a strong base (in this case,
Na+(aq)) is a very weak acid and does not react with water. However, the anion (in this
case, CH3COO–(aq)) is the conjugate base of a weak acid. These ions combine with
water molecules and act as a base as follows:
CH3COO–(aq) + H2O() CH3COOH(aq) + OH–(aq)
The added hydroxide ions will make the solution basic. Therefore, the titration of a
weak acid with a strong base forms a solution with pH greater than 7 at equivalence.
Phenolphthalein has an endpoint range that includes the pH at equivalence. Thus,
phenolphthalein is a good indicator for this titration. Methyl red has an endpoint range
that does not include the pH at equivalence. It changes colour before the endpoint of the
titration and should not be used as an indicator for this titration.
If you compare Figure 17.12 with Figure 17.11, you will notice another difference.
In Figure 17.12, there is a gently rising portion of the curve labelled “buffer region.” At
this stage of the titration, adding a small amount of base has very little effect on the pH
of the solution. You will see in Figure 17.13, that the titration curve of a weak base with a
strong acid also includes a buffer region.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 707 3/30/07 1:12:40 PM

Titration Curve for a Weak Base with a Strong Acid

BUFFE PHENOLPHTHALEIN
RREGIO
N
P(

METHYLRED

e=aZhhi]Vc,Vi
Zfj^kVaZcXZed^ci

for a weak base-strong
acid titration, such as

aqueous ammonia with
hydrochloric acid. 6OLUMEOF(#LAQ ADDEDM,
When a weak base is titrated with a strong acid, the titration curve can be understood
using the same concepts as before. For example, titrating aqueous ammonia with
hydrochloric acid forms an aqueous solution of ammonium chloride at equivalence:
HCl(aq) + NH3(aq) NH4Cl(aq) + H2O()
The ammonium chloride then ionizes completely as follows:
NH4Cl(aq) → NH4+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
The anion from a strong acid (in this case Cl–(aq)) does not react with water. The cation
from a weak base will react with water to change the equilibrium concentration of ions:
NH4+(aq) + H2O() → NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
The cation from a weak base will increase the concentration of hydronium ions.
Therefore, the titration of a weak base with a strong acid will form a solution with pH
less than 7 at equivalence. In this titration, the endpoint range of methyl red includes the
pH at equivalence. Methyl red is a good indicator for this reaction, but phenolphthalein
is not. Again, there is a buffer region where the addition of a small amount of acid has
very little effect on the pH of the solution.
Titrating a Weak Acid with a Weak Base

The salt formed by the reaction between a weak acid and a weak base will contain
an ion that is a weak acid and another ion that is a weak base. For this reason, the
pH at equivalence will be close to 7, but it may be slightly acidic or slightly basic,
depending on the particular ions present. For example, when nitrous acid (HNO2(aq),
Ka = 7.2 × 10–4) is titrated against aqueous ammonia (NH3(aq), Kb = 1.8 × 10–5), a
solution of ammonium nitrite, NH4NO2(aq) is formed. The ammonium ion acts as an
acid (Ka = 5.6 × 10–10), and the nitrite ion acts as a base (Kb = 1.4 × 10–11). The solution
will be slightly acidic because Ka for NH4+(aq) is slightly greater than Kb for NO2(aq).
The titration curve for a weak acid with a weak base changes slowly near equivalence.
The lack of a steep change near equivalence means it is difficult to judge the endpoint of
the indicator. For this reason, chemists avoid titrating a weak acid with a weak base by
using an indicator. If the titration must be done, a pH meter is used.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 708 3/30/07 1:12:41 PM

Thought Lab 17.1 Analyzing a Weak Acid–Strong Base Titration
Target Skills
A student used a pH meter to collect data for the titration
of ethanoic acid having an unknown concentration with a Using a spreadsheet to graph the results
of a weak acid–strong base reaction and
0.150 mol/L solution of sodium hydroxide. The data table
analyzing the outcome of the titration
from the experiment is shown in the table below.
The Titration of Ethanoic Acid with Sodium Hydroxide Procedure

Volume of Ethanoic acid = 25.00 mL 1. Enter the data from the table into a spreadsheet program.
mol
[NaOH(aq)] = 0.150 _ Use the program to plot the results, with pH on the
L
vertical axis and volume of base added on the horizontal
Volume of NaOH(aq) added (mL) pH axis. Make sure you enter labels for each axis, and provide
None 2.83 a suitable title for your graph. Print your graph.
2.00 3.84 2. On your graph, shade the buffer region. Identify the
4.11 4.20 pH range of an indicator suitable for this titration. Name
two indicators that would have endpoints suitable for
7.98 4.64 this titration.
11.95 5.03
3. The titration curve should show a steep change in pH
14.08 5.27 near the equivalence point. Choose a point halfway along
16.05 5.61 the portion of rapid change on the graph. Label this the
equivalence point.
17.00 5.90
17.21 6.00 Analysis
17.39 6.09 1. From your graph, find the pH and volume of base added
17.62 6.23 at equivalence.
17.99 6.74 2. Calculate the concentration of the ethanoic acid solution.

18.18 8.80 3. Explain why the pH at equivalence is not 7, the pH of
18.39 10.92 neutral water.
18.80 12.24 4. What ions and molecules are in solution well before
the equivalence point, such as at 10 mL of base added?
20.00 12.56
How does this compare with the solution well after the
22.03 12.69 equivalence point, such as at 20 mL of base added?
Titration Curves for Polyprotic Acids and Polyprotic Bases

Sulfurous acid is a weak diprotic acid (Ka1 = 1.4 × 10–2; Ka2 = 6.3 × 10–8). Figure 17.14
shows the titration curve for sulfurous acid with a strong base. As you might expect,
there are two equivalence points. These points correspond to the complete reaction of
the base with each mole of protons removed from the acid.

hZXdcYZfj^kVaZcXZed^ci

P(
[^ghiZfj^kVaZcXZed^ci

6OLUMEOFSTRONGBASEADDEDM,
Figure 17.14 The curve obtained by titrating a weak diprotic acid with a strong base.
Notice the two equivalence points—one for each proton that ionizes from the acid.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 709 3/30/07 1:12:41 PM

The general shape of a titration curve for a diprotic base is shown in Figure 17.15.
Again, there are two equivalence points. Each equivalence point occurs with the
addition of a proton to the base.
P(
•••
6OLUMEOFSTRONGACIDADDEDM, Q a) Distinguish between the equivalence point and the endpoint for a titration.
9
b) When choosing an indicator, should the pH at equivalence coincide exactly
obtained by titrating a with the pH at the endpoint of the titration? Explain.
weak diprotic base with
a strong acid. Q Acid-base reactions are often called neutralization reactions. Although
10
“neutral” water has a pH of 7, not every acid-base reaction results in a solution

with a pH of this value. Explain.
Q Use Figure 17.9 to estimate the pH of a solution in which bromocresol green is

11
blue and methyl red is orange.
Q Suggest an indicator that could be used to titrate sodium hydroxide with

12
nitric acid. Explain your choice.

•••
The titration curves that represent the titration of a weak acid with a strong base or
of a weak base with a strong acid, you observed a region that was labelled, “buffer region.”
In this region, the addition of a strong base or acid changed the pH of the solution very
gradually. The presence of the weak acid or weak base caused the solution to resist a
change in pH over that region. Such a solution is called a buffer solution. In the following
investigation, you will prepare a buffer solution and observe some of its properties.
INVESTIGATION 17.B Target Skills

Designing a buffering system
Preparing a buffer to investigate the
relative abilities of a buffer and a control to
Preparing a Buffer and resist a pH change when a small amount of
strong acid or strong base is added
Investigating Its Properties
In this investigation, you will first prepare a buffer b) The centre of the buffer region occurs at the half-
solution. Then you will compare how the buffer resists a titration point between a weak acid and a strong
change in pH when an acid or a base is added with how base. What volume of 0.20 mol/L NaOH(aq) is
water resists the same changes. required to prepare a buffer solution with 40.0 mL
of 0.20 mol/L ethanoic acid?
Question
c) Make a reasonable guess as to the pH of the buffer
How can you prepare a buffer solution? How much does
solution.
the pH of a buffer change when a small amount of a
strong acid or strong base is added? How much strong d) Calculate the pH when 1 mL of 0.20 mol/L
acid or base must be added to a buffer solution to change NaOH(aq) is added to 20 mL of water.
its pH by one unit?
e) Make a reasonable guess as to how the pH of 20 mL
Prediction of the buffer solution is affected when 1 mL of 0.20
mol/L NaOH(aq) is added.
a) Calculate the volume of 0.20 mol/L NaOH(aq)
to make the concentration of OH- ions equal to f) Repeat your predictions for (d) and (e),
half the concentration in 40 mL of 0.20 mol/L of substituting 0.20 mol/L hydrochloric acid for
ethanoic acid. the sodium hydroxide.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 710 3/30/07 1:12:42 PM

Safety Precautions 4. Divide the buffer solution from Procedure step 3
into three equal portions, using the graduated
cylinder and three 50 mL beakers.
• Sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid are corrosive to
Part 3 The Control
eyes and skin and harmful if swallowed or inhaled. Wash
any spills on your skin or clothing with plenty of cool 1. Copy the following table into your notebook.
water. Inform your teacher immediately. Also inform Give the table a suitable title.
your teacher immediately if you spill hydrochloric acid Volume pH of water pH of buffer pH of buffer
or sodium hydroxide on the lab bench or floor. NaOH(aq) + added + NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)
added (mL) NaOH(aq)
• Dispose of all materials as instructed by your teacher
0.0
• Wash your hands when you have completed the
1.0
investigation.
Materials 2. Measure 20 mL of distilled water and pour it into a

• distilled water • 50 mL graduated cylinder 50 mL beaker.
• 0.20 mol/L ethanoic acid • 50 mL beakers (4)
(acetic acid), • 100 mL beaker 3. Record the pH of the water in the second column
CH3COOH(aq) • universal indicator paper of the table (for 0.0 mL of added NaOH), measured
• 0.20 mol/L sodium (pH paper) with universal indicator paper or with a pH meter
hydroxide, NaOH(aq) • pH meter (optional) (optional).
• clean straw 4. Go to one of the burettes set up by your teacher and
• 0.20 mol/L HCl(aq) • stirring rod add 1.0 mL of NaOH(aq). Stir thoroughly, then
• burettes measure and record the pH of the solution in the
second column.
Procedure 5. Repeat Procedure step 4 until the pH of the solution
Part 1 Acid Breath is at least one unit greater than the initial pH.
1. Measure 20 mL of distilled water and pour it into a
Part 4 Adding Base to the Buffer
50 mL beaker.
1. Obtain one of the beakers containing buffer
2. Use universal indicator paper or a pH meter (if solution from Part 2. Measure the pH of the
available) to measure the pH of the water. Record solution and record the value in the third column
your results. of the table (for 0.0 mL of NaOH added).
3. Use a clean straw to blow into the water for about two 2. Add 1.0 mL of NaOH(aq) to the buffer. Stir
minutes. Then record the pH of the solution again. thoroughly, then measure and record the pH
Part 2 Preparing the Buffer of the solution in the third column of the table.
1. Rinse the graduated cylinder with a few mL of 3. Repeat Procedure step 2 until the pH of the solution
0.20 mol/L ethanoic acid. Discard the rinse as is at least one unit more than the initial pH.
directed by your teacher. Measure 40 mL of
Part 5 Adding Acid to the Buffer
0.20 mol/L ethanoic acid into a 100 mL beaker.
1. Using a second beaker containing buffer solution,
2. Rinse the graduated cylinder several times with tap measure the pH of the solution and record the value
water. Then rinse the graduated cylinder using a few in the last column of the table (for 0.0 mL HCl added).
mL of 0.20 mol/L NaOH(aq). Discard the rinse as
directed by your teacher. 2. Add 1.0 mL of HCl(aq) to the buffer. Stir
thoroughly, then measure and record the pH of the
3. Have your teacher check the volume of 0.20 mol/L solution in the last column of the table.
NaOH(aq) you calculated in (a), under Predictions.
After receiving approval, add it to the contents of 3. Repeat Procedure step 2 until the pH of the solution
the beaker from Procedure step 1 to make the is at least one unit less than the initial pH.
buffer solution.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 711 3/30/07 1:12:43 PM

Part 6 Controlling Acid Breath 5. Compare your estimate of the pH of the buffer
1. Obtain the last portion of buffer solution. Use a solution with the value you measured. If it is outside
clean straw to blow into the solution for about two the range you estimated, explain the difference.
minutes. Then record the pH of the solution. 6. Use a spreadsheet program to graph the data in your
table. Compare the effect on pH of adding base to
Analysis
water with the effect of adding the same amount of
1. The pH of distilled water may not be 7.0. base to the buffer. Compare the effect on pH of adding
Give reasons why this might be the case. acid to the buffer solution with the effect of adding
2. How did the pH of the water change when you blew the same amount of base to the buffer solution.
air into it? Explain by using a chemical equation.
Conclusion
3. What was the effect on pH of blowing air into the
7. Write a statement about the effect of adding
buffer solution?
small amounts of either an acid or a base to a
4. Compare the calculated pH when 1 mL of buffer solution.
0.20 mol/L NaOH(aq) was added to 20 mL of water
with the value you measured. If different, account Extension
for the difference. 8. How could you prepare a buffer solution that is
basic? If time permits, obtain the reactants from
your teacher and test your prediction.
Buffer Solutions
A solution that contains a weak acid–conjugate base mixture, or a weak base–conjugate
acid mixture, is called a buffer solution. A buffer solution resists changes in pH when a
moderate amount of an acid or a base is added (see Figure 17.16). For example, adding
10 mL of 1.0 mol/L hydrochloric acid to 1 L of water changes the pH from 7 to about 3, a
difference of 4 units. Adding the same amount of acid to 1 L of buffered solution might
change the pH by only 0.1 units.
Titration Curve of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base
"UFFERCAPACITY
EXCEEDED
"UFFERRESISTS
CHANGESINP(
P(

6OLUMEOFA3TRONG"ASE!DDED
Figure 17.16 Adding a moderate amount of an acid or a base to a buffer solution causes
little change to pH.
At the centre of the buffer region, there are equal amounts of weak acid and conjugate
base present in the solution. Therefore, when you prepare a buffer, you want to ensure
that this condition exists. In Investigation 17.B, you added enough sodium hydroxide
to neutralize half of the ethanoic acid. The reaction of the sodium hydroxide with the
ethanoic acid can be written:
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCH3COO(aq) + H2O()
3297_Chapter 17.indd 712 3/30/07 1:12:43 PM

Since you added half as much sodium hydroxide as ethanoic acid, the concentration of ChemistryFile
ethanoic acid, CH3COOH(aq), was equal to the concentration of sodium ethanoate,
Web Link
NaCH3COO(aq). The sodium ethanoate will ionize completely as shown: Computer animations can
NaCH3COO(aq) → Na+(aq) + CH3COO−(aq) help you review acids and
bases, and to understand
The ethanoate ion is the conjugate base of ethanoic acid, thus you prepared a buffer with what happens when an
a pH in the centre of the buffer region for ethanoic acid. acid or a base is added to
Adding a strong base to a weak acid is one way to prepare a buffer. You could also a buffer solution.
add equal amounts of the weak acid (such as ethanoic acid) and its conjugate base in the
form of an ionic compound (such as sodium ethanoate).
When you measured the pH of the buffer that you made in Investigation 17.B, you
@
www
probably discovered that it was close to pH 4.8. To decide which weak acid to use to
make a buffer, you must choose the weak acid that will have equal amounts of weak acid
and conjugate base at the pH of your choice for the experiment.
How does a buffer solution resist changes in pH when an acid or a base is added?
Consider a buffer solution that is made using ethanoic acid and sodium ethanoate.
Ethanoic acid is weak, so most of its molecules are not ionized and [CH3COOH(aq)]
is high. Sodium ethanoate is soluble and a good electrolyte, so [CH3COO–(aq)] is also
high. Adding an acid or a base has little effect because the added H3O+(aq) or OH–(aq)
are removed by one of the components in the buffer solution. The equilibrium of the
reactions between the ions in solution shifts, as predicted by Le Châtelier’s principle and
described below:
• Adding an acid to the buffer: ethanoate ions react with hydronium ions added to
the solution:
CH3COO–(aq) + H3O+(aq) CH3COOH(aq) + H2O()
The position of equilibrium shifts to the right. Here hydronium ions are removed by
ethanoate ions from the sodium ethanoate component.
• Adding a base to the buffer: hydroxide ions react with hydronium.
H3O+(aq) + OH–(aq) 2H2O()
The hydroxide ions are removed but they removed some hydronium ions as well. The
loss of hydronium ions pulls the ethanoic acid/ethanoate ion equilibrium to the right
thus replacing the hydronium ions.
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O() CH3COO–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
The position of this water equilibrium shifts to the right, removing hydroxide ions. Buffer
solutions have two important characteristics. One is the pH of the solution. The other
is its buffer capacity: the amount of acid or base that can be added before significant
change occurs to the pH. The buffer capacity depends on the amount of acid–conjugate
base (or base–conjugate acid) in the buffer solution. When the ratio of the concentration
of buffer components is close to 1, the buffer capacity has reached its maximum.
ChemistryFile
FYI
A type of dye called an acid dye bonds with negative sites on certain fibres.
Acid dyes contain a functional group, such as –SO3H or –COOH, attached to
a larger molecule that can be represented as [dye]. The dye ionizes in water,
giving dye fragments with a negative charge:
[dye]–COOH(aq) + H2O() → [dye]–COO–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
The colour of the dye changes with pH, because the colour depends Aboriginal Canadians were
on the amount of the dye that ionizes. The polymer chains in wool skilled in using plants and
fibres contain positive –NH3+ groups, and negatively charged dye bark extracts to dye linen
fragments bond to these positive sites. and wool.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 713 3/30/07 1:12:43 PM

Blood, Sweat, and Buffers: The Control of pH
For a person to remain healthy, blood must maintain a very narrow range of pH. The
pH of blood is about 7.4. If it drops to 7.0, or rises above 7.5, life-threatening problems
develop. What types of substances and processes help maintain blood at a constant pH?
Figure 17.17 Exercising adds CO2(g) and H3O+(aq) to the blood. The lungs, kidneys, and buffers
in the blood prevent the pH from dropping too low.
During exercise, the body’s metabolism increases. The muscles use oxygen, which is used
in the metabolism of glucose, releasing CO2(g) and H2O() into the blood stream (see
Figure 17.17). During strenuous exercise, oxygen demand can exceed the supply from
the lungs. When this happens, other biochemical (anaerobic) processes begin. These
processes release lactic acid into the blood stream. To maintain its pH within a narrow
range, blood contains a number of buffer systems. The most important buffer system in
the blood depends on the equilibrium between hydrogen carbonate ions and carbonate
ions. Dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid, H2CO3(aq),
which ionizes in water to form hydrogen carbonate ions, HCO3–(aq). The reaction
occurs in the blood as follows:
CO2(aq) + 2H2O() H2CO3 + H2O() H3O+(aq) + HCO3–(aq)
When metabolic changes (as the result of strenuous exercise, for example) add hydronium
ions to the blood, the excess H3O+(aq) ions are removed by combining with HCO3–(aq):
H3O+(aq) + HCO3–(aq) CO2(aq) + 2H2O()
If a person hyperventilates, more carbon dioxide is exhaled and their blood pH will
increase. This is called respiratory alkalosis. Excess hydroxide ions in the blood are
removed by reaction with the hydrogen carbonate ions:
OH–(aq) + HCO3–(aq) CO32–(aq) + H2O()
In addition to buffers in the blood, the kidneys remove excess HCO3–(aq) from the body,
while the lungs help to remove CO2(aq) from the blood.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 714 3/30/07 1:12:44 PM

Buffers and Oxygen Transport
Oxygen gas is not very soluble in water. At body temperature, 37 °C, the solubility of
O2(g) is about 3 × 10–3 g/L. Your blood can carry large amounts of oxygen because it is
bound to hemoglobin and is not in solution. A red blood cell contains about 200 million
hemoglobin molecules. Figure 17.18 shows the structure of the hemoglobin molecule.
It consists of four protein strands, and each hemoglobin molecule is capable of carrying
four oxygen molecules.
]ZbZ
XVeâaVgn ^gdc \gdje
Vae]V
X]V^c WZiV
X]V^c
WZiV
X]V^c
Vae]V
X]V^c
GZYWaddYXZaah^ch^YZVXVeâaVgn GZYWaddYXZaa =Zbd\adW^cbdaZXjaZ
Figure 17.18 The hemoglobin molecule binds with oxygen gas to transport O2(g) to cells
throughout the body.
Hemoglobin can be represented as HHb(aq) and the oxygenated form, oxyhemoglobin,

by HbO2−(aq):
HHb(aq) + O2(g) + H2O() H3O+(aq) + HbO2–(aq)
Because H3O+(aq) is part of the equilibrium equation, the ability of hemoglobin to
combine with oxygen depends critically on the pH of the blood. The pH of blood has
to remain close to 7.4. If the blood pH becomes more acidic, the condition is called
acidosis. Acidosis may be caused by a number of conditions, including diabetes, severe
diarrhea/dehydration, and drug overdose. If the blood pH increases above 7.4, the
condition is called alkalosis. Alkalosis can be caused by hyperventilation, prolonged
vomiting, or kidney disease.
During the condition of acidosis, the presence of excess H3O+(aq), will shift
the equilibrium to the left and oxygen will be released from the hemoglobin. Thus,
the hemoglobin is not capable of carrying enough oxygen. During the condition of
alkalosis, the concentration of H3O+(aq) is decreased and the equation is shifted to the
right. This might appear to be good because the hemoglobin can carry a lot of oxygen.
However, in order for the oxygen to be used by the tissues, the hemoglobin must release
it. If oxygen is bound too tightly to hemoglobin, less will be released in the tissues where
it is needed.
When the amount of oxygen in the air is reduced as it is at high altitudes (see Figure
17.19), the equilibrium will shift to the left and the hemoglobin will not carry enough
oxygen to the tissues. After a period of time at high altitudes, the body releases stored red
blood cells from the spleen. Soon thereafter, the body makes more red blood cells and
hemoglobin so a sufficient amount of oxygen can reach the tissues.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 715 3/30/07 1:12:45 PM

Elite athletes, training for an endurance event, sometimes live and train at high altitude
before their competition. The increased level of hemoglobin may improve their
performance.
Figure 17.19 Mountain climbers may suffer from altitude sickness (hypoxia) at high altitudes,
where the concentration of oxygen is less than that to which they are accustomed. This is especially
dangerous when climbers ascend too quickly and do not allow enough time for their body to adapt.
Oxygen is transported to tissues via the bloodstream, where it is used in the breakdown
of glucose to generate energy for cellular metabolism. Carbon dioxide is formed as a
product of these reactions. The carbon dioxide dissolves in the blood and reacts with
water to form carbonic acid, which ionizes into hydrogen carbonate ions:
H2O() + CO2(g) H2CO3(aq)
H2CO3(aq) + H2O() HCO3–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
In the lungs, these reactions are shifted to the left by the protons released when oxygen
combines with hemoglobin molecules. Because the equilibrium is shifted to the left,
you breathe out carbon dioxide gas (Figure 17.20). The carbonic acid and hydrogen
carbonate ions form the principal buffer controlling blood pH.
Figure 17.20 When a

person has consumed
alcohol, it enters the
bloodstream. In the lungs,
an equilibrium is reached
between alcohol dissolved
in the blood and alcohol
present in the breath. A
roadside Breathalyser™ test
measures the concentration
of alcohol vapour present in
the breath.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 716 3/30/07 1:12:46 PM

Connections Nature of Science
Buffers in the Blood

A buffer is a mixture of dissolved substances that tends to keep the pH of a solution constant
when modest additions of acid or base are made. During exercise, muscles use up oxygen, O2(g),
as they convert the chemical energy in glucose to mechanical energy. Oxygen is transported
through the bloodstream via the hemoglobin in the red blood cells. Hemoglobin binds with
oxygen, transporting it to cells throughout the body. Carbon dioxide, CO2(g), and hydrogen,
H+, are produced during the breakdown of glucose and are removed from the muscles by the
blood. The production and removal of CO2(g) and H+, together with the use and transport
of O2(g), cause chemical changes in the blood. These chemical changes, unless offset by other
physiological functions, cause the pH of the blood to drop.
How Buffers Work Disruptions in the Equilibrium

In all multicellular organisms, the fluids within and The body can tolerate only a small change in blood
surrounding the cells have a characteristic and nearly pH (pH 7.4 ±0.4). A decrease in blood pH is called
constant pH of 7.4. If the blood becomes too acidic, acidosis; an increase is called alkalosis. Respiratory
buffers take up hydrogen atoms, decreasing the H+ acidosis occurs when blood pH falls because of decreased
concentration, thus increasing the pH. If the blood is not respiration caused by asthma, pneumonia, emphysema,
acidic enough, the reverse happens; buffers lower pH by or smoke inhalation. The concentration of dissolved
releasing H+ atoms into the blood. carbon dioxide in the blood increases, making the
There are three types of buffers. One is the phosphate blood too acidic. Metabolic acidosis is the decrease in
buffer system that operates in the internal fluid of all cells. blood pH that results when excessive amounts of acidic
This buffer system consists of dihydrogen phosphate ions, substances enter the blood. This can happen because of
H2PO4–(aq), as the proton provider (acid) and hydrogen diabetes or through prolonged physical exertion. The
phosphate ions, HPO42–(aq), as the proton acceptor normal response to both kinds of acidosis is increased
(base). These two ions are in equilibrium: breathing to reduce the amount of dissolved carbon
H2PO4–(aq) H+ + HPO42–(aq) dioxide in the blood; hence, we breathe more heavily
after strenuous exercise. Respiratory alkalosis results
If additional hydrogen ions enter the cellular fluid, they
from excessive breathing that produces an increase in
are consumed in the reaction with HPO42–(aq), and the
blood pH. Hyperventilation causes too much carbon
equilibrium shifts to the left. If additional hydroxide
dioxide to be removed from the blood, decreasing the
ions enter the cellular fluid, they react with H2PO4–(aq),
carbonic acid concentration and raising the blood pH.
producing HPO42–(aq), and the equilibrium shifts to
Metabolic alkalosis is an increase in blood pH resulting
the right.
from alkaline materials entering the blood by ingestion
A second type of buffer is carbonic acid, H2CO3(aq),
or overuse of diuretics. The body usually responds to
which is formed when water and carbon dioxide react
alkalosis by slowing breathing, possibly through fainting.
in blood plasma. In this buffer, the carbonic acid,
H2CO3(aq), is the proton provider (acid) and hydrogen •••
carbonate ion, HCO3–(aq), is the proton acceptor (base).
1. Research the roles of the kidneys and lungs in
The reaction occurs in the blood as follows:
maintaining blood pH.
CO2(aq) + H2O() H2CO3(aq) H+ + HCO3–(aq)
2. All enzymes—biological catalysts—have an
Proteins are the third type of buffer. The blood contains
optimum pH at which enzyme activity is greatest.
many proteins in addition to hemoglobin. Proteins contain
Explain how a change in blood pH might affect
basic and acidic groups that help to maintain blood pH.
chemical reactions in body fluids.
3. Find out the causes, symptoms, and treatments for
ketoacidosis.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 717 3/30/07 1:12:47 PM

• Indicators change colour over a small pH range. They can be used to show the
endpoint of a titration.
• Indicators are weak acids.
• To observe the pH throughout a titration of a weak acid or a weak base, you need to
use a pH meter.
• When titrating a weak acid or a weak base with a strong base or a strong acid, the
titration curve shows a region in which the pH changes slowly. This is called the buffer
region.
• A buffer solution resists a change in pH on addition of a little strong base or strong
acid.
• You choose a weak acid for a buffer depending on the pH range over which you want
the buffer to control the pH.
• The most important buffer system in the blood stream is the equilibrium among
carbon dioxide and water, carbonic acid, and hydrogen carbonate ion and water.
• The ability of hemoglobin in the red blood cells to carry oxygen to the tissues is
sensitive to pH. If the pH varies away from pH 7.4, the hemoglobin will not be able
to carry enough oxygen and release it to the tissues where it is needed.
SECTION 17.4 REVIEW
1. Write a chemical equation for each neutralization 5. Interpret the following titration curve:
reaction:
a) KOH(aq) with HNO3(aq)

b) H3PO4(aq) with NaOH(aq)
c) HBr(aq) with Ca(OH)2(aq)
d) NH3(aq) with HClO4(aq)

2. For each reaction in question 1, predict whether
P(
the mixture at equivalence is acidic, neutral, or

basic. Explain.

3. Congo red is an indicator that changes colour in the pH
range of 3.0 to 5.0. Suppose that you are titrating nitric
acid with an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution added
from a burette. Is Congo red a suitable indicator? If so,

explain why. If not, will the endpoint occur before or
.A/(AQ ADDEDML
after the equivalence point? Explain your answer.
4. If you were titrating a weak acid with a strong 6. Describe how a buffer solution differs from
base, which of these indicators might be suitable: an aqueous acidic or basic solution.
bromophenol blue, bromothymol blue, or 7. Explain why an aqueous mixture of NaCl(aq) and
phenolphthalein? (Refer to Figure 17.9) HCl(aq) does not act as a buffer, but an aqueous
mixture of NH3(aq) and NH4Cl(aq) does.
8. Explain the function and importance of buffers
in the blood.
3297_Chapter 17.indd 718 3/30/07 1:12:48 PM

Chapter 17
When the engines of motor vehicles or industrial plants weakness. They have used the concept of an equilibrium
burn fossil fuels for energy, the trace amounts of sulfur constant for the ionization of acids and called it the acid
in the fuels and the nitrogen in the air react with oxygen ionization constant, Ka. The mathematical expression is:
under these high temperatures. The sulfur and nitrogen [H3O+][A-]
Ka = __ . As the acid ionization constant becomes
oxides (“sox” and “nox”) are released into the atmosphere. [HA]
These gases react with moisture in the air to form acids smaller, the acid becomes weaker. Strong acids have Kas
that then fall to Earth as acid deposition. This acid harms greater than one. You can determine the value of Ka for a
plants and causes lakes and streams to become acidic. given acid by measuring the pH of a solution of known
Many fish are either killed or weakened by the acidic water. concentration. Although it is not used as much as the Ka,
Scientists and engineers are working on methods to reduce you can define the base dissociation constant as
the release of these SOx and NOx gases and are having some [HB+][OH-]
Kb = __ . The dissociation constant for water
success. However, more efforts are needed to clean up the [B]
environment. Understanding the chemistry of acids and is called the ion product constant: Kw = [H3O+][OH−].
bases is necessary for finding ways to reduce their harmful In pure water at 25 °C, Kw = 10−14. You can show that
effects. Kw = Ka × Kb.
In the early 1900s, chemists Brønsted and Lowry When you use a pH meter to measure the pH of a
independently developed a new theory of acids and bases, solution of a weak acid or base and plot the pH versus
which accounted for some properties that the Arrhenius the volume of strong base or strong acid added, you have
theory could not explain. The Brønsted-Lowry definition produced a titration curve. The titration curve for a weak
of an acid is a compound that is a proton donor. A base acid or weak base shows a region in which the pH changes
is a proton acceptor. An acid must donate a proton to a only slightly with the addition of strong acid or base. This
base. They cannot function independently. When an acid region is called the buffer region. A buffer is a solution
donates a proton it becomes the conjugate base of that that resists a change in pH. Weak acids act as buffers. The
acid. Likewise, when a base accepts a proton it becomes the fluids in your body have buffers that maintain the pH of
conjugate acid of that base. Some compounds, such as water, your blood very near pH 7.4. This is the optimum pH for
can either donate or accept a proton. These compounds are the transport of gases through your body, as well as other
called amphiprotic substances. chemical reactions that take place in the blood.
Chemists have tested a large number of weak acids and
bases and have determined the order of their strength and
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3297_Chapter 17.indd 719 3/30/07 1:12:48 PM

Chapter 17
Understanding Concepts c) HPO42–(aq) or H2PO4–(aq)

1. Unpolluted rainwater has a pH of 5.60. If a sample of d) HCO3–(aq) or CO32–(aq)
acid rain has a pH of 4.52, how much more hydronium 11. Sodium methanoate, NaHCOO(aq), and methanoic
ion is present in acid rain than in unpolluted rain? acid, HCOOH(aq), can be used to make a buffer
2. Developing countries, such as China, tend to emit solution. Explain how this combination resists changes
relatively more SOx than NOx than do developed in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added.
countries, such as Canada. Suggest a reason for the Applying Concepts
difference. How is this situation likely to change in
12. Lactic acid, CH3CHOHCOOH(aq) (Ka = 1.38 × 10–4),
the future?
is a monoprotic acid produced by muscle activity. It is
3. A liquid shampoo has a hydroxide ion concentration also produced in milk by the action of bacteria. What is
of 6.8 × 10–5 mol/L at 25 °C. the pH of a 0.12 mol/L solution of lactic acid?
a) Is the shampoo acidic, basic, or neutral?
13. Salicylic acid is a solid used in the manufacture of
b) Calculate the hydronium ion concentration.
Aspirin™. A student prepared a saturated solution
c) What are the pH and the pOH of the shampoo?
of salicylic acid and measured the pH of the solution.
4. The pH of urine can be an indicator of medical problems The student then carefully evaporated 100 mL of
if it is outside the normal range of values. The pH of a solution and collected the solid. If the pH of the
urine sample was measured to be 5.53 at 25 °C. Calculate solution was 2.43, and 0.22 g was collected after
pOH, [H3O+(aq)], and [OH–(aq)] for the sample. evaporating 100 mL of solution, what is the acid
5. Phenol, C6H6O(s), is used as a disinfectant. An ionization constant for salicylic acid?
aqueous solution of phenol was found to have a pH of
/
4.72. Is phenol acidic, neutral, or basic? Calculate the #
[H3O+(aq)], [OH–(aq)], and pOH of the solution. /(
6. When a patient’s blood was tested, the hydroxide
concentration in their blood was found to be 2.34 × 10–7 /(
mol/L. Is the patient healthy or suffering from acidosis hVa^Xna^XVX^Y
or alkalosis?
14. Use the table of Ka values in Appendix G to list
7. Para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) is a weak monoprotic
the conjugate bases of the following acids in
acid used in some sunscreen lotions. Its formula is
order of increasing base strength: methanoic acid,
C6H4NH2COOH(s). What is the formula of the
HCOOH(aq); hydrofluoric acid, HF(aq); benzoic acid,
conjugate base of PABA?
C6H5COOH(aq); and hydrocyanic acid, HCN(aq).
8. Boric acid, H3BO3(aq), is used as a mild antiseptic in
15. At normal body temperature of 37 °C, the value of Kw
eyewash solutions. In aqueous solution, the following
for water is 2.5 × 10–14. Calculate the [H3O+(aq)] and
simplified reaction takes place:
the [OH–(aq)] at this temperature. Is pure water at this
H3BO3(aq) + H2O() H2BO3−(aq) + H3O+(aq)
temperature acidic, neutral, or basic?
a) Identify the conjugate acid-base pairs.
b) Is boric acid strong or weak? Explain your answer. 16. Write the chemical formula for the conjugate base of
hypobromous acid, HOBr(aq) (Ka = 2.1 × 10–9). What
9. Classify each of the following compounds as a strong
is the value of the base ionization constant for this ion?
acid, weak acid, strong base, or weak base:
a) butyric acid, CH3CH2CH2COOH(aq), responsible 17. The Kb values for ammonia, NH3(aq), and
for the odour of rancid butter trimethylamine, (CH3)3N(aq), are 1.8 × 10–5 and 6.5 ×
b) hydroiodic acid, HI(aq), added to some cough syrups 10–5, respectively. Which is the stronger acid, NH4+(aq)
c) potassium hydroxide, KOH(aq), used in the or (CH3)3NH+(aq)?
manufacture of soft soaps 18. Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3(s), is used as a fertilizer.
d) red iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3(s), used as a colouring If the run-off from a farm contains an aqueous solution
pigment in paints of 0.10 mol/L NH4NO3(aq), what will be the pH of
10. In each pair of bases, which is the stronger base? the water? Only the ammonium ion affects the pH of
a) HSO4–(aq) or SO42–(aq) the water.
b) S2–(aq) or HS–(aq)
3297_Chapter 17_Review.indd 720 3/30/07 1:10:36 PM

19. The active ingredient in household bleach is a 5% • a strong acid with a strong base
solution of sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl(aq). If 5.0 g of • a strong acid with a weak base
NaOCl(s) is dissolved to make 100 mL of bleach, what • a weak acid with a strong base
is the pH of the solution? Only the OCl–(aq) ion affects b) Congo red changes colour over a pH range of 3.0 to
the pH of the solution. 5.0. For which of the above titrations would Congo
20. Sodium hydrogen phosphate, Na2HPO4(s), is soluble in red be a good indicator to use?
water. The hydrogen phosphate ion is amphiprotic. For 26. A buffer can be made using an aqueous solution of
the HPO42–(aq) ion: boric acid and sodium borate. Although boric acid is a
a) write the acid ionization constant expression, Ka. component of the buffer, the pH of the solution is 9.2.
b) write the base ionization constant expression, Kb. Explain why the buffer is basic.
c) Will an aqueous solution of sodium hydrogen
phosphate be acidic or basic? Explain your answer. Making Connections
(Ka for HPO42–(aq) is 6.2 × 10–8; Kb for HPO42–(aq) 27. On several occasions during the past few years, you
is 1.6 × 10–7.) have studied the environmental issue of acid rain. Now
that you have further developed your understanding of
Solving Problems acids and bases in this chapter, reflect on your earlier
21. The greatest reserves of fossil fuel in the world are in the understanding of the issue.
form of coal. The main component of coal is carbon. a) List two facts that you now understand in a more
There are different types of coal, distinguished by the comprehensive way. Explain the difference between
percentage of carbon present, which ranges from about your previous and your current understanding in
30% to just over 80%. Sulfur present in coal can lead each case.
to emissions of sulfur dioxide that are damaging to the b) Identify three questions that could be assigned as a
environment. Using the Internet, research the different research project on acid deposition. The emphasis
types of coal, and find out about the coal used in some of the research must be on how an understanding of
of the electrical generating plants in Alberta. How is chemistry can help to clarify questions and possible
sulfur dioxide removed from the gases released to the solutions involved in the issue. Develop a rubric that
atmosphere? ICT could be used to assess this research project.
22. Using the Internet, research the use of hypochlorous 28. Benzoic acid is a weak, monoprotic acid with a Ka of
acid in the management of swimming pools and write a 6.3 × 10–5. Calculate the pH and the percent ionization
report on your findings. ICT of the following solutions of benzoic acid:
23. Use Appendix G to find the acid ionization constants a) 1.0 mol/L
for hydrosulfuric acid and sulfurous acid. b) 0.10 mol/L
a) Write equations for the base ionization constants of c) 0.01 mol/L
HS–(aq) and HSO3–(aq). /
b) Calculate the value for the base ionization constant #
of each ion. /(
c) Which is the stronger base, HS–(aq) or HSO3–(aq)?
Explain.
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24. Consider the following acid-base reactions:
HBrO2(aq) + CH3COO–(aq) Use Le Châtelier’s principle to explain the trend in
CH3COOH(aq) + BrO2–(aq) percent ionization of the acid as the solution becomes
H2S(aq) + OH (aq) HS–(aq) + H2O()
–
more dilute.
HS–(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)
29. Gallic acid is the common name for
H2S(aq) + CH3COO–(aq)
3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid.
If each equilibrium lies to the right, arrange the
a) Draw the structure of gallic acid.
following acids in order of increasing strength:
b) Ka for gallic acid is 3.9 × 10–5. Calculate Kb for the
HBrO2(aq), CH3COOH(aq), H2S(aq), and H2O().
conjugate base of gallic acid. Then write the formula
25. a) Sketch the titration curves you would expect if you of the ion.
titrated the following:
3297_Chapter 17_Review.indd 721 3/30/07 1:10:37 PM

Career Focus: Ask a Dairy Farmer
For Richard Lavoie, the well-being of his dairy herd is a top priority. He and his
brothers own Enterprise Lavoie (1999) Ltd., a large dairy farm in St. Isadore,
Alberta. The farm is a growing success, and in recognition of its contribution
to the local and national economies, the operation was named one of the
2005 Lauriers de la PME (laureates of small and medium enterprises) in rural
development. Since good nutrition keeps the cows healthy and their milk of
high quality, feeding the herd is an important part of the business. For
Alberta Dairy Farmer example, when cows do not eat enough fibre, they spend less time chewing
Richard Lavoie their cud and produce less saliva. Saliva contains bicarbonate ions, which
buffer acids in the cow’s rumen (one of its stomachs). Without these
biological buffers, the pH in the rumen drops, resulting in rumen acidosis.
This acidity inhibits the growth of desirable rumen bacteria.
HCO3–(aq) + H3O+(aq) H2CO3(aq) + H2O()

bicarbonate ion hydronium ion carbonic acid water
Q When did you start dairy farming? they should. For this reason, we supplement the cows’
diet with calcium and other supplements to make sure
A I have been a dairy farmer since 1974. My family has
they do not get acidosis. Rumen acidosis also reduces
been farming in St. Isadore since 1953. Enterprise
the milk fat slightly; however, the main problem is the
Lavoie Ltd. was established in 1999. It is still a family
effect on the cows’ health. This is the important thing.
farm and family owned.
They lose weight faster and they do not produce as
Q What are your responsibilities at the farm? much milk as they should. Rumen acidosis is a stress
A I am the CEO and manager of Enterprise Lavoie. This on the cows.
means that I manage the daily operations. I especially Q What do you do to prevent rumen acidosis?
enjoy working with the animals and people, as well as
organizing the farm on a day-to-day basis. Altogether,
A A few days after the cows have calved, I usually drench
(administer vital nutrients directly to the cow’s rumen
we have about 950 head of cattle. We milk close to 400
during a period when nutrient and energy levels are
of them. I then sell the raw milk to Alberta Milk.
deficient) the cows with propylene glycol. It has a very
Q Why is good nutrition important for your cows? high sugar content that provides energy for the cows. I
A My cows produce so much milk—about 10 000 kg/yr. also drench them with a special formula so that all the
On average a cow can produce 35–40 kg of milk a day. right bacteria build up in the stomach. Because of the
To produce this much milk, the cows need to eat a large cows’ increased food intake and stomach acidity, quite
amount of food, so it is critical that the nutrition is a metabolic change occurs in the stomach at this time.
balanced according to the needs of the animal. That is Anything I can do to help the right stomach bacteria
why I am working with a specialist in dairy cow repopulate is a plus for the animal.
nutrition. Because nutrients in a cow’s diet need to be Q Is it true that if the cows do not eat enough fibre, they
balanced, there is a lot of chemistry involved. You have will not produce enough saliva to buffer the acids in
to have vitamin E, you have to have copper sulfate, you the rumen?
have to have zinc—and everything in the right amount. A That is right. I make sure that the grain (low fibre) to
Q Why is rumen acidosis a problem? forage (high fibre) ratio is 40:60. I have to make sure
that I get a feed analysis with the fibre content. Then
A It is a problem because the appetite of the cows
my nutritionist works out the balance, or ratio, for the
decreases as a result, and they no longer eat as much as
particular forage that I purchased.
3297_Unit 08_CareerFocus.indd 722 3/30/07 12:55:06 PM

Other Careers Related or instrumentation technology, plus first-aid and CPR
to Buffers, Acids, and Bases training. Technologists work closely with registered
nurses, who have specialized training in dialysis, and may
Food Scientist/Food Science Technologist Scientists and
work as hospital dialysis nurses or nurse educators, who
technologists in the food industry often work in food-
instruct patients on the use of home dialysis equipment.
processing plants. Their duties range from testing the
The Canadian Association of Nephrology Nurses and
quality and safety of food, to maximizing the efficiency of
Technologists runs a certification program for workers
microbial fermentation reactions used to make products,
in this field.
such as yogurt, beer, and wine. A bachelor’s degree in
chemistry, biochemistry, or microbiology is required Nutritionist Nutritionists may specialize in human
to work as a food scientist. Food science technologists or veterinary nutrition. A bachelor of science degree
generally have two-year technical diplomas. in nutrition and food science is required to work
as a nutritional educator or consultant, or to make
Gastroenterologist Medical degree graduates can obtain
recommendations about nutritional labels. In Alberta,
further practical training in order to specialize in health
nutritionists (also called dietitians) must register with
and diseases of the gastrointestinal (digestive) system.
the College of Dietitians of Alberta. Animal nutritionists
Common health problems that gastroenterologists deal
have undergraduate training in agriculture or nutritional
with are reflux and heartburn, which are caused by the
sciences or graduate training in a specialized field, such as
backflow of stomach acid into the upper digestive tract,
ruminant nutrition. Animal nutritionists may work for
and stomach ulcers, which occur where the inner stomach
feed producers, for research institutions, or with farmers
lining has degraded. Antacid tablets, such as calcium
to help manage livestock.
carbonate, can be used to buffer stomach acids and treat
the symptoms of these conditions. Gastroenterologists Perfusionist During open-heart surgery, a heart-lung
can also prescribe antibiotics and perform internal machine is used to add oxygen to and remove carbon
examinations to check for cancer or other diseases. dioxide from the blood. Perfusionists operate heart-lung
machines. This task is critical because the blood gases
Nephrology Technologist Also called dialysis technicians,
and blood pH must remain within narrow parameters for
these registered health professionals monitor and operate
the patient’s health. Although this is a highly specialized
dialysis machines. People with kidney failure rely on
field, employment opportunities are good. Perfusionists
dialysis to remove toxic wastes from the blood or to add
are health professionals with post-graduate training in
sodium bicarbonate to buffer the blood if it is too acidic.
perfusion and certification from the Canadian Society of
To work in a hospital or clinic, a nephrology technologist
Clinical Perfusion. In Alberta, perfusionists are physicians.
should have a college diploma in biomedical engineering,
Go Further…
1. Cow saliva contains phosphates, which, in addition to bicarbonate
ions, help to buffer acids in the rumen. In your notebook, write the
equation for the reversible reaction that occurs when hydrogen
phosphate, HPO42–(aq), buffers hydrogen ions. (Hint: Water will be
one of the products of this reaction.)
2. The main buffer in mammalian blood is carbonic acid, H2CO3(aq).
Carbon dioxide in the blood reacts with water to form carbonic
acid. Predict what would happen to the blood pH if an excessive
amount of carbon dioxide were to build up in the blood because
someone was not breathing properly.
3. Suggest a chemical supplement that a farmer could give a cow
that had rumen acidosis. Write a chemical equation for the
reaction that would take place in the rumen with the addition of
this supplement.
@
www
Unit 8 Career Focus • MHR 723
3297_Unit 08_CareerFocus.indd 723 3/30/07 12:55:09 PM

UNIT
8
Understanding Concepts c) helium gas is added at constant pressure
1. In many industrial reactions, a constant flow of 8. Explain the reasoning you used to answer question 7 b).
chemicals enters the reaction vessel, and a constant flow 9. For the following reaction at equilibrium, predict the
of products leaves it. Is a system like this at equilibrium? shift, if any, that will occur as a result of each identified
Explain. change:
2. Classify each of the following reactions as either 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g) + heat
a homogeneous equilibrium or a heterogeneous a) removing O2(g)
equilibrium: b) adding NO(g)
a) H2(g) + O2(g) H2O() c) adding H2O(g)
b) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) d) adding a catalyst
c) H2(g) + CO2(g) H2O(g) + CO(g) e) decreasing the volume of the container
d) 2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g) f) cooling the container
e) C6H12() + HBr(aq) C6H13Br(aq) 10. For the following equilibrium reaction,
3. The reactions below are involved in the formation of N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)
stalactites and stalagmites from calcium carbonate. Kc = 1.0 × 10–15 at 25 °C and Kc = 0.05 at 2200 °C:
Identify each reaction as a homogeneous equilibrium Based on this information, is the reaction exothermic
or a heterogeneous equilibrium: or endothermic? Briefly explain your answer.
a) CO2(g) + H2O() H2CO3 (aq) 11. Decide whether each of the following statements is
b) H2CO3(aq) + H2O() HCO3–(aq) + H3O+(aq) true or false. For any false statement(s), rewrite each
c) Ca2+(aq) + 2HCO3–(aq) statement so that it is true.
CaCO3(s) + CO2(g)+ H2O() a) The equilibrium constant does not depend on
d) CaCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2HCO3–(aq) temperature.
4. Write the equilibrium constant expression for each of b) A fast reaction is one that has a large equilibrium
the following reactions: constant.
a) CH4(g) + H2O(g) 3H2(g) + CO(g) c) At equilibrium, the concentration of reactants is
b) 2N2O(g) + O2(g) 4NO(g) equal to the concentration of products.
c) 2PCl3(g) + O2(g) 2POCl3(g) d) The equilibrium constant is a ratio of reactant
d) 2NO(g) + 2H2(g) N2(g) + 2H2O(g) concentrations to product concentrations.
e) C7H14(g) C7H8(g) + 3H2(g) 12. In the industrial manufacture of ammonia, why is a
Use the following chemical equations for questions compromise made between the rate of reaction and the
5 and 6: position of equilibrium for the reaction?
a) H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) ΔrH = +53 kJ N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + heat
b) 2NO2(g) 2NO(g) + O2(g) ΔrH = +116.2 kJ 13. What is syngas? How can the ratio of the main gases
c) N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + heat present in syngas be adjusted to manufacture different
d) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) PCl5(g) + heat chemicals?
e) NO2(g) + NO(g) N2O(g) + O2(g)
14. Which gases are common pollutants responsible for
ΔrH˚ = -43 kJ
acid deposition?
5. Which reaction(s) will shift to the right to re-establish
15. What are the major sources of pollution that affect
equilibrium if the volume of the container is decreased?
Alberta?
6. Which reaction(s) will shift to the left to re-establish
16. Name and write the formula of the conjugate acid of
equilibrium if the temperature of the system is decreased?
each molecule or ion:
7. Consider the following equilibrium reaction: a) HSO4–(aq)
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) ΔrH = –197.8 kJ b) NH3(aq)
Indicate if reactants or products are favoured or if no c) H2O()
change occurs when: d) HPO42–(aq)
a) the temperature is increased
b) helium gas is added at constant volume
3297_Unit 08_Review.indd 724 3/30/07 1:00:30 PM

17. Name and write the formula of the conjugate base of 27. A mixture is prepared for the following equilibrium:
each molecule or ion: I2(aq) + I–(aq) I3–(aq)
a) HSO4–(aq) The initial concentrations of I2(aq) and I–(aq) are
b) HNO2(aq) both 0.002 mol/L. When equilibrium is established,
c) H2SO3(aq) [I2(aq)] = 5.0 × 10–4 mol/L. What is Kc for this
d) OH–(aq) equilibrium?
18. When chlorous acid dissolves in water, the following 28. The reaction between hydrogen and carbon dioxide was
reaction occurs: being studied:
HClO2(aq) + H2O() → H3O+(aq) + ClO2–(aq) H2(g) + CO2(g) H2O(g) + CO(g)
Identify the conjugate acid-base pairs. When 3.60 mol of H2(g) and 5.20 mol of CO2(g) were
19. Identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in the following placed in a 2.00 L container, it was found that 75.0
reaction: percent of the hydrogen had reacted at equilibrium.
HBO32–(aq) + HSIO3–(aq) SIO32–(aq) + H2BO3–(aq) What is the equilibrium constant?
20. Write the expression for Ka for each of the following in 29. Nitrogen gas is relatively unreactive at room
aqueous solution: temperature but combines with oxygen at higher
a) HCN(aq) temperatures as follows:
b) H2PO4–(aq) N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)
c) HCOOH(aq) (methanoic acid) When equilibrium is attained at 1800 °C, 5.3 percent of
d) HOOCCOO–(aq) (hydrogen oxalate ion) N2(g) will react with O2(g). What is the value of Kc at
this temperature?
21. Write the expression for Kb for each of the following in
aqueous solution: 30. Nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen tetroxide form an
a) F–(aq) equilibrium mixture:
b) HC6H6O6–(aq) (ascorbate ion) 2NO2(g) N2O4(g)
c) N2H4(aq) (hydrazine) At 25 °C, 0.100 mol of NO2(g) was placed in a
d) PH3(aq) (phosphine) 4.00 L container and equilibrium was established.
At equilibrium, 74 percent of the nitrogen dioxide
22. Arrange the following in order of increasing acid
had reacted. What is the equilibrium constant for this
strength: H3PO4(aq), HI(aq), CH3COOH(aq), and
reaction at 25 °C?
HF(aq).
31. Hypochlorous acid, HOCl(aq), is a weak acid
23. Sort the conjugate bases for the acids in question 22 in
(Ka = 4.0 × 10–8) used in the chlorination of drinking
order of increasing strength.
water. It is made by dissolving chlorine gas in water:
24. Which of these mixtures is a buffer solution? Cl2(g) + 2H2O() H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + HOCl(aq)
a) Excess HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) a) Calculate the pH and percent ionization of a 0.065
b) Excess HCl(aq) + NH3(aq) mol/L solution of hypochlorous acid.
c) HCl(aq) + excess NH3(aq) b) What is the conjugate base of hypochlorous acid?
25. Buffers are solutions that contain a conjugate acid-base What is its value of Kb ?
pair. Write the formula of a conjugate acid-base pair that 32. A weak acid with a molar concentration of 0.25 mol/L
a) is a buffer is 3.0 percent dissociated. Calculate [H3O+(aq)],
b) is not a buffer [OH–(aq)], pH, pOH, and Ka for this acid.
Applying Concepts 33. The two acid ionization constants for selenous acid,
26. The equilibrium constant for the following reaction is H2SeO3(aq), are Ka1 = 3.5 × 10–3 and
2.8 × 102 at 727 °C: Ka2 = 5 × 10–8. What is the base ionization constant,
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) Kb, for HSeO3–(aq)?
Is the percentage of sulfur dioxide that reacts with 34. Cyanide ion, CN–(aq), reacts with Fe3+(aq) to form the
oxygen at this temperature relatively large or relatively blue dye that is used in blueprint paper. Hydrocyanic
small? How does the percentage of SO2(g) that reacts acid, HCN(aq), is a weak acid, with Ka = 6.2 × 10–10.
compare with the percentage of O2(g) that reacts? a) Calculate Kb for the conjugate base of HCN(aq).
b) Calculate the pH of 0.12 mol/L HCN(aq).
Unit 8 Review • MHR 725

35. Calculate the percent ionization of 0.25 mol/L benzoic 8. Compare the rate of reaction of the acidic solution
acid, C6H5COOH(aq), Ka = 6.3 × 10–4. with a known mass of NaHCO3(s) with the same
36. BH(aq) is a weak base with a Kb of 1.55 × 10–4. What is volume of a 0.100 mol/L HCl(aq) solution.
the pH of 0.16 mol/L BH(aq)?
Assume that the student has material commonly
37. When hydrocyanic acid reacts with a solution available in a high school laboratory.
containing hydrogen sulfide ions, it is found that a) Evaluate each design for its potential to allow the
reactants are favoured: student to solve the problem.
HCN(aq) + HS–(aq) CN–(aq) + H2S(aq) b) Select one design that should work and create a
Based on this information, which is the stronger acid, materials list for the design.
HCN(aq) or H2S(aq)? Explain your choice. c) Prepare an observation table for design #2.
38. Determine the relative strengths of the acids and bases d) Identify the important fixed or controlled variables
in each of the following reactions. Then decide whether in design #8.
the equilibrium mixture favours reactants or products: e) If the acidic sample is strong, what hypothesis could
a) H2S(aq) + CH3COO–(aq) HS–(aq) + be made in design #1?
CH3COOH(aq) f) If the acid sample is strong, predict the balanced net
b) NH4+(aq) + CO32−(aq) NH3(aq) + HCO3–(aq) ionic reaction that occurs in method #3.
c) SO42–(aq) + HCN(aq) HSO4–(aq) + CN–(aq) g) If the acidic sample is strong and hydrogen ion is
d) CN–(aq) + H2CO3(aq) HCN(aq) + HCO3–(aq) the oxidizing agent, predict the voltage that will be
39. Use the information in the box to answer the question observed using method #7.
that follow.
Solving Problems
A student was given a sample of a clear liquid and told 40. Coal that contains sulfur may contribute to acid
that it contained a monoprotic acid at a concentration deposition when the coal is burned, for example, at
of 0.100 mol/L. The student was asked to determine an electrical generating plant. Use print resources to
whether the sample contained a strong or a weak acid. find the percentage of sulfur present in coal burned at
After some thinking, the student identified a number an Alberta plant. Then determine how much coal is
of designs that might work to identify the acid as strong burned in a year and estimate the mass of sulfur dioxide
or weak. the plant produces annually. Write a report outlining
1. Measure the pH of the solution. the controls used at the plant to reduce damaging
2. Titrate a sample of the acid with 0.100 mol/L emissions.
NaOH(aq), measuring pH after each addition of 41. a) List all of the types of acids that contribute to acid
base, plotting a pH curve, and identifying the pH at deposition.
the equivalence point. b) Write the chemical reactions that produce these
3. Observe what occurs when a small sample of Zn(s) is acids in the atmosphere.
placed in 25.0 mL of the acid. c) List the sources of all of the gases that contribute to
4. Measure the volume(s) of gas(es) produced in the acid deposition.
electrolysis of the acidic solution using graphite d) List the effects of acid deposition on the
electrodes. environment.
5. Measure the temperature change that occurs in a e) Use your lists to create a concept organizer for acid
calorimeter when equivalent volumes of the acidic deposition.
solution and a 0.100 mol/L NaOH(aq) solution are 42. What is an amphiprotic substance? Write the
mixed. formula of an amphiprotic substance, and use
6. Measure the final pH of a solution made by mixing chemical equations to explain your answer.
25.0 mL of the acidic solution with 25.0 mL of 0.10
43. Use equations to show how a buffer system, such
mol/L NaOH(aq).
as HNO2(aq) and NO2–(aq), reacts with H3O+(aq)
7. Measure the voltage generated in a voltaic cell made
and OH–(aq).
with a graphite electrode in the acidic solution, a
functioning salt bridge, and an iron electrode in 0.100 44. Explain the difference between the endpoint and the
Fe(NO3)2(aq). equivalence point of a titration. Do you always reach

the equivalence point first? Explain. Making Connections
a) Explain how you would select an indicator to use in 49. Imagine that you have collected a sample of rainwater
a titration involving a strong acid and a weak base. in your community. The pH of your sample is 4.52.
b) Would you select a different indicator if you were Unpolluted rainwater has a pH of about 5.6. Suggest at
titrating a weak acid and a strong base? Explain why least two possible factors that could be responsible for
or why not. the pH you measured.
45. Use sketches to compare titration curves for the 50. Bones and teeth consist mostly of a compound called
following: hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2(s). This compound
a) nitric acid with potassium hydroxide contains PO43– and OH– ions.
b) ethanoic acid with potassium hydroxide a) From the formula of hydroxyapatite, do you expect
c) nitric acid with aqueous ammonia it will be an acid or a base? Explain.
46. How does the titration curve for a polyprotic acid b) Foods that contain sucrose form lactic acid in the
compare with the titration curve you drew in mouth, causing the pH to drop. As a result, eating
question 44 a)? candy promotes a reaction between hydroxyapatite
47. A student was given a clear solution containing an and H3O+(aq). Balance the following reaction:
unknown concentration of an acid or base. The student Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2(s) + H3O+(aq)
measured the pH and found it to be about pH 3. The CaHPO4(s) + H2O() + Ca2+(aq)
student decided to titrate the solution with a strong c) At lower pH values, the CaHPO4(s) also reacts with
base and draw a titration curve. The results are shown hydronium ions:
in the diagram. Examine the curve and use it to answer CaHPO4(s) + H3O+(aq)
the following questions. Ca2+(aq) + H2PO4–(aq) + H2O()
4ITRATION#URVE Dentists and toothpaste manufacturers warn that

eating candy promotes tooth decay. What evidence is

there to support this advice?
51. Putrescine is the common name for butane-1,4-diamine,

NH2CH2CH2CH2CH2NH2(aq). Putrescine gives
P(
rotting animal cells their distinctive odour. Calculate

Kb for a 0.10 mol/L aqueous solution of putrescine, in

which [OH–(aq)] = 2.1 × 10–3.
52. Vanadium and its compounds are highly toxic to
humans. Vanadic acid, H3VO4(aq), is triprotic.

a) Write chemical equations to show that vanadic acid
a) Did the solution contain a strong acid, weak acid, is triprotic.
strong base, or weak base? Explain your reasoning. b) Show that H2VO4–(aq) can act either as an acid
b) Approximately what was the pH at the equivalence or as a base.
point? c) Which is the stronger acid: H3VO4(aq) or
c) Did the solution act as a buffer? If so, what was the H2VO4–(aq)? Explain your answer.
pH range of the buffering region? 53. Ammonium hydrogen carbonate, NH4HCO3(s), is used
d) If you were going to titrate a sample of this solution in baked foods as a leavening agent. In aqueous solution,
to an endpoint, what indicator would you choose to both NH4+(aq) and HCO3–(aq) react with water.
use? Explain your reasoning. NH4+(aq) + H2O() NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
e) Which of the following compounds is most likely the
HCO3–(aq) + H2O() H2CO3(aq) + OH–(aq)
solute in the solution? Explain your reasoning.
i) HCl(aq) Use the data in Appendix G to help you decide whether
ii) CH3COOH(aq) an aqueous solution of NH4HCO3(aq) is acidic, basic,
iii) NaHCO3(aq) or neutral. Explain your answer.
iv) NH3(aq)
v) KOH(aq)
Unit 8 Review • MHR 727

Mac Gill Canada Equilibrio Acido Base

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CHAPTER Acid-Base Equilibrium Systems

17.2 Understanding Acids and Bases

17.3 Acid-Base Equilibriums

17.4 Titration Curves and Buffers

678 MHR • Unit 8 Chemical Equilibrium Focussing on Acid-Base Systems

3297_Chapter 17_Opener.indd 678 3/30/07 1:08:53 PM

Buffering Ground Water: A Delicate Balance

Chapter 17 Acid-Base Equilibrium Systems • MHR 679

3297_Chapter 17_Opener.indd 679 3/30/07 1:08:58 PM

Acid Deposition: SOx and NOx (“Sox” and “Nox”)

680 MHR • Unit 8 Chemical Equilibrium Focussing on Acid-Base Systems

3297_Chapter 17.indd 680 3/30/07 1:12:12 PM

Automobile Exhaust and Le Châtelier’s Principle

Chapter 17 Acid-Base Equilibrium Systems • MHR 681

3297_Chapter 17.indd 681 3/30/07 1:12:17 PM

Acid Deposition and Lakes

The Role of Soil and Rocks as Natural Buffers

682 MHR • Unit 8 Chemical Equilibrium Focussing on Acid-Base Systems

3297_Chapter 17.indd 682 3/30/07 1:12:18 PM

Chapter 17 Acid-Base Equilibrium Systems • MHR 683

3297_Chapter 17.indd 683 3/30/07 1:12:19 PM

684 MHR • Unit 8 Chemical Equilibrium Focussing on Acid-Base Systems

3297_Chapter 17.indd 684 3/30/07 1:12:22 PM

Chapter 17 Acid-Base Equilibrium Systems • MHR 685

3297_Chapter 17.indd 685 3/30/07 1:12:26 PM

Q Must a Brønsted-Lowry acid contain H ? Must a Brønsted-Lowry base

Chemists sometimes use a shorthand method of representing reactions involving weak

Plan Your Strategy

686 MHR • Unit 8 Chemical Equilibrium Focussing on Acid-Base Systems

3297_Chapter 17.indd 686 3/30/07 1:12:27 PM

More Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs Plan Your Strategy

Chapter 17 Acid-Base Equilibrium Systems • MHR 687

3297_Chapter 17.indd 687 3/30/07 1:12:27 PM

An Amphiprotic Ion Plan Your Strategy

688 MHR • Unit 8 Chemical Equilibrium Focussing on Acid-Base Systems

3297_Chapter 17.indd 688 3/30/07 1:12:28 PM

Predicting the Direction Act on Your Strategy

Chapter 17 Acid-Base Equilibrium Systems • MHR 689

3297_Chapter 17.indd 689 3/30/07 1:12:28 PM

Section 17.2 Summary

SECTION 17.2 REVIEW

690 MHR • Unit 8 Chemical Equilibrium Focussing on Acid-Base Systems

3297_Chapter 17.indd 690 3/30/07 1:12:29 PM

Acid Ionization Expressions Solution

Chapter 17 Acid-Base Equilibrium Systems • MHR 691

3297_Chapter 17.indd 691 3/30/07 1:12:29 PM

MathTip Acid Ionization Constant and Percent Ionization

Determining Ka and Percent Ionization

692 MHR • Unit 8 Chemical Equilibrium Focussing on Acid-Base Systems

3297_Chapter 17.indd 692 3/30/07 1:12:32 PM

C2H5COOH(aq) + H2O() C2H5COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

Chapter 17 Acid-Base Equilibrium Systems • MHR 693

3297_Chapter 17.indd 693 3/30/07 1:12:32 PM

INVESTIGATION 17.A Target Skills

694 MHR • Unit 8 Chemical Equilibrium Focussing on Acid-Base Systems

3297_Chapter 17.indd 694 3/30/07 1:12:33 PM

The Ion Product Constant for Water

Chapter 17 Acid-Base Equilibrium Systems • MHR 695

3297_Chapter 17.indd 695 3/30/07 1:12:33 PM

Q How can the ion product for water stay at 1.0 × 10

Q Consider the ionization of a weak acid in water, such as ethanoic acid:

CH3COOH(aq) + H2O() CH3COO–(aq) + H3O+(aq)

The Relationship between pH and pOH

The Base Ionization Constant Kb

Figure 17.12 The curve

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