Dr.

RK’s SOUND
Introduction :
 Sound is a form of mechanical energy.
 Source of sound is a vibrating body.
 For propagation of sound medium is required since sound is a
mechanical wave.
 A medium with inertia and elasticity properties is necessary for the
propagation of sound.
 When a source of sound like tuning fork is set into vibration a series of
compressions (more pressure) and rarefactions (low pressure) are
formed in the medium.
 A periodic variation of pressure in the medium is called sound wave.
 A wave transfers both momentum and energy.

P
+ +
1 atm – –
C R C R 1
S t
Sound Wave Equation :
 When sound wave is propagating through medium each particle of
the medium undergoes simple harmonic motion.
 The energy and momentum of the wave is carried by the particles
of the medium.
 The equation of the sound wave moving along positive
x-direction is given by y = A sin (t – ).
 A : Amplitude,  = 2/T,  : phase difference.
2
Phase difference    path difference x.

2   kx where x is wave vector.
 x

y  A sin(t  kx )
 Key Point : In wave motion wave velocity
V   wave velocity and particle velocity are not the same.
K
VP  A cos(t  kx ) is called particle velocity.
y  A sin k( vt  x ) 2
R.K.’s
Dr.RK’s Different types of wave equations :

 y = a sin(t – kx) ……(1)

 y = b cos(t – kx) ……(2)

 y = a sin(t – kx) + b cos (t – kx)

Its amplitude is A  a 2  b 2  2ab cos 

b sin 
Its initial phase tan  
a  b cos 
Where  is phase difference between two waves.
 y = a sin(t – kx) cos(t – kx)
a
y  sin(2t  2kx )
2 3
Dr.RK’s
Wave

Transverse
 Particles of the medium
vibrate perpendicular to
direction of propagation of
the wave.
 Eg. Wave set up in
stretched string.
Longitudinal
 Particles of the medium
vibrate parallel to the
direction of propagation of
the wave.
 Eg. Sound wave through
air.

4
Dr.RK’s
Transverse wave or Longitudinal wave

Progressive wave or Traveling wave Stationary wave or Standing wave

 A wave which travels  When ever two progressive

continuously in medium in the waves of same wave length and
same direction without any amplitude travel with same speed
change in its amplitude is called in opposite directions and super-
progressive wave or travelling impose upon each other
wave. stationary waves are formed.
Equation of stationary wave :
Equation of progressive wave :
y  2A sin kx cos t
y  A sin(t  kx )   x
or x  0; y  0
y  A sin(t  kx )   x
y  2A cos kx sin t
y  0; y  2A 5
Properties of Progressive waves :
 These waves propagate in the forward direction of medium
with finite velocity.
 Energy is propagated via these waves.
 In these waves all the particles of the medium execute
S.H.M. with same amplitude and same frequency.
 In these waves all the particles of the medium pass through
their mean position or positions of maximum displacements
one after the other.
 In these waves the velocity of the particle and the strain are
proportional to each other.
 This wave is an independent one. 6
R.K.’s
Properties of Progressive waves :
 In these waves equal change in pressure and density occurs
at all points of medium.

 In these waves equal strain is produced at all points.

 In these waves all the particles of the medium cross their

mean position once in one time period.

 In these waves the average energy over one time period is

equal to the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy.
1 2 2
 The energy per unit volume of a progressive wave is A 
2
where  is the density of the medium.

7
R.K.’s
Properties of Stationary waves :
 All the particles except a few (at nodes) execute S.H.M.
 The period of each particle is the same but the amplitude of
vibration varies from particle to particle.
 The distance between any two successive nodes or
antinodes is equal to /2.
 The distance between a node and a neighbouring antinode is
equal to /4.
 The wave is confined to a limited region and does not
advance.
 All the particles of a wave in a loop are in the same phase
and the phase difference is zero.
 Stationary waves are formed by combining two longitudinal
progressive waves or two transverse progressive waves.
 Due to persistence of vision, stationary waves appear in the
form of loops. 8
R.K.’s
Properties of Stationary waves :
 These waves do not transfer energy.
 The change in pressure or density or strain will be maximum
at nodes and minimum at antinodes.
 The particle velocity at a node is zero and at an antinode it is
maximum.
 The phase difference between the particles in adjacent loops
in a stationary wave is .
 The equation of a stationary wave is y = 2A sin kx.cos t or
y = 2A cos kx.sin t.

 In these waves the particles of the medium cross their mean

positions twice in one time period.
 In these waves average energy = kinetic energy = potential
energy. 9
R.K.’s
Velocity of transverse wave in a string :
 Velocity of a transverse wave travelling along V
a string depends on tension in a string T and
linear density m (per unit length).
 The velocity of transverse wave propagating along a string or wire under
T
tension is V  where T is tension and m is linear density of the
m
string or wire. M = M/I = A.d = r2d where M is total mass of wire of length

‘l’, A is area of cross-section of wire and r is its radius. Hence

T Tl T T
V   
m M Ad r 2 d
s Y.strain
 If s is stress in the wire, S = T/A, hence V  ; also V  .
d d
 A wire held at the two ends by rigid support is just taut at temperature t1.
Y( t 2 ~ t1 )
The velocity of transverse wave at a temperature t2 is V 
d
where =co-efficient of linear expansion, Y=Young’s modulus, d=density. 10
R.K.’s
Vibrations of a string :
Fundamental frequency :
 When a string vibrates in a single loop, it is said to vibrate with
fundamental frequency.
 Frequency is minimum and wavelength is maximum in this case.

 If l is the length of the string l 
   2l.
2
1 T
 The fundamental frequency n  ,
2l m
where T = tension, m = linear density.
 The fundamental frequency is also given by
1 T 1 T 1 T 1 s
n   2
 .
2 Ml 2l Ad 2 r d 2l d
 For small change in tension in string, the fractional change in
frequency is n 1 T

n 2 T
 The fundamental frequency is also called the first harmonic. 11
R.K.’s
Overtones :
 If string vibrates with more number of loops, higher frequencies are
produced called overtones.
 If string vibrates in p loops, it is called pth mode of vibration or pth
harmonic or (p – 1)th overtone.
p T
The corresponding frequency np   p.n
2l m
n1 p1
Hence, for a string, np  p; 
Fundamental
n2 p 2
A
when other, quantities are constant. N N
l =/2
 The fundamental and overtone frequencies First over tone or second hormonic
A A
are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : …. N
N N
l=
2l
 The wavelength is above case is  p  Second over tone or third hormonic
p A N A N A
N N
1 1
i.e., wavelengths are in the ratio 1 : : : ... l=3/2
2 3 12
R.K.’s
Laws of transverse waves along stretched string :
 Law of length : The frequency of a stretched string is
inversely proportional to the length of the string where T &
m are constants, nl = constant, n1l1 = n2l2.
 Law of tension : The frequency of a stretched string is
inversely proportional to square root of tension.
n n1 n2
n  T when l and T are constants.  constant,  .
T T1 T2
 Law of mass : The frequency of a stretched string is
1
inversely proportional to square root of linear density n 
m
when l and T are constants. n m  constant; n1 m1  n 2 m2 .
 Sonometer is used to determine the velocity of transverse
waves in strings and to verify the laws of transverse waves.
l12
RD 
l12  l22 13
R.K.’s
Beats :
 When two sounds of slightly different frequencies superimpose, the
resultant sound consists of alternate waxing and waxing. This
phenomenon is called beats.
 One waxing and one waning together is called one beat.

 If simple harmonic progressive waves of frequencies n1 and n2

travelling in same direction superimpose, the resultant wave is

  n1  n 2    n1  n 2 
represented by y  2a cos 2  t
 sin 2  t.
  2   2 
n n 
 The amplitude of resultant wave is 2a cos 2 1 2 t.
 2 
 The maximum amplitude is 2a and minimum amplitude zero.
 n1  n 2 
 The frequency of resultant wave is  . 14
 2  R.K.’s
Beats :
 The number of beats produced per second or beat frequency is
equal to the difference of frequencies of nodes producing beats.
n = n1 ~ n2.
 If two sound waves of wavelengths 1 and 2 produce n beats per
second, then velocity of sound can be determined by
V V 1 2
n ~ or V 
1  2 ( 2 ~ 1 )
 The maximum number of beats heard by a person is 10, since
persistence of hearing is 1/10 sec.
1
 The time internal between two consecutive maxima or minima is
(n1 ~ n 2 )
1
 The time interval between consecutive maxima and minima is
2(n1 ~ n 2 )
 Beats can be produced by taking two identical tuning fork and

loading or filing either of them and vibrating them together.

 When a tuning fork is loaded its frequency decreases and when it
is filed frequency increases.
15
R.K.’s
Echo :
 When a sound is produced and a listener hears it after reflection
from an obstacle, the reflected sound is called and echo.
 If d is the distance between source and the reflecting surface and t
is the time taken to hear echo after sound is produced, t = 2d/V
where V is velocity of sound.
 The distance between source and reflecting surface d = Vt/2.
 The minimum distance between source and the reflecting surface
to hear a clear echo is V/20. It is equal to 16.5 m if V = 300 m/s.
 If a person standing between two parallel hills fires a gun and
hears first echo after t1 sec and the second echo after t2 sec, the
V( t1  t 2 )
distance between two hills is d = .
2
 In the above case, the third echo will be heard after (t1 + t2) sec.
 In the above case, if echos are heard at regular intervals of time ‘t’
sec, the distance between two hills is d = V.t or d = (3/2)V.t.
16
R.K.’s
Echo :
 If a motor car approaching a cliff with a velocity ‘u’ sounds the horn
and the echo is heard after ‘t’ sec, then the distance between the
v u
cliff and the original position of car is d    t.
 2 
 In the above case, the distance between the cliff and the point
 v u
where the echo is heard is d    t.
 2 
 A road runs paralleled to a long vertical line of hills. If a motorist
moving with a speed ‘u’ sounds the horn and hears the echo after
t
‘t’ sec, then the distance between the road the cliff is d  v 2  u2 .
2
 A road runs midways between two parallel rows of hills. If a
motorist moving with speed ‘u’ sounds the horn and hears echo
after ‘t’ sec, then the distance between two rows of hills is
17
s  t v 2  u2
R.K.’s
Doppler Effect :
 The apparent change in frequency due to relative motion between
the source and the listener is called Doppler effect.
 Let VO and Vs represents the velocities of a listener and a source
respectively. Let V be the velocity of sound and n and n1 be the
true and apparent frequencies of the sound. Then if
 V 
 the source alone is in motion towards the observer, n1  n .

 V  Vs 
Clearly n1 > n.
 V 
 the source alone is in motion away from the observer,n1  n .

 V  Vs 
Clearly n1 < n.
 V  Vo 
 the observer alone is in motion towards the source, n1  n .
 V 
Clearly n1 > n.
 V  Vo 
 the observer alone is in motion away from the source,n1  n .
 V 
Clearly n1 < n.
 the source and the observer both are in motion towards each
 V  Vo 
other, n1  n .
 18
 V  Vs  R.K.’s
Doppler Effect :
 When source and observer are not moving along the same line
 V 
then n  n 
 V  V cos   where  is angle between source velocity
 s 
and line joining source and observer.
 When source and observer do not move along the line joining
them, then components of their velocities along the line joining
them must be taken as velocity of observer and velocity of source
 V  V0 cos  2 
in Doppler is formula n  n0  

 V  Vs cos 1 
 If r is unit vector along line joining source and observer, v is
velocity of sound (taken from the source to observer), v0 is velocity
of observer and vs is velocity of source then Doppler’s effect in
   
(v  r  v 0  r )
vector form is n      n.

(v  r  v s  r ) 19
R.K.’s
Doppler Effect :
 Doppler effect in sound is asymmetric. This means the change in
frequency depends on whether the source is in motion or observer
is in motion even though relative velocities are same in both
cases.
 Motion of source produces greater change than motion of
observer even though the relative velocities are same in both
cases.
 v  v u
 Eg : n   n ; n   n
 v u  v 
n  n
 Doppler effect in sound is asymmetric because sound is
mechanical wave requiring material medium and v, v0, vs are
taken with respect to the medium.
 Doppler effect in light is symmetric because light waves are
electromagnetic (do not require medium) 20
R.K.’s
Dr.RK’s Doppler Effect :

 Doppler effect is not applicable if

1) V0 = Vs = 0 (both are at rest)

2) V0 = Vs = 0 and medium is alone in motion

3) V0 = Vs = u (V0, Vs are in same direction)

4) Vs is  to line of sight.

 Doppler effect is applicable only when, V0<< v and Vs << v.

(v = velocity of sound)
21
 Doppler effect in light :
Dr.RK’s

 Doppler effect in sound is asymmetric.

 Doppler effect holds good for light also. An increase of
frequency is called blue shift and it indicates that the source
is approaching the observer. Red shift indicates that the
source is receding from the observer.
V
Red shift (  )   
c

 Doppler effect in light is symmetric.

 The red shift observed by Hubble in many stars supports the
‘Big Bang Theory’ of the universe. 22
Uses of Doppler Effect :
 It is used in
 a) SONAR
 b) RADAR (Radio detection and Ranging used to determine speed of
objects in space) (Radio waves)
 c) To determine speeds of automobiles by traffic police.
 d) To determine speed of rotation of sun and to explain Saturn’s rings.
 e) Led to the discovery of double stars/Binary stars.
 f) In accurate navigation and accurate target bombing techniques.
 g) In tracking earth’s satellite.
 Doppler’s effect is used in the estimation of the velocities of aeroplanes
and submarines, the velocities of stars and galaxies and the velocities of
satellites.
 If the observer is standing behind the source moving towards a wall with a
 V V 
velocity Vs, then the number of beats heard is equal to n  
 V  Vs V  V s
2nVs
n and is approximately equal .
V 23
R.K.’s
Intensity of sound :
 The transfer of energy per unit time per unit area perpendicular to
the direction of motion of a wave is called intensity of wave.
1 dE
 I  Its S.I. unit is watt/m2.
A dt
1
 Intensity of a wave is given by I  2 2 dn 2a 2 v 
dvw 2a 2
2
Where d is density of medium, v is velocity of sound, n is
frequency, a is amplitude.
i) 2 2
 l n a
I  n 2a 2 ; 1  12 12
l2 n2a 2
Intensity is proportional to square of frequency and amplitude.
 ii) For a given frequency of sound,
2 l1 a12
Ia ;  2
l2 a 2
24
R.K.’s
Absorption of sound :
 When sound energy is incident on any surface of a substance, part

of it is absorbed by the surface and rest is reflected.

 Thick screens, carpets, mats, compressed fibre board, felt, wood

and white lime floor are some good absorbers of sound.

 An open window diffused all the sound energy incident on it.

 The absorption co-efficient is defined as the ratio of sound energy

absorbed by a surface to the sound energy absorbed by an open

window of equal surface area. a = Es/Ew. The absorption

co-efficient of open window is 1.

 The S.I. unit of absorption co-efficient is metric sabine. 25

R.K.’s
Absorption of sound :
 The absorption of a surface of area ‘s’ is A = a.s.
 If a room contains different surfaces of areas s1, s2,…………. With
absorption coefficients a1, a2…. respectively, the total absorption
of the room A = a1s1 + a2s2 + ….. = as.
 The absorption co-efficient of a surface is determined by
i) stationary wave method, ii) reverberation time method.
 If i1 and i2 are the currents corresponding to maximum and
minimum amplitudes in the stationary wave method, the absorption
4i1i2
coefficient a  2
.
(i1  i2 )
 It T1 and T2 are the reverberation times without and with the given
material pasted on walls in a reverberation chamber,the absorption
0.17 V  1 1
coefficient of the material is a      a0
s  T2 T1 
where a0 is the absorption coefficient of walls of chamber in metric
sabine and ‘s’ surface area in square metre and V is volume of
room. 26
R.K.’s
Dr.RK’s Threshold of audibility :

 a) The minimum intensity of sound at which it is audible is

called threshold of audibility.

 b) The weakest audible sound has intensity of 10–12 w/m2.

 c) An ordinary talk has intensity of sound 10–6 w/m2.

 d) The lowest change of intensity level that could be

detected by human ear is 1 dB.

27
Reverberation and reverberation time :
 The persistence of sound in an enclosure due to repeated
reflections at walls, even after the original sound is stopped is
called reverberation.
 The time required by the sound intensity in a enclosure to
decrease to threshold of audibility from an initial intensity of 106
times of this, after the sound is turned off is called reverberation
time.
 The reverberation time is proportional to the volume of enclosure
(v) and inversely proportional to the total absorption (A) of the
V KV
enclosure. T  , T 
A A
0.17 V 0.17 V
 In S.I. system T   .
A  as
This formula is called sabines formula.
 When volume is constant T1  A 2 .
T2 A1
 A room with zero reverberation time is called dead room.
28
R.K.’s
Reverberation :
 Reverberation time depends on
 a) size of the (enclosure) room or auditorium.
 b) Nature of reflecting materials on the wall, floor and ceiling.
 c) The area of reflecting surface.
 d) Intensity (or loudness of sound produced)
 Reverberation times is independent of
 a) Shape of the enclosure.
 b) Position of the source of sound and listener.
 c) Position of the absorbent in the enclosure.
 Let T0 is the reverberation time of an empty auditorium, T is
reverberation time when n persons present in the auditorium.
If the absorption of each person is 1/Kth of absorption of
empty auditorium, then T0 n
 1 .
T K 29
R.K.’s
Building Acoustics :
 Auditoria, concert halls, cinema theaters etc. should follow the
principles of architectural acoustics for quality, clarify and sound
level of speech and music.
 The hall should have optimum value of reverberation time, neither
too low nor too high. For speech it is in between 0.5 and 1 sec and
for music between 1 sec and 2 sec.
 Loudness of sound must be sufficient at all points of the room
 Cylindrical or spherical surfaces on walls or ceiling are to be
avoided to prevent focusing effect of sound. Parabolic surfaces are
preferred for uniform distribution of sound.
 Extraneous noise is not allowed into the hall.
 Height of ceiling should not exceed 10 m to prevent echoes.
 The musical effect produced due to regular successive reflections
of sound at flight of stairs is called echelon effect. It is to be
avoided. 30
R.K.’s