CHAP 1
Preliminary Concepts and
Linear Finite Elements

Instructor: Nam-Ho Kim (nkim@ufl.edu)

Web: http://www2.mae.ufl.edu/nkim/INFEM/

 Table of Contents

1.1. INTRODUCTION

1.2. VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS

1.3. STRESS AND STRAIN

1.4. MECHANICS OF CONTINUOUS BODIES

1.5. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

1.1

INTRODUCTION


 Background
• Finite Element Method (FEM):
– a powerful tool for solving partial differential equations and
integro-differential equations
• Linear FEM:
– methods of modeling and solution procedure are well established
• Nonlinear FEM:
– different modeling and solution procedures based on the
characteristics of the problems Æ complicated
– many textbooks in the nonlinear FEMs emphasize complicated
theoretical parts or advanced topics
• This book:
– to simply introduce the nonlinear finite element analysis procedure
and to clearly explain the solution procedure
– detailed theories, solution procedures, and implementation using
MATLAB for only representative problems

Chapter Outline
2. Vector and Tensor Calculus
– Preliminary to understand mathematical derivations in other
chapters
3. Stress and Strain
– Review of mechanics of materials and elasticity
4. Mechanics of Continuous Bodies
– Energy principles for structural equilibrium (principle of minimum
potential energy)
– Principle of virtual work for more general non-potential problems
5. Finite Element Method
– Discretization of continuum equations and approximation of
solution using piecewise polynomials
– Introduction to MATLAB program ELAST3D


 1.2

VECTOR AND TENSOR

CALCULUS

Vector and Tensor

• Vector: Collection of scalars
• Cartesian vector: Euclidean vector defined using Cartesian
coordinates y
– 2D, 3D Cartesian vectors u

­ u1 ½
­ u1 ½ ° ° H
u ® ¾ , or u ® u2 ¾ H x
¯ u2 ¿ °u ° u
¯ 3¿ H
u
z

– Using basis vectors: e1 = {1, 0, 0}T, e2 = {0, 1, 0}T, e3 = {0, 0, 1}T

u u1 e1  u2 e2  u3e3


 Index Notation and Summation Rule
• Index notation: Any vector or matrix can be expressed in
terms of its indices
ª v1 º ª A11 A12 A13 º
v [vi ] «v » A [Aij ] «A A A »
« 2» « 21 22 23 »
«¬ v3 »¼ «¬ A31 A32 A33 »¼
• Einstein summation convention
3
¦ akbk akbk 5HSHDWHGLQGLFHVPHDQVXPPDWLRQ
k 1

– In this case, k is a dummy variable (can be j or i) akbk ajbj

– The same index cannot appear more than twice
• Basis representation of a vector
– Let ek be the basis of vector space V N
– Then, any vector in V can be represented by w ¦ wk ek wk ek

k 1

Index Notation and Summation Rule cont.

• Examples
– Matrix multiplication: C A˜B Cij AikBkj
– Trace operator: tr(A) A11  A22  A33 Akk
– Dot product: u˜v u1v1  u2v2  u3v3 uk vk
– Cross product: uu v ujvk ( ej u ek ) eijkujvk ei

­0 unless i, j,k are distinct

Permutation °
symbol
eijk ® 1 if (i, j,k) is an even permutation
° 1 if (i, j,k) is an odd permutation
¯
– Contraction: double dot product
3 3
J A:B ¦¦ AijBij AijBij
i 1 j 1


 Cartesian Vector
X3
• Cartesian Vectors u
u u1 e1  u2 e2  u3e3 uiei v e3

v vjej e1 X2
e2
X1
• Dot product
u˜v (uiei ) ˜ (vjej ) uivj ( ei ˜ ej ) uivjGij uivi
– Kronecker delta function
­ 1 if i j
Gij ® G jj G11  G22  G33 3
¯ 0 if i z j
– Equivalent to change index j to i, or vice versa
• How to obtain Cartesian components of a vector
ei ˜ v ei ˜ (vjej ) vjGij vi Projection

• Magnitude of a vector (norm): v v˜v



Notation Used Here

'LUHFWWHQVRUQRWDWLRQ 7HQVRUFRPSRQHQWQRWDWLRQ 0DWUL[QRWDWLRQ

D a˜b D ab
i i D aT b
A a…b Aij ab
i j A abT
b A˜a bi Aijaj b Aa
b a˜A bj aA
i ij bT aT A


 Tensor and Rank
• Tensor
– A tensor is an extension of scalar, vector, and matrix
(multidimensional array in a given basis)
– A tensor is independent of any chosen frame of reference
– Tensor field: a tensor-valued function associated with each point
in geometric space
• Rank of Tensor
– No. of indices required to write down the components of tensor
– Scalar (rank 0), vector (rank 1), matrix (rank 2), etc
– Every tensor can be expressed as a linear combination of rank 1
tensors
– Rank 1 tensor v: vi ª V11 V12 V13 º
5DQN
[Vij ] «V V22 V23 »» VWUHVV
– Rank 2 tensor A: Aij « 21 WHQVRU
– Rank 4 tensor C: Cijkl «¬ V31 V32 V33 »¼ 

Tensor Operations
• Basic rules for tensors
Different notations
( TS)R T(SR) TS T˜S
T(S  R) TS  TR
Identity tensor
D( TS) (DT )S T(DS) 1 [Gij ]
1T T1 T
• Tensor (dyadic) product: increase rank
A u…v uivjei … ej Aij uivj AT Ajiei … ej
(u … v) ˜ w u( v ˜ w)
w ˜ (u … v) v ( w ˜ u)
( u … v )( w … x) ( v ˜ w)u … x u…v z v…u

• Rank-4 tensor: D Dijklei … ej … ek … el


 Tensor Operations cont.
• Symmetric and skew tensors
– Symmetric S ST
– Skew W  WT
– Every tensor can be uniquely decomposed by symmetric and
skew tensors
T SW
S 1 ( T  TT )
2
W 1 ( T  TT )
2
– Note: W has zero diagonal components and Wij = - Wji

• Properties – Let A be a symmetric tensor

A:W 0
A:T A:S


Example
• Displacement gradient can be considered a tensor (rank 2)
ª wu1 wu1 wu1 º
« wX1 wX2 wX3 »
ª wu º « wu2 wu2 wu2 »
’u « wX » « wX1 wX2 wX3 »
¬ ¼
« wu3 wu3 wu3 »
«¬ wX1 wX2 wX3 »
¼
ª wu1 1 ( wu1  wu2 ) 1 ( wu1  wu3 ) º
« wX1 2 wX2 wX1 2 wX3 wX1 »

sym(’u) «« 21 ( wX1  wX2 ) 1 ( wu2  wu3 ) »

wu wu wu2 Strain tensor
2 1 wX2 2 w X3 wX 2 »
« 1 wu1 wu3 1 ( wu2  wu3 ) wu3 »
( 
«¬ 2 wX3 wX1 2 wX3 wX2) wX3 »¼
ª 0 1 ( wu1  wu2 ) 1 ( wu1  wu3 ) º
« 2 wX2 wX1 2 wX3 wX1 »

skew(’u) ««  21 ( wX1  wX2 ) 1 ( wu2  wu3 ) »

wu wu
0 2 wX3 wX2 »
Spin
2 1
tensor
« 1 wu1 wu3 wu2 wu3 »
«¬  2 ( wX3  wX1 )  2 ( wX3  wX2 )
1 0 »¼

 Contraction and Trace
• Contraction of rank-2 tensors
a:b aijbij a11b11  a12b12  !  a32b32  a33b33
– contraction operator reduces four ranks from the sum of ranks of
two tensors
• magnitude (or, norm) of a rank-2 tensor
a a:a
• Constitutive relation between stress and strain
V D : H, Vij DijklHkl
• Trace: part of contraction
tr(A) Aii A11  A22  A33
– In tensor notation

tr(A) A:1 1: A


Orthogonal Tensor
• In two different coord. e3 e3*
e1*
u uiei uj* ej*
e2
• Direction cosines e1
e2*
E [Eij ] ei* … ej ei* E ej
We can also show
• Change basis ej Eijei* u* Eu
u ujej ui* ei* u ET u* ET (E u) (ET E)u
ui*Eijej
E 1 ET
uj Eijui* ET E EET 1 det(E) r1
Orthogonal tensor
u E u
T *
Rank-2 tensor transformation
T* E TET , Tij* EikTklEjl 
 Permutation
• The permutation symbol has three indices, but it is not a
tensor

­1 if ijk are an even permutation : 123, 231, 312

°
eijk ® 1 if ijk are an odd permutation : 132, 213, 321
°0 otherwise
¯
• the permutation is zero when any of two indices have the
same value: e112 = e121 = e111 = 0
• Identity
eijk elmk GilG jm  GimG jl

• vector product
uu v eieijkujvk


Dual Vector
• For any skew tensor W and a vector u
u ˜ Wu u ˜ WT u  u ˜ Wu 0
– Wu and u are orthogonal
ª 0 W12 W13 º ­ W23 ½
• Let Wij eijk wk « W ° °
W « 12 0 W23 »» Ÿ w ® W13 ¾
«¬ W13 W23 0 ¼» ° W °
¯ 12 ¿

• Then, Wijuj eijk wkuj eikjwkuj

Wu wuu

Dual vector of skew tensor W

wi  21 eijkWjk


 Vector and Tensor Calculus
• Gradient
I( X)
w w
’ ei : *
wX wXi
– Gradient is considered a vector
wvi
– We will often use a simplified notation: vi , j
wX j
• Laplace operator
§ w · § w · w w
’2 ’˜’ e
¨ i wX ˜
¸ ¨¨ j wX
e ¸¸
© i ¹ © j ¹ wXj wXj

• Gradient of a scalar field I(X): vector

w2 w2 w2
wI  
’I( X) ei wX12 wX22 wX32
wXi



Vector and Tensor Calculus

• Gradient of a Tensor Field (increase rank by 1)
w wIi
’I I…’ Iiei … ej e … ej
wXj wXj i
• Divergence (decrease rank by 1)
§ w · wIi
’˜I ¨ ei wX 
¸ ˜ Ijej  wXi
© i ¹
– Ex) ’ ˜ V V jk,jek
• Curl
’uv eieijk vk,j


 Integral Theorems
• Divergence Theorem

³³: ’ ˜ A d: ³* n ˜ A d* n: unit outward normal vector

• Gradient Theorem

³³: ’A d: ³* n … A d* F

• Stokes Theorem
*
³* n ˜ ( ’ u v ) d* v³c r ˜ v dc
U
• Reynolds Transport Theorem
d wA
dt ³³: ³³: wt d:  ³* (n ˜ v )A d*
Ad :



Integration-by-Parts
• u(x) and v(x) are continuously differentiable functions
• 1D
b b b
³a u(x)vc(x) dx ª¬ u(x)v(x) º¼ a  ³ uc(x)v(x) dx
a

• 2D, 3D
wu wv
³: wxi v d: ³* uvni d*  ³ u
: wxi
d:

• For a vector field v(x)

³: ’u ˜ v d: ³* u( v ˜ n) d*  ³: u’ ˜ v d:
• Green’s identity

³: ’u ˜ ’v d: ³* u’v ˜ n d*  ³ u’2v d:
:

 Example: Divergence Theorem
• S: unit sphere (x2 + y2 + z2 = 1), F = 2xi + y2j + z2k
• Integrate ³S F ˜ n dS
³S F ˜ n dS ³³: ’ ˜ F d:
2³³ (1  y  z) d:
:
2³³ d:  2³³ y d:  2³³ z d:
: : :
2³³ d:
:
8S
3



1.3

STRESS AND STRAIN


 Surface Traction (Stress)
')
• Surface traction (Stress) I

– The entire body is in equilibrium with Q

external forces (f1 ~ f6) P
'A
– The imaginary cut body is in equilibrium due I 
to external forces (f1, f2, f3) and internal I 
forces
– Internal force acting at a point P
on a plane whose unit normal is n: I 
I
'F I 
t(n) lim
'A o 0 'A
– The surface traction depends on the unit I 
I
normal direction n.
z I
– Surface traction will change as n changes.
y
– unit = force per unit area (pressure) x 
t (n )
t1 e1  t2 e2  t3e3


Cartesian Stress Components

• Surface traction changes according to the direction of
the surface.
• Impossible to store stress information for all directions.
• Let’s store surface traction parallel to the three
coordinate directions.
• Surface traction in other directions can be calculated
from them.
• Consider the x-face of an infinitesimal cube
'x
t (x) t1(x) e1  t2(x) e2  t3(x) e3
'z
t (x) V11 e1  V12 e2  V13e3 V
z ')

1RUPDO 6KHDU
V V
VWUHVV VWUHVV 'y
x y 
 Stress Tensor
– First index is the face and the second index is its direction
– When two indices are the same, normal stress, otherwise shear
stress.
– Continuation for other surfaces.
– Total nine components
– Same stress components are defined for the negative planes.

• Rank-2 Stress Tensor

V
V Vijei … ej 'x

V V
• Sign convention 'z
V V
z
sgn(V11 ) sgn(n) u sgn( 'Fx ) V V
V V
sgn(V12 ) sgn(n) u sgn( 'Fy ) 'y
x y



Symmetry of Stress Tensor

– Stress tensor should be symmetric
9 components 6 components  V
– Equilibrium of the angular moment $ %
y
¦M 'l(V12  V21 ) 0
V 'l O x V
Ÿ V12 V21
– Similarly for all three directions: 'l
& '
V12 V21 , V23 V32 , V13 V31 V

­ V11 ½
°V °
– Let’s use vector notation:
° 22 ° ª V11 V12 V13 º
° V33 ° [Vij ] «V V22 V23 »»
Cartesian components
of stress tensor {V} ® ¾ « 12
V
° 12 ° «¬ V13 V23 V33 »¼
° V23 °
° °
V
¯ 13 ¿ 
 Stress in Arbitrary Plane
– If Cartesian stress components are known, it is possible to
determine the surface traction acting on any plane.
– Consider a plane whose normal is n.
– Surface area ('ABC = A) y
%
'PAB An3 ; 'PBC An1 ; 'PAC An2
Q
– The surface traction V V WQ
V
V V
t(n) t1( n ) e1  t2( n ) e2  t3( n ) e3
V 3 V $ x
V
– Force balance V
z &
¦ F1 t1(n)A  V11An1  V21An2  V31An3 0

t1( n ) V11n1  V21n2  V31n3



Cauchy’s Lemma
• All three-directions
t1( n ) V11n1  V21n2  V31n3
t2(n) V12n1  V22n2  V32n3
t3(n) V13n1  V23n2  V33n3
• Tensor notation

t( n ) n˜V Ÿ t( n ) V˜n
– stress tensor; completely characterize the state of stress at a
point
• Cauchy’s Lemma
– the surface tractions acting on opposite sides of the same surface
are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction

t( n) t (  n )

 Projected Stresses
• Normal stress V(n) tn ˜ n n˜V˜n Vijnn
i j
2
• Shear stress W(n) tn  V2 (n), W(n) t n  nV(n)
• Principal stresses tn & n Ÿ V1 , V2 , V3
• Mean stress (hydrostatic pressure)
1 1
p Vm tr(V) (V  V22  V33 )
3 3 11
• Stress deviator Iijkl 1 (G G  GilG jk )
3 ik jl
s V  Vm 1 Idev : V 5DQNLGHQWLW\WHQVRU
ª V11  Vm V12 V13 º
Idev I  31 1 … 1
s « V V11  Vm V23 »»
« 12 5DQNGHYLDWRULF LGHQWLW\WHQVRU
«¬ V13 V23 V11  Vm »¼
Idev : 1 0, Idev : s s


Principal Stresses
• Normal & shear stress change as n changes
– Is there a plane on which the normal (or shear)stress becomes the
maximum?
• There are at least three mutually perpendicular planes
on which the normal stress attains an extremum
– Shear stresses are zero on these planes Æ Principal directions
– Traction t(n) is parallel to surface normal n

t(n) Vnn V˜n Vn n

3ULQFLSDO 3ULQFLSDO
• Eigenvalue problem VWUHVV GLUHFWLRQ
[V  Vn 1] ˜ n 0
ª V11  Vn V12 V13 º ­ n1 ½ ­0 ½
« V V22  Vn V23 » °n ° ° °
« 12 »® 2 ¾ ®0 ¾
«¬ V13 V23 V33  Vn »¼ °¯ n3 °¿ °0 °
¯ ¿ 
 Eigenvalue Problem for Principal Stresses
• The eigenvalue problem has non-trivial solution if and only
if the determinant is zero:
V11  Vn V12 V13
V12 V22  Vn V23 0
V13 V23 V33  Vn
• The above equation becomes a cubic equation:
Vn3  I1Vn2  I2Vn  I3 0
I1 V11  V22  V33
I2 V11V22  V22V33  V33V11  V12
2
 V23
2
 V13
2

I3 V V11V22V33  2V12V23V13  V11V23

2
 V22V13
2
 V33V12
2

• Three roots are principal stresses

V1 t V2 t V3


Principal Directions
• Stress Invariants: I1, I2, I3
– independent of the coordinate system
• Principal directions
– Substitute each principal stress to the eigenvalue problem to get n
– Since the determinant is zero, an infinite number of solutions exist
– Among them, choose the one with a unit magnitude
2
ni (n1i )2  (n2i )2  (n3i )2 1, i 1,2,3

• Principal directions are mutually perpendicular

ni ˜ n j 0, i z j


 Principal Directions
• There are three cases for principal directions:
1. 1, 2, and 3 are distinct Ÿ principal directions are three unique
mutually orthogonal unit vectors.
2. 1 = 2 and 3 are distinct Ÿ n3 is a unique principal direction, and
any two orthogonal directions on the plane that is perpendicular
to n3 are principal directions.
3. 1 = 2 = 3 Ÿ any three orthogonal directions are principal
directions. This state of stress corresponds to a hydrostatic
pressure.

Q



Strains (Simple Version)

– Strain is defined as the elongation per unit length

'X

'[

3 '[ 3
'X

– Tensile (normal) strains in x1- and x2-directions

'u1 wu1
H11 lim 7H[WERRNKDVGLIIHUHQWEXW
'x1 o0 'x1 wx1
PRUHULJRURXVGHULYDWLRQV
'u2 wu2
H22 lim
'x2 o0 'x2 wx2
– Strain is a dimensionless quantity. Positive for elongation and
negative for compression

 Shear Strain
– Shear strain is the tangent of the change in angle between two
originally perpendicular axes
'u
'u2
T1 ~ tan T1
'x1 T
'x
'u1 S± J
T2 ~ tan T2 'u
'x2 3
T
'x
– Shear strain (change of angle)
'u2 'u1 wu2 wu1
J12 T1  T2 lim  lim 
'x1 o 0 'x1 'x2 o 0 'x2 wx1 wx2
1 1 § wu2 wu1 ·
H12 J 
2 12 2 ¨© wx1 wx2 ¸¹
– Positive when the angle between two positive (or two negative)
faces is reduced and negative when the angle is increased.
– Valid for small deformation


Strains (Rigorous Version)

• Strain: a measure of deformation
– Normal strain: change in length of a line segment
– Shear strain: change in angle between two perpendicular line
segments
• Displacement of P = (u1, u2, u3)
• Displacement of Q & R
wu wu
u1Q u1  1 'x1 u1R u1  1 'x2
wx1 wx2
5

wu wu
u2Q u2  2 'x1 u2R u2  2 'x2
wx1 wx2 4

3
[X[X[X
wu wu 5
u3Q u3  3 'x1 u3R u3  3 'x2 '[
wx1 wx2 [  '[
3[[[ 4

[

[ 
 Displacement Field
• Coordinates of P, Q, and R before and after deformation
P : (x1 , x2 , x3 )
Q : (x1  'x1 , x2 , x3 )
R : (x1 , x1  'x2 , x3 )
Pc : (x1  u1P , x2  u2P , x3  u3P ) (x1  u1 , x2  u2 , x3  u3 )
Qc : (x1  'x1  u1Q , x2  u2Q , x3  u3Q )
wu1 wu wu
(x1  'x1  u1  'x1 , x2  u2  2 'x1 , x3  u3  3 'x1 )
wx1 wx1 wx1
Rc : (x1  u1R , x2  'x2  u2R , x3  u3R )
wu1 wu wu
(x1  u1  'x2 , x2  'x2  u2  2 'x2 , x3  u3  3 'x2 )
wx2 wx2 wx2

• Length of the line segment P'Q'

     
2 2 2
PcQc x1Pc  x1Qc  x2Pc  x2Qc  x3Pc  x3Qc


Deformation Field
• Length of the line segment P'Q'
2 2 2
§ wu1 · § wu2 · § wu3 ·
PcQc 'x1 ¨ 1  wx ¸  ¨ wx ¸  ¨ wx ¸
© 1 ¹ © 1¹ © 1¹
1/2
§ wu1 § wu1 ·
2
§ wu2 ·
2
§ wu3 · ·
2
'x1 ¨ 1  2  ¨ ¸  ¨ wx ¸ ¸¸
¨ wx1 ¨© wx1 ¸¹ wx
© 1¹ © 1¹ ¹
©
§ wu1 1 § wu1 ·
2
1 § wu2 ·
2
1 § wu3 · ·
2
§ wu ·
| 'x1 ¨ 1    ¨  ¨ ¸ | 'x ¨ 1  1 ¸
¨ wx1 2 ¨© wx1 ¸¹ 2 © wx1 ¸¹ 2 © wx1 ¸¹ ¸ wx1 ¹
© ¹ ©
Linear Nonlinear Ignore H.O.T. when displacement
gradients are small
• Linear normal strain
PcQc  PQ wu1
H11
PQ wx1
wu2 wu3
H22 , H33
wx2 wx3 
 Deformation Field
• Shear strain Jxy
– change in angle between two lines originally parallel to x– and y–
axes Qc Q Rc
x2  x2 wu2 R
x1  x1 wu1
T1 T2
'x1 wx1 'x2 wx2
wu1 wu2
J12 T1  T2 
wx2 wx1
wu2 wu3
J23  Engineering shear strain
wx3 wx2
wu3 wu1
J13  Different notations
wx1 wx3
1 § wu1 wu2 · 1 § wui wuj ·
H12 
2 ¨© wx2 wx1 ¸¹
Hij ¨  ¸¸
2 ¨© wxj wxi ¹
1 § wu2 wu3 ·
H23 
2 ¨© wx3 wx2 ¸¹ Hij 1 (u  uj,i )
2 i,j
1 § wu3 wu1 ·
H13 
2 ¨© wx1 wx3 ¸¹ H sym(’u) 

Strain Tensor
• Strain Tensor
H Hijei … ej
ª H11 H12 H13 º
• Cartesian Components [Hij ]
«H H22 H23 »»
« 12
«¬ H13 H23 H33 »¼
• Vector notation
­ H11 ½ ­ H11 ½
°H ° °H °
° 22 ° ° 22 °
° H33 ° ° H33 °
{H} ® ¾ ® ¾
2H
° 12 ° J
° 12 °
° 2H23 ° ° J23 °
° ° ° °
2H
¯ 13 ¿ J
¯ 13 ¿


 Volumetric and Deviatoric Strain
• Volumetric strain (from small strain assumption)
V  V0
HV (1  H11 )(1  H22 )(1  H33 )  1 | H11  H22  H33
V0
HV H11  H22  H33 Hkk

• Deviatoric strain x3

e H  31 HV 1 eij Hij  31 HV Gij F22

F33
e Idev : H 1
x2 1
1
F11 x1

Exercise: Write Idev in matrix-vector notation



Stress-Strain Relationship
• Applied Load shape change (strain) stress
• There must be a relation between stress and strain
• Linear Elasticity: Simplest and most commonly used

V
8OWLPDWH
)UDFWXUH
VWUHVV
<LHOGVWUHVV

3URSRUWLRQDO
OLPLW <RXQJ¶V
PRGXOXV

H
6WUDLQ 1HFNLQJ
KDUGHQLQJ


 Generalized Hooke’s Law
• Linear elastic material V D : H, Vij DijklHkl
– In general, Dijkl has 81 components
– Due to symmetry in Vij, Dijkl = Djikl
– Due to symmetry in Hkl, Dijkl = Dijlk 21 independent coeff
– from definition of strain energy, Dijkl = Dklij
• Isotropic material (no directional dependence)
– Most general 4-th order isotropic tensor

Dijkl OGijGkl  PGik G jl  PGilG jk

OGijGkl  P(Gik G jl  GilG jk ) D O1 … 1  2PI

– Have only two independent coefficients

(Lame’s constants: O and P)



Generalized Hooke’s Law cont.

• Stress-strain relation
Vij DijklHkl [OGijGkl  P( Gik G jl  GilG jk )]Hkl OHkk Gij  2PHij

– Volumetric strain: Hkk H11  H22  H33 Hv

– Off-diagonal part: V12 2PH12 PJ12 P is the shear modulus

– Bulk modulus K: relation b/w volumetric stress & strain

I1 3Vm V jj OHkk G jj  2PH jj (3O  2P)Hkk

p Vm (O  23 P)Hkk KHv
Bulk modulus
– Substitute O K 2 P so that we can separate volumetric part
3

• Total deform. = volumetric + deviatoric deform.


 Generalized Hooke’s Law cont.
• Stress-strain relation cont.
Vij (K  23 P)Hkk Gij  2PHij
KHkk Gij  2PHij  23 PHkk Gij
KGijGklHkl  2P[Gik G jl  31 GijGkl ]Hkl
ª KGijGkl  2P(Idev )ijkl º Hkl
¬ ¼

Ÿ ª¬ K1 … 1  2PIdev º¼ : 
Deviatoric part
e Idev : H
Volumetric part Deviatoric strain
Ÿ KHv 1  2Pe s Idev : V
 Vm 1  s Deviatoric stress

Important for plasticity; plastic deformation only occurs in deviatoric part

volumetric part is always elastic


Generalized Hooke’s Law cont.

• Vector notation
– The tensor notation is not convenient for computer implementation
– Thus, we use Voigt notation 2nd-order tensor º vector
4th-order tensor º matrix
– Strain (6×1 vector), Stress (6×1 vector), and C (6×6 matrix)

ª H11 º ª u1,1 º ª V11 º

«H » « » «V »
« u2,2 »
« 22 » « 22 »
« H33 » « u » « V33 »
3,3
H « » « » V « » DH
« 2H12 » « u1,2  u2,1 » « V12 »
« 2H23 » « » « V23 »
« u2,3  u3,2 »
« » « »
¬ 2H13 ¼ «u u »
¬ 1,3 3,1 ¼ ¬ V13 ¼

H12 + H21 = 2H12 You don’t need 2 here


 3D Solid Element cont.
• Elasticity matrix ­1 ½
ª 2 1 1 0 0 0º
« 31 23 3
»
°1 ° «3 3 3
1
D K1 … 1  2PIdev ° °
0 0 0»
« 1  1 2 0 0 0»
°1 ° « 3 3 3 »
1 ® ¾ Idev
« 0 1 0 0»
°0 ° «
0 0 2 »
• Relation b/w °0 ° « 0 0 0 0 21 0 »
Lame’s constants ° ° « »
¯0 ¿ 0 0 21 ¼
¬ 0 0 0
and Young’s modulus
and Poisson’s ratio ª O  2P O O 0 0 0º
« O O  2P O 0 0 0 »»
O P(3O  2P) «
Q , E
2(O  P) OP « O O O  2P 0 0 0»
D « »
EQ E « 0 0 0 P 0 0»
O , P
(1  Q)(1  2Q) 2(1  Q) « 0 0 0 0 P 0»
« »
¬ 0 0 0 0 0 P¼

Textbook has a definition of D in terms of E and Q



Plane Stress
• Thin plate–like components parallel to the xy–plane
• The plate is subjected to forces in its in-plane only
• V13 = V23 = V33 = 0

­ V11 ½ ª1 Q 0 º ­ H11 ½
° ° «
E »° °
{V} ® V22 ¾ 2 «
Q 1 0 » ® H22 ¾
° ° 1Q « 1 (1  Q) » ° J °
¯ V12 ¿ ¬0 0 2 ¼ ¯ 12 ¿

• H13 = H23 = 0, but H33  0

• H33 can be calculated from the condition of V33 = 0:

Q
H33  (H  H22 )
1  Q 11

 Plane Strain
• Strains with a z subscript are all zero: H13 = H23 = H33 = 0
• Deformation in the z–direction is constrained, (i.e., u3 = 0)
• can be used if the structure is infinitely long in the z–
direction

­ V11 ½ ª1  Q Q 0 º ­ H11 ½
° ° E « »° °
{V} ® V22 ¾ « Q 1Q 0 » ® H22 ¾
°V ° (1  Q)(1  2Q) 1  Q»°J °
¯ 12 ¿ «¬ 0 0 ¼ ¯ 12 ¿
2

• V13 = V23 = 0, but V33  0

• V33 can be calculated from the condition of H33 = 0:
EQ
V33  H  H22 
(1  Q)(1  2Q) 11


1.4

MECHANICS OF
CONTINUOUS BODIES


 Governing Equations for Equilibrium
• Governing differential equations for structural equilibrium
– Three laws of mechanics: conservation of mass, conservation of
linear momentum and conservation of angular momentum
• Boundary-valued problem: satisfied at every point in :
– Governing D.E. + Boundary conditions
– Solutions: C2–continuous for truss & solid, C4–continuous for beam
– Unnecessarily requirements for higher-order continuity
• Energy-based method
– For conservative system, structural equilibrium when the potential
energy has its minimum: Principle of minimum potential energy
– If the solution of BVP exists, then that solution is the minimizing
solution of the potential energy
– When no solution exists in BVP, PMPE may have a natural solution
• Principle of virtual work
– Equilibrium of the work done by both internal and external forces
with small arbitrary virtual displacements


Balance of Linear Momentum

• Balance of linear momentum

³³: fb d :  ³ t n d *
* ³³: Ua d: fb: body force
tn: surface traction
IRUVWDWLFSUREOHP
• Stress tensor (rank 2):
ª V11 V12 V13 º
V Vijei … ej ª Vij º «V V22 V23 »»
¬ ¼ « 21
«¬ V31 V32 V33 »¼ *
• Surface traction
:
X
t n
n˜V
• Cauchy’s Lemma X3
tn  t n e3
n
e1 X2
e2
tn n˜V t n n ˜ V X1 tn


 Balance of Linear Momentum cont
• Balance of linear momentum

³³: (f  Ua) d:  ³ n ˜ V d*  ³³ ’ ˜ V d:
b
* :

Divergence Theorem
³³: [’ ˜ V  (f  Ua)] d:
b
0

’ ˜ V  ( fb  Ua) 0
– For a static problem

’ ˜ V  fb 0 Vij,i  fjb 0

• Balance of angular momentum

³³: x u f d:  ³ x u t n d* ³³: Ux u a d:
b
*

V VT Vij V ji


Boundary-Valued Problem
• We want to determine the state of a body in equilibrium
• The equilibrium state (solution) of the body must satisfy
– local momentum balance equation
– boundary conditions
*
• Strong form of BVP
:
X
– Given body force and traction t f b,
on the boundary, find u such that fb
X3
’˜V  f b
0 (1)
e3
and e1 n
e2 X2
u 0 on *h essential BC (2) X1 t
t n˜V on * s
natural BC (3)

• Solution space
DA ^
u  [C2 (:)]3 | u 0 on x  *h , V ˜ n t on x  * s ` 
 Boundary-Valued Problem cont.
• How to solve BVP
– To solve the strong form, we want to construct trial solutions that
automatically satisfy a part of BVP and find the solution that
satisfy remaining conditions.
– Statically admissible stress field: satisfy (1) and (3)
– Kinematically admissible displacement field: satisfy (2) and have
piecewise continuous first partial derivative
– Admissible stress field is difficult to construct. Thus, admissible
displacement field is used often



Principle of Minimum Potential Energy (PMPE)

• Deformable bodies generate internal forces by
deformation against externally applied forces
• Equilibrium: balance between internal and external forces
• For elastic materials, the concept of force equilibrium can
be extended to energy balance
• Strain energy: stored energy due to deformation
(corresponding to internal force)
1
2 ³³:
U( u) { V( u) : H( u) d: V( u) D : H( u)
/LQHDUHODVWLFPDWHULDO

• For elastic material, U(u) is only a function of total

displacement u (independent of path)

 PMPE cont.
• Work done by applied loads (conservative loads)

³³: u ˜ f d:  ³ s u ˜ t d*.
b
W( u)
*

• U(u) is a quadratic function of u, while W(u) is a linear

function of u. *Ő
Ƶϯ
Ĩď
Ƶϭ ƵϮ
džϯ *Ś
:
ĨƐ
• Potential energy
džϮ

3( u) U( u)  W( u) džϭ

1
³³
2 :
V( u) : H( u) d:  ³³ u ˜ fb d:  ³ s u ˜ t d*.
: *



PMPE cont.
• PMPE: for all displacements that satisfy the boundary
conditions, known as kinematically admissible
displacements, those which satisfy the boundary-valued
problem make the total potential energy stationary on DA
• But, the potential energy is well defined in the space of
kinematically admissible displacements
' ^ u  [H1 (:)]3 | u 0 on x  *h , `
H1: first-order derivatives are integrable

• No need to satisfy traction BC (it is a part of potential)

• Less requirement on continuity
• The solution is called a generalized (natural) solution

 Example – Uniaxial Bar
• Strong form
EAucc 0 x  [0, L] [ )
u 0 x 0
/
EAuc(L) F x L
• Integrate twice: EAu(x) c1x  c2
Fx
• Apply two BCs: u(x) Solution of BVP
EA
• PMPE with assumed solution u(x) = c1x + c2
• To satisfy KAD space, u(0) = 0, Æ u(x) = c1x
• Potential energy: U 1 L EA(uc)2 dx EALc2
2 ³0 1

W Fu(L) FLc1
d3 d F Fx
(U  W) EALc1  FL 0 c1 Ÿ u(x)
dc1 dc1 EA EA


Virtual Displacement
• Virtual displacement is not experienced but only assumed to exist so
that various possible equilibrium positions may be compared to
determine the correct one
• Let mass m and springs are in equilibrium at the current position
• Then, a small arbitrary perturbation, Gr, can be assumed
– Since Gr is so small, the member forces are assumed unchanged
• The work done by virtual displacement is

GW F1 ˜ Gr  F2 ˜ Gr  F3 ˜ Gr  F4 ˜ Gr (F1  F2  F3  F4 ) ˜ Gr
• If the current position is in force equilibrium, GW = 0

) )

GU

) )

 Virtual Displacement Field
• Virtual displacement (Space ')
– Small arbitrary perturbation (variation) of real displacement
1 d
Gu lim [( u  WK)  ( u)] ( u  WK) K { u.
Wo 0 W dW W 0
– Let  be the virtual displacement, then u +  must be kinematically
admissible, too
– Then,  must satisfy homogeneous displacement BC

u 6 u  Wu  # Ÿ u '
' ^ u u  [H1 (:)]3, u *h
0 `
– Space ' only includes homogeneous
essential BCs In the literature, Gu is often used instead of 

• Property of variation
§ du · d(Gu)
G¨ ¸
© dx ¹ dx 

PMPE As a Variation
• Necessary condition for minimum PE
– Stationary condition <--> first variation = 0
1 d
G3( u; u ) lim [3( u  Wu )  3( u)] 3( u  Wu ) 0
Wo 0 W dW W 0
for all u  '
• Variation of strain energy
§ wu · d § wu  Wu · wu
G¨ ¸
© wx ¹ dW ¨© wx ¸¹ W 0 wx
GH( u) H( u ) H GV D:H

GU( u; u ) 1
2 ³³: ª¬ H( u ) : D : H( u)  H( u) : D : H( u ) º¼ d:
³³: H( u ) : D : H( u) d:
{ a( u, u ) Energy bilinear form

 PMPE As a Variation cont.
• Variation of work done by applied loads

GW( u; u ) ³³: u ˜ f d:  ³* u ˜ t d* { A( u ) Load linear form

b
s

G3( u; u ) GU( u; u )  GW( u; u ) 0

• Thus, PMPE becomes
a( u, u ) A( u ), u  '

– Load form A( u ) is linear with respect to 

– Energy form a(u, ) is symmetric, bilinear w.r.t. u and 
– Different problems have different a(u, ) and A( u ), but they share
the same property
• How can we satisfy “for all  ‰ '” requirement?
Can we test an infinite number of ?


Example – Uniaxial Bar

• Assumed displacement u(x) = cx Æ
– virtual displacement is in the same space with u(x): u(x) cx
• Variation of strain energy
d ª1 L 2 º 1 L
dW «¬ 2 ³0 2 ³0
GU EA ª
¬ (u  Wu)c º
¼ dx » 2EA(u  Wu)cuc dx
¼W 0 W 0
L
³0 EAucuc dx EALcc

• Variation of applied load

d
GW ª F ª u(L)  Wu(L) º¼ º¼ W Fu(L) FLc
dW ¬ ¬ 0

• PMPE
Fx
G3 GU  GW c(EALc  FL) 0 u(x) cx
EA

 Principle of Virtual Work
• Instead of solving the strong form directly, we want to
solve the equation with relaxed requirement (weak form)
• Virtual work – Work resulting from real forces acting
through a virtual displacement
• Principle of virtual work – when a system is in equilibrium,
the forces applied to the system will not produce any
virtual work for arbitrary virtual displacements
– Balance of linear momentum is force equilibrium ’ ˜ V  Ufb 0
– Thus, the virtual work can be obtained by multiplying the force
equilibrium equation with a virtual displacement

W ³³: ( ’ ˜ V  fb ) ˜ u d :

– If the above virtual work becomes zero for arbitrary , then it

satisfies the original equilibrium equation in a weak sense


Principle of Virtual Work cont

• PVW
³³: (Vij,i  fj )uj d: u  '
b
0

³³: Vij,iuj d:  ³³ fjbuj d:

:

– Integration-by-parts

³³: ª¬ (Vijuj ),i  Vijuj,i º¼ d:  ³³: fj uj d:

b

– Divergence Thm

³* niVijuj d*  ³³: Vijuj,i d:  ³³: fj uj d:

b

– The boundary is decomposed by * *h ‰ * s

uj 0 on *h and niVij tj on * s

³* S
tjuj d*  ³³ Vijuj,i d:  ³³ fjbuj d:
: :


 Principle of Virtual Work cont
• Since Vij is symmetric
1 § wui wuj ·
Vijuj,i Vijsym(uj,i ) Vij Hij sym(ui,j ) ¨  ¸¸ Hij
2 ¨© wXj wXi ¹
• Weak Form of BVP

³³: Vij Hij d: ³³: fj uj d:  ³* tjuj d* u  '

b
s

Internal virtual work = external virtual work

Starting point of FEM
• Symbolic expression

a( u, u ) A( u ) u  ' [K]{ d} {F}

FE equation
– Energy form: a( u, u ) ³³: V : H d:
– Load form: A( u )
³³: Uu ˜ f d:  ³ s u ˜ t d*
b
* 

Example – Heat Transfer Problem

• Steady-State Differential Equation
d сd
w § wT ·  w § k wT ·
¨k
wx © x wx
¸
¹ wy ¨© wy
y ¸Q 0 ĚŽŵĂŝŶ ^d
¹

• Boundary conditions ƋŶ ^Ƌ Y

­T T0 on ST
°
® dT dT Ŷс΂Ŷdž͕ŶLJ`d
° qn nxkx  nyky on Sq
¯ dx dy
• Space of kinematically admissible temperature
' ^ T  H1 (:) T( x) 0, x  ST `
• Multiply by virtual temperature, integrate by part, and
apply boundary conditions
§ wT wT wT wT ·
³: ¨© kx wx wx  ky wy wy ¸ d:
¹
³: TQ d:  ³S Tqn dSq,q
T  '

 Example – Beam Problem
• Governing DE I[

d4 v
EI f(x), x  [0, L] [ L
d x4

• Boundary conditions for cantilevered beam

dv d2 v d3 v
v(0) (0) 2
(L) 3
(L) 0
dx dx dx

• Space of kinematically admissible displacement

­ dv ½
' ® v  H [0, L] v(0)
2
(0) 0¾
¯ dx ¿

• Integrate-by-part twice, and apply BCs

L d2v d2v L
³0 EI 2
dx dx2
dx ³0 fv dx, v  '


Difference b/w Strong and Weak Solutions

• The solution of the strong form needs to be twice
differentiable w §¨ k wT ·¸  w § k wT ·  Q 0
wx © x
wx ¹ wy ©¨ y
wy ¹¸
• The solution of the weak form requires the first-order
derivatives are integrable º bigger solution space than
that of the strong form § k wT wT  k wT wT · d:
³: ¨© x
wx wx y
wy wy ¸¹
• If the strong form has a solution, it is the solution of the
weak form
• If the strong form does not have a solution, the weak
form may have a natural solution


 1.5

FINITE ELEMENT METHOD



Finite Element Approximation

• Difficult to solve a variational equation analytically
• Approximate solution n
– Linear combination of trial functions u(x) ¦ ciIi (x)
– Smoothness & accuracy depend on i 1
the choice of trial functions
– If the approximate solution is expressed in the entire domain, it is
difficult to satisfy kinematically admissible conditions
• Finite element approximation
– Approximate solution in simple sub-domains (elements)
– Simple trial functions (low-order polynomials) within an element
– Kinematically admissible conditions only for elements on the
boundary ux
1RGHV $SSUR[LPDWH
VROXWLRQ
3LHFHZLVH
x
OLQHDU
DSSUR[LPDWLRQ
)LQLWHHOHPHQWV
([DFWVROXWLRQ 
 Finite Elements
• Types of finite elements
1D 2D 3D

Linear

Quadratic

• Variational equation is imposed on each element.

1 0.1 0.2 1
³0 dx ³0 dx  ³
0.1
dx  "  ³
0.9
dx

2QHHOHPHQW


Trial Solution
– Solution within an element is approximated using simple polynomials.
   n n
   n n n

xi xi
Ai
– i-th element is composed of two nodes: xi and xi+1. Since two
unknowns are involved, linear polynomial can be used:

u(x) a0  a1x, xi d x d xi1

– The unknown coefficients, a0 and a1, will be expressed in terms of
nodal solutions u(xi) and u(xi+1).


 Trial Solution cont.
– Substitute two nodal values
­ u(xi ) ui a0  a1xi
®
¯ u(xi1 ) ui1 a0  a1xi1
– Express a0 and a1 in terms of ui and ui+1. Then, the solution is
approximated by

xi1  x x  xi
u(x) (e)
ui  (e)
ui1

L 

L


N1 (x) N2 (x)
– Solution for Element e:

u(x) N1 (x)ui  N2 (x)ui1 , xi d x d xi1

– N1(x) and N2(x): Shape Function or Interpolation Function



Trial Solution cont.

• Observations
– Solution u(x) is interpolated using its nodal values ui and ui+1.
– N1(x) = 1 at node xi, and =0 at node xi+1.
Nx Nx

xi xi

– The solution is approximated by piecewise linear polynomial and its

gradient is constant within an element.
u ui du
ui dx
ui

xi xi xi xi xi xi

– Stress and strain (derivative) are often averaged at the node.


 1D Finite Elements
2
• 1D BVP d u  p(x) 0, 0 d x d 1
2
dx
u(0) 0 ½
°
du ¾ Boundary conditions
(1) 0 °
dx ¿ Space of kinematically
admissible displacements
1§ ·
d2u
• Use PVW ³0 © dx2 ¹ u dx
¨  p ¸ 0 ' ^ u  H(1) [0,1] u(0) 0 `
• Integration-by-parts
1
du du du
1 1
u ³ dx  ³ pu dx
dx 0
0 dx dx 0

– This variational equation also satisfies at individual element level

xj du du xj
(1)
³x i dx dx
dx ³x i
pu dx u  ]


1D Interpolation Functions
• Finite element approximation for one element (e) at a time

u(e) (x) i 1 (x)  ui1N2 (x)

uN N(e) ˜ d(e)
­ ui ½
d(e) ® ¾ N(e) «¬ N1 N2 »¼
¯ ui1 ¿
u(e) (xi ) ui
• Satisfies interpolation condition
u(e) (xi1 ) ui1
• Interpolation of displacement variation (same with u)
u (e) (x) i 1 (x)  ui1N2 (x)
uN N(e) ˜ d (e)
• Derivative of u(x): differentiating interpolation functions

du(e) « dN1 dN2 » ­ ui ½ « 1 1 » ­ ui ½

« dx ® ¾
dx »¼ ¯ ui1 ¿ «  (e) »® ¾ B(e) ˜ d(e)
dx ¬ ¬ L L(e) ¼ ¯ ui1 ¿

 Element-Level Variational Equation
• Approximate variational equation (1) for element (e)
­ du ½
°  (xi ) °
d (e)T ª ³ B(e)T B(e) dx º d(e)
xj xj
³
d (e)T N(e)T p(x) dx  d (e)T ® dx ¾
«¬ xi »¼
°  du (x ) °
xi

¯ dx i1 ¿
– Must satisfied for all u (e) (x)  '
– If element (e) is not on the boundary, d (e) can be arbitrary

• Element-level variational equation

­ du ½
ª xj B(e)T B(e) dx º d(e) xj (e)T °  dx (xi ) °
«¬ ³xi »¼ ³xi N p(x) dx  ® du ¾
° (x ) °
¯ dx i1 ¿
2x2 matrix 2x1 vector
­ du ½
°  (x ) °
^ f(e) `
i
[k (e) ]{ d(e) }  ® dx ¾
°  du (x ) °
¯ dx i1 ¿


Assembly
• Need to derive the element-level equation for all elements
• Consider Elements 1 and 2 (connected at Node 2)
­ du ½
°  dx (x1 ) °
(1) (1)
ª k11 k12 º ­ u1 ½ ­ f1 ½
« » ® ¾ ® ¾ ® ¾
k k
¬ 21 22 ¼ ¯ u2 ¿ ¯ f2 ¿ ° du
(x ) °
¯ dx 2 ¿
­ du ½
°  dx (x2 ) °
(2) (2)
ª k11 k12 º ­ u2 ½ ­ f2 ½
« » ® ¾ ® ¾ ® ¾
¬ k21 k22 ¼ ¯ u3 ¿ ¯ f3 ¿ ° du
(x ) °
¯ dx 3 ¿
• Assembly
Vanished
­ du ½ unknown term
ª k11
(1) (1)
k12 0 º ­ u1 ½ ­ f1(1) ½ ° (x1 ) °
« (1) (1) (2)
»
(2) ° ° °° (1) (2) °
° ° dx °
« 21
k k22  k11 k12 » ® u2 ¾ ® f2  f2 ¾  ® 0 ¾
« (2) (2) » ° u ° ° (2) ° ° du °
¬« 0 k21 k22 ¼» ¯ 3 ¿ ¯° f3 °¿ ° (x3 ) °
¯ dx ¿

 Assembly cont.
• Assembly of NE elements (ND = NE + 1)
ª (1) º ­ du ½
« 11
k k (1)
0 ! 0 » ­ u1 ½ ­ f1(1) ½ ° (x1 ) °
° ° dx
12
« (1) » ° (1) °
(1)
« k21 k22  k11
(2) (2)
k12 " 0 » °° u2 °° (2)
° f2  f2 ° ° 0 °
« 0 ° ° ° (2) (3) ° ° °
(2)
k221 (2)
k22 (2)
 k11 " 0 » ® u3 ¾ ® f3  f3 ¾ ® 0 ¾
« »° ° ° ° ° °
« # # # % # »° # ° # #
° ° ° °
«  NE  (NE ) » ° u ° ° f(NE ) ° ° du °
« 0 0 0 k21 k22 » N u1
¯ N¿ ¯ N ¿ ° (xN ) °
¬ ¼ D   ND u1  ¯ dx ¿
 D D
N u N  ND u1 

[K]{ d } {F}
• Coefficient matrix [K] is singular; it will become non-
singular after applying boundary conditions



Example
• Use three equal-length elements
d2u
2
 x 0, 0 d x d 1 u(0) 0, u(1) 0
dx
• All elements have the same coefficient matrix
1 ª 1 1 º ª 3 3 º
ª k (e) º
¬ ¼2u2 L(e) « 1 1 » « 3 3 » , (e 1,2,3)
¬ ¼ ¬ ¼
• RHS (p(x) = x)
xi1 ­ N1 (x) ½ 1 xi1 ­ x(xi1  x) ½
{ f(e) } ³xi p(x) ®
N
¯ 2 (x)
¾
¿
dx
L(e) ³xi ® x(x  x ) ¾
¯ i ¿
dx

­ xi xi1 ½
°  6 °°
(e) ° 3
L ® ¾ , (e 1,2,3)
x x
° i  i1 °
°¯ 6 3 °¿


 Example cont.
°­ f1 °½ °­ f2 °½ °­ f3 °½
(1) (2) (3)
• RHS cont. 1 ­1 ½ 1 ­4½ 1 ­7 ½
® (1) ¾ ® ¾, ® (2) ¾ ® ¾, ® (3) ¾ ® ¾
¯° f2 ¿° 54 ¯ 2 ¿ ¯° f3 ¿° 54 ¯ 5 ¿ ¯° f4 ¿° 54 ¯ 8 ¿

• Assembly
£  du ¦
¦ ²
¦
¦   ¦¦
¦  dx ¦ (OHPHQW
     ¦
 ¯ ¦£ u ¦² ¦  ¦
¦
¡ ¦
°¦ ¦ ¦ ¦  ¦ (OHPHQW
¡        ° ¦¦ u ¦¦ ¦¦  ¦
¦
¦   (OHPHQW
¡ °¤ »  ¤ »¦
¡     ° ¦ u ¦ ¦   ¦
¡ °¦¦ ¦
¦ ¦
¦  ¦
¦
¡¢    °
 ±¦¦ ¦
¦ ¦
¦   ¦¦
¥ ¼ ¦
u
¦
¦  du ¦ ¦
¦   ¦
• Apply boundary conditions ¦  dx ¦
¥ ¦
¼
– Deleting 1st and 4th rows and columns
4
ª 6 3 º ­ u2 ½ 1 ­1 ½ u2 81
« 3 6 » ® u ¾ ® ¾
9 ¯2 ¿ 5
¬ ¼¯ 3¿ u3 81



EXAMPLE cont.
• Approximate solution
­ 4 1
° x, 0dxd 

° 27 3 XDSSUR[
XH[DFW

°4 1 § 1· 1 2 

u(x) ®  ¨ x  ¸, dxd
° 81 27 © 3 ¹ 3 3
X[



°5 5 § 2· 2 

°  ¨ x  ¸, dxd1
¯ 81 27 © 3 ¹ 3 
     
[

• Exact solution

u(x)
1
6

x 1  x2 
– Three element solutions are poor
– Need more elements


 3D Solid Element
• Isoparametric mapping
– Build interpolation functions on the reference element
– Jacobian: mapping relation between physical and reference elem.
• Interpolation and mapping
8 8
Same for mapping
u([) ¦ NI ([)uI x( [ ) ¦ NI ([)xI and interpolation
I 1 I 1
1
NI ([) (1  [[I )(1  KKI )(1  ]] I )
8
]
džϴ džϳ ;ʹϭ͕ʹϭ͕ϭͿ ;ʹϭ͕ϭ͕ϭͿ

džϱ ;ϭ͕ʹϭ͕ϭͿ
;ϭ͕ϭ͕ϭͿ
džϲ K
džϰ džϯ ;ʹϭ͕ϭ͕ʹϭͿ
džϭ ;ϭ͕ʹϭ͕ʹϭͿ
džϯ
;ϭ͕ϭ͕ʹϭͿ
džϮ [
džϮ
džϭ ;ĂͿ&ŝŶŝƚĞůĞŵĞŶƚ ;ďͿZĞĨĞƌĞŶĐĞůĞŵĞŶƚ


3D Solid Element cont.

• Jacobian matrix
8
wx wNI ([) J : Jacobian
J3u3 ¦ x
w[ I 1 I w[
ª wx1 wx1 wx1 º
• Derivatives of shape functions « w[ wK w] »
« »
­ wNI wNI wNI ½ ­ wNI wNI wNI ½ « wx2 wx2 wx2 »
® ¾ ® ¾
¯ w[ wK w] ¿ ¯ wx1 wx2 wx3 ¿ « w[ wK w] »
« »
« wx3 wx3 wx3 »
wNI wNI ¬« w[ wK w] ¼»
˜J
w[ wx
wNI wNI
˜ J 1
wx w[
– Jacobian should not be zero anywhere in the element
– Zero or negative Jacobian: mapping is invalid (bad element shape)

 3D Solid Element cont.
• Displacement-strain relation ª NI,1 0 0 º
8 « »
« 0 NI,2 0 »
H( u) ¦ BI uI « 0 0 NI,3 »
I 1 BI « »
8 « I,2
N NI,1 0 »
« »
H H( u ) ¦ BI uI « 0 NI,3 NI,2 »
I 1 «N 0 NI,1 »¼
¬ I,3
wNi
NI,i
wxi



3D Solid Element cont.

• Transformation of integration domain
1 1 1
³³³: d: ³1 ³1 ³1 J d[dKd]
• Energy form
8 8
a( u, u ) ¦ ¦ I «¬ ³1 ³1 ³1 BI DBJ J d[dKd] º»¼ uJ { {d }T [k]{d}
u T ª 1 1 1 T

I 1J 1

• Load form
8
1 1 1
A( u ) ¦ uIT ³ ³ ³
1 1 1
NI ([)fb J d[dKd] { d }T { f }
I 1

• Discrete variational equation

{ d }T [k]{ d } { d }T { f },  { d }  'h


 Numerical Integration
• For bar and beam, analytical integration is possible
• For plate and solid, analytical integration is difficult, if
not impossible
• Gauss quadrature is most popular in FEM due to simplicity
and accuracy
• 1D Gauss quadrature
NG
1
³1 f([) d[ | ¦
i 1
Zif( [i )

– NG: No. of integ. points; [i: integ. point; Zi: integ. weight
– [i and Zi are chosen so that the integration is exact
for (2*NG – 1)-order polynomial
– Works well for smooth function
– Integration domain is [-1, 1]


Numerical Integration cont.

• Multi-dimensions
NG NG
1 1
³1 ³1 f([, K) d[dK ¦ ¦ ZiZjf([i, Kj )
i 1 j 1
NG NG NG
1 1 1
³1 ³1 ³1 f([, K, ]) d[dKd] ¦ ¦ ¦ ZiZjZk f([i, Kj, ]k )
i 1 j 1k 1
K
,QWHJUDWLRQ
NG :HLJKWVZi
3RLQWV[i
  
 r  [
r 
 K ;ĂͿϭuϭ K
 
r 

r 
r  [ [
 r 
  ;ďͿϮuϮ ;ĐͿϯuϯ

 ELAST3D.m
• A module to solve linear elastic problem using NLFEA.m

• Input variables for ELAST3D.m

9DULDEOH $UUD\VL]H 0HDQLQJ
(7$1  (ODVWLFVWLIIQHVVPDWUL[(T
83'$7( /RJLFDOYDULDEOH ,IWUXHVDYHVWUHVVYDOXHV
/7$1 /RJLFDOYDULDEOH ,IWUXHFDOFXODWHWKHJOREDOVWLIIQHVVPDWUL[
1( ,QWHJHU 7RWDOQXPEHURIHOHPHQWV
1'2) ,QWHJHU 'LPHQVLRQRISUREOHP
;<= 112'( &RRUGLQDWHVRIDOOQRGHV
/( 1( (OHPHQWFRQQHFWLYLW\



How to Solve Linear Problem in Nonlinear Code

• Linear matrix solver
[K]{ d} {F} {fint} = {fext} {f} = {fext}  {fint} = {0}
– Construct stiffness matrix and force vector
– Use LU decomposition to solve for unknown displacement {d}
• Nonlinear solver (iterative solver)
– Assume the solution at iteration n is known, and n+1 is unknown

{ dn 1 } { dn }  { 'd} For linear problem, {dn} = {0}

ª wf º
{ fn 1 } { fn }  « » { 'd} | { 0 }
¬ wd ¼
{F }  [K]{ dn }  [K]{ 'd} 0

[K]{ 'd} {F} Only one iteration!!


function ELAST3D(ETAN, UPDATE, LTAN, NE, NDOF, XYZ, LE)
%***********************************************************************
% MAIN PROGRAM COMPUTING GLOBAL STIFFNESS MATRIX AND RESIDUAL FORCE FOR
% ELASTIC MATERIAL MODELS
%***********************************************************************
%%
global DISPTD FORCE GKF SIGMA
%
% Integration points and weights (2-point integration)
XG=[-0.57735026918963D0, 0.57735026918963D0];
WGT=[1.00000000000000D0, 1.00000000000000D0];
%
% Index for history variables (each integration pt)
INTN=0;
%
%LOOP OVER ELEMENTS, THIS IS MAIN LOOP TO COMPUTE K AND F
for IE=1:NE
% Nodal coordinates and incremental displacements
ELXY=XYZ(LE(IE,:),:);
% Local to global mapping
IDOF=zeros(1,24);
for I=1:8
II=(I-1)*NDOF+1;
IDOF(II:II+2)=(LE(IE,I)-1)*NDOF+1:(LE(IE,I)-1)*NDOF+3;
end
DSP=DISPTD(IDOF);
DSP=reshape(DSP,NDOF,8);
%
%LOOP OVER INTEGRATION POINTS
for LX=1:2, for LY=1:2, for LZ=1:2
E1=XG(LX); E2=XG(LY); E3=XG(LZ);
INTN = INTN + 1;
%
% Determinant and shape function derivatives
[~, SHPD, DET] = SHAPEL([E1 E2 E3], ELXY);
FAC=WGT(LX)*WGT(LY)*WGT(LZ)*DET; 

% Strain
DEPS=DSP*SHPD';
DDEPS=[DEPS(1,1) DEPS(2,2) DEPS(3,3) ...
DEPS(1,2)+DEPS(2,1) DEPS(2,3)+DEPS(3,2) DEPS(1,3)+DEPS(3,1)]';
%
% Stress
STRESS = ETAN*DDEPS;
%
% Update stress
if UPDATE
SIGMA(:,INTN)=STRESS;
continue;
end
%
% Add residual force and stiffness matrix
BM=zeros(6,24);
for I=1:8
COL=(I-1)*3+1:(I-1)*3+3;
BM(:,COL)=[SHPD(1,I) 0 0;
0 SHPD(2,I) 0;
0 0 SHPD(3,I);
SHPD(2,I) SHPD(1,I) 0;
0 SHPD(3,I) SHPD(2,I);
SHPD(3,I) 0 SHPD(1,I)];
end
%
% Residual forces
FORCE(IDOF) = FORCE(IDOF) - FAC*BM'*STRESS;
%
% Tangent stiffness
if LTAN
EKF = BM'*ETAN*BM;
GKF(IDOF,IDOF)=GKF(IDOF,IDOF)+FAC*EKF;
end
end, end, end, end
end 
 function [SF, GDSF, DET] = SHAPEL(XI, ELXY)
%*************************************************************************
% Compute shape function, derivatives, and determinant of hexahedral
element
%*************************************************************************
%%
XNODE=[-1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1;
-1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1;
-1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1];
QUAR = 0.125; 6)qVKDSHIXQFWLRQV
SF=zeros(8,1);
DSF=zeros(3,8);
for I=1:8
*'6)qVKDSHIXQFWLRQVGHULYDWLYHV
XP = XNODE(1,I);
YP = XNODE(2,I);
ZP = XNODE(3,I);
'(7-DFRELDQRIWKHPDSSLQJ
%
XI0 = [1+XI(1)*XP 1+XI(2)*YP 1+XI(3)*ZP];
%
SF(I) = QUAR*XI0(1)*XI0(2)*XI0(3);
DSF(1,I) = QUAR*XP*XI0(2)*XI0(3);
DSF(2,I) = QUAR*YP*XI0(1)*XI0(3);
DSF(3,I) = QUAR*ZP*XI0(1)*XI0(2);
end
GJ = DSF*ELXY;
DET = det(GJ);
GJINV=inv(GJ);
GDSF=GJINV*DSF;
end



One Element Tension Example

x
%
% One element example N1 N1
%
% Nodal coordinates N1  N1
XYZ=[0 0 0;1 0 0;1 1 0;0 1 0;0 0 1;1 0 1;1 1 1;0 1 1]; 
%
% Element connectivity
LE=[1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8];
 
%
% External forces [Node, DOF, Value]
EXTFORCE=[5 3 10.0E3; 6 3 10.0E3; 7 3 10.0E3; 8 3 10.0E3];
 x
% 
% Prescribed displacements [Node, DOF, Value]
SDISPT=[1 1 0;1 2 0;1 3 0;2 2 0;2 3 0;3 3 0;4 1 0;4 3 0];
% 
% Material properties x 
% MID:0(Linear elastic) PROP=[LAMBDA NU]
MID=0;
PROP=[110.747E3 80.1938E3];
%
% Load increments [Start End Increment InitialFactor FinalFactor]
TIMS=[0.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0]';
%
% Set program parameters
ITRA=30; ATOL=1.0E5; NTOL=6; TOL=1E-6;
%
% Calling main function
NOUT = fopen('output.txt','w');
NLFEA(ITRA, TOL, ATOL, NTOL, TIMS, NOUT, MID, PROP, EXTFORCE, SDISPT, XYZ, LE);
fclose(NOUT); 
 One Element Output
Command line output
Time Time step Iter Residual
1.00000 1.000e+00 2 5.45697e-12

Contents in output.txt
TIME = 1.000e+00

Nodal Displacements

Node U1 U2 U3
1 0.000e+00 0.000e+00 0.000e+00
2 -5.607e-08 0.000e+00 0.000e+00
3 -5.607e-08 -5.607e-08 0.000e+00
4 0.000e+00 -5.607e-08 0.000e+00
5 -5.494e-23 1.830e-23 1.933e-07
6 -5.607e-08 4.061e-23 1.933e-07
7 -5.607e-08 -5.607e-08 1.933e-07
8 -8.032e-23 -5.607e-08 1.933e-07

Element Stress

S11 S22 S33 S12 S23 S13

Element 1
0.000e+00 1.091e-11 4.000e+04 -2.322e-13 6.633e-13 -3.317e-12
0.000e+00 0.000e+00 4.000e+04 -3.980e-13 1.327e-13 -9.287e-13
-3.638e-12 7.276e-12 4.000e+04 -1.592e-12 -2.123e-12 -3.317e-12
0.000e+00 0.000e+00 4.000e+04 2.653e-13 -2.123e-12 5.307e-13
0.000e+00 0.000e+00 4.000e+04 5.638e-13 3.449e-12 -1.327e-12
0.000e+00 0.000e+00 4.000e+04 -1.194e-12 4.776e-12 1.061e-12
0.000e+00 0.000e+00 4.000e+04 -7.960e-13 2.919e-12 -3.449e-12
3.638e-12 3.638e-12 4.000e+04 -5.307e-13 3.715e-12 1.061e-12
*** Successful end of program ***