This article was downloaded by: [Nanyang Technological University]

On: 25 April 2015, At: 11:18

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Energy Sources
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ueso19

Waxy Crude Oil Handling in Nigeria: Practices,

Problems, and Prospects
a a
J.A. AJIENKA & C.U. IKOKU
a
Department of Petroleum Engineering , University of Port Harcourt , P.M.B. 5323, Choba,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Published online: 12 Jul 2010.

To cite this article: J.A. AJIENKA & C.U. IKOKU (1990) Waxy Crude Oil Handling in Nigeria: Practices, Problems, and
Prospects, Energy Sources, 12:4, 463-478, DOI: 10.1080/00908319008960219

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00908319008960219

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the
Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for
any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of
the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
 Enrrdy Sowccs. Volume 12.463-478
Rinlcd in the IJK. All ribu msmed.

Waxy Crude Oil Handling in Nigeria: Practices,

Problems, and Prospects

J.A. AJIENKA
C.U.IKOKU
Department of Petroleum Engineering
University of Port Harcourt
P.M.B. 5323
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

Choba, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

Abstract With case studies, the practices, problems, and prospects of handling
waxy crude oils in Nigeria are discussed. Using a rotational viscometer, the tempera-
ture dependence of rheological properties and thirotropy of these crudes were deter-
mined. Suggestions are given on.how to improve hnndling practices. These sugges-
tions include adequate screening and ranking of war inhibitors, taking into account
pour-point depression, viscosi~,and yield value. Rheological studies wouM help in
pipeline design and handling methods. A thorough knowledge of the nature of the
crude oil at the time of discovery would help in the design of well completion and
production facilities to optimize production.

Keywords waxy crudes, handling, rheological properties, temperature dependence.

Introduction
Newberry (1984) distinguished two types of flowline pressure problems: (1) organic de-
position comprising paraffin and asphaltenes and (2) others, namely thixotropic paraffinic
crude oils, turbulent flow transmission, and low-gravity asphaltic-based crude oils. This
paper discusses organic deposition problems. In the early days of the problem, all crudes
with cases of organic deposition were referred to as waxy crudes. The term waxy crude
oil is used very often to embrace both kinds of organic deposition. Generally, these
crudes are difficult to handle because of their high pour points. The pour point is the
temperature below which the oil ceases to flow (pour). The pour point is usually about
10-20°F lower than the cloud point, which is the temperature at which a haze forms in a
clear oil under cooling. For a crude oil, it is the temperature at which paraffin particles
begin to precipitate out of solution. Depending on the flow regime (laminar flow), wax
deposition begins on any surface (called cold spot) whose temperature is below this criti-
cal cloud point and that of the bulk oil.
The problem of waxy crude oil can vary from very minor to extremely severe and
can affect both the production history and economics of production operations. Any de-
position at all constitutes an operational nuisance, and the severity worsens with the age
of the problem.
Of the two kinds of deposition, paraffin deposition is the most widespread and more
easily handled, whereas asphaltene deposition is much more difficult to treat because of
the complex depositional relationship between the crude oil composition, pressure, and
temperature (Hirchberg et al. 1984). Besides, the solubility of asphaltenes in convention-
al organic solvents such as naphtha, xylene, or toluene is low (Tuttle 1983).
 464 J.A. Ajienka and C.U.Ikoku

A great deal of confusion exists in the oil field on how to identify the type of deposit.
Oil wet scale, iron oxides, iron sulphides, clays, drilling mud, and bacteria slimes can
easily be mistaken for paraffin deposits. Reistle (1927) reported that

the deposits of crude wax or paraffin that accumulate in flowlines . . . consist

of very small wax crystals that tend to agglomerate and form granular parti-
cles of wax about the size of the grains of table salt. Deposited paraffin also
contains gums, resins, asphaltic material, crude oil, sand, salt and in many
instances water, in addition to wax crystals. The deposit varies in consistency
from a mushy liquid to a firm hard wax, depending primarily upon the
amount of oil present.
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

In the same year Brewster noted that the so-called paraffin deposits consist of amor-
phous wax or uncracked paraffin asphalt or other gummy hydrocarbons mixed with more
or less water, oil, and inorganic silt. The inorganic silt is mostly fine sand, clay minerals,
common salt, and finely disseminated precipitates of calcium and magnesium carbonates.
Sulphates of calcium, barium, and strontium are less common constituents of a paraffin
deposit.
Tuttle (1983) made a clearer distinction among organic deposits. He reported that
paraffin deposits usually consist of straight and branched chain hydrocarbons (usually
ranging from C,,H,, to about C d , , ) mixed with other organic and inorganic materials.
The paraffin wax content was reported to be as high as 50% (Altamont, UT) and as low
as 1% (South Louisiana). Paraffin wax in the Altamont crude has an unusually high
carbon number (40 to 60). On the nature of asphaltenes, Tuttle reported that they are
comprised of condensed aromatic and naphthenic rings with few side chains, having mo-
lecular weights ranging from several hundred to several thousand grams per mole
(100- 140,000). These contain significant numbers of heteroatoms-nitrogen, sulphur,
and oxygen. The asphaltic materials are generally thought to be colloidally dispersed
rather than in solution.
Newbeny (1982) presented a simple method of identifying any fouling material in
producing systems based on its solubility characteristics in hot xylene. If the deposit
dissolves in hot xylene, then it is organic in nature. Once a fouling material is organic,
then another solvent, pentane, can be used to distinguish between paraffin and asphal-
tene. Asphaltenes are insoluble in hot petane, characteristically dark black, and normally
appear hard and brittle like coal. Because the majority of paraffin deposits also contain
low-molecular-weight asphaltenes and resins, they also look brown or black but with a
soft consistency similar to shoe polish or gum. Tissot and Welte (1978) also published a
classification of crude oils based on chemical composition.
Paraffinic crude oil problems were identified in the United States as early as 1927
(Reistle 1927; Brewster 1927; Wood, Young, and Buell 1927; Vietti and Oberlin 1927).
Outside the United States, paraffin problems have been reported in China, Russia in East
Europe, Gabon, Libya, Nigeria, Zaire, and Cabinda in Africa, Indonesia and India in
Asia, etc. (Ford. Ells, and Russel 1965; Irani and Zajak 1982; Montgomery and Roach
1980; Scott 1978; Sifferman 1979). Asphaltene deposition under widely varied condi-
tions have been reported by Tuttle (1983).
Similar to the global trend ,of occurrence, the most prevalent of the two types of
organic deposits in Nigeria is paraffin. It is a problem for almost all the producing com-
panies. There are a total of about 15 waxy crude oil reservoirs with an estimated reserve
of more than 400 MMSTBO. These reservoirs are located in onshore, swamp, and off-
 Waxy Crude Oil Handling in Nigeria 465

shore environments. It is likely that the number of these reservoirs may increase in fu-
ture. The API gravities range between 24.46 and 41.2; the average wax content is about
10%; gas-oil-ratios (GOR) range between 52 and 800 SCFtSTB; pour point ranges be-
tween 70 and 100°F; production rates are between 640 and 34,000 BPD. Table 1 surnrna-
rizes the characteristics of a typical waxy crude oil in Nigeria. The terminal blends also
contain substantial amounts of wax. Details of these are shown in Figure 1 and Table 2.
These terminal blends may not constitute major handling problems (except forming slugs
in the tanks called tank bottoms) in Nigeria because of high ambient temperatures, but
have constituted serious problem's in temperate countries (Fordet al. 1965).
However, the marketability of these crudes depends greatly on the pour point. Hold-
er and Winkler (1965) have established that just 2% of waxes in a hydrocarbon stream
can give rise to a high pour point. This was confirmed by Tuttle (1983), who reported a
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

paraffin problem in South Louisiana crude with only 2% wax content.

The primary cause of wax deposition is reduced solubility due to changes in the
equilibrium condition of the solution. The factors that influence this condition include
composition (at least 2% wax content); temperature reduction below the cloud point
(thus, high-pour-point crudes are more difficult to handle); pressure drop resulting in loss
of lighter ends which causes saturation of crudes and the presence of nucleation sites,
e.g., pipe roughness or solids that offer cold spots and presence of water. Newberry
(1986) reported that the total dissolved solids (TDS) of produced waters in the range of
100,000 to 400,000 ppm aggravated paraffin problems in the Northern Michigan Niagara
Field.
Aging effect has also been observed with waxy crude oils. The severity of the prob-

Table 1
Characteristics of a Typical Nigerian Waxy Crude Oil
"APl 34.8
Pour point 24°C (75.2"F)
Aniline 65°C (149°F)
Reservoir temperature I 1 1°C (232°F)
Viscosity of reservoir fluid 0.5 19 cp
~ o l e c u l a Composition
r (Mole %)
Com~onent Reservoir Fluid Residual Oil
N2
co2
c1
c2
c
2
i-C,
n-C4
i-C5
n-C,
C6
c7+
Molecular wt.
Density of C, +
Molecular wt. of C,+
 J.A. Ajienka and C . U . Ikoku
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

aLPG @ Naptho n as oil @I Wax in residue

0 Gasollnr t
3 Kerosine B# R e s i d u e b h )
Figure I. Basic assay of Nigerian crude oils. Source: Oil-water line, 1972.

lem increases with production life and thus requires a regular reappraisal of the effective-
ness of the handling methods. For instance, in Nigeria, Omoku West 1, which had a pour
point of 30.3"C (84.54"F)as reported by Mgbonu (1984), had a pour point of 35°C (95°F)
in August 1989. The increase may be attributed to changing production parameters such
as reduced solution GOR, increased TDS content of produced water, etc., which aggra-
vate wax deposition. In the case of asphaltene deposition, the principal factors include
composition of the crude; presence of aliphatic compounds metallic ions; pressure and
temperature (Hirschberg et al. 1964) and enhanced oil recovery (EOR) projects such as
carbon dioxide (CO,) flooding, which cause wettability reversal (Tuttle 1983) at the
wellbore.
On the mechanism of deposition, Hirschberg et al. (1964) reported that for asphal-
tenes, it is due to flocculation of the colloidal particles in a complex relationship of
temperature, pressure, and composition, whereas Burger et al. (1981) reported that three
separate mechanisms transport both dissolved and precipitated paraffin wax crystals later-
ally. These are molecular diffusion, shear dispersion, and Brownian diffusion.
Problems associated with wax deposition include progressive precipitation and accu-
mulation of wax at the sand face and perforations, tubing, surface production lines, and
storage tanks, thus limiting the production capacity of facilities. Deposition leads to loss
of production, mechanical failure of tubular equipment, increased production downtime,
increased handling costs, and minimization of profitability.
The most serious problems are gelling and start-up pressure requirements after shut-
down, as well as blockage of pore spaces. The problems are more severe offshore, where
it is difficult to pressurize the system at intermediate points, thus often leading to loss of
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

Table 2
Some Pro~ertiesof Nigeria's Terminal Crude Oils
Bonny Bonny Brass Qua Forcados
ROFW Light Medium River Iboe Blend Escravo
Specific gravity at
60160°F 0.8413 0.9083 0.8155 0.8544 0.8688 0.8338
API gravity at 60°F 36.7 25.09 42.11 34.11 31.36 38.2
Pour point 2.0°C - 12°C 12°C 6°C - 6°C 12°C
Sulfur wt % - 0.13 8.07 0.12 0.18 0.14
Wax residue at Wt % mpt Wt % mpt Wt % mpt Wt % mpt Wt % mpt Wt % mpt
350 + "C 18.9(56°C) 6.9(48°C) 11.8(44.5"C) 14.5 12.00(47.0°C) 19 (55°C)
400+ "C 15.0(61°C) 16.8 (48.7"C) 18.8(49.Z°C) 13.9 17.4 (54°C) 15 (56°C)
450+ "C 13.4(65°C) 11.6(54.S°C) 24.3 (62.6"C) 12.7 23.0 (595°C) 12 (58°C)
500 + "C 11.3(68"C) 10.4(59.6"C) 26.5(65.2"C) 11.2 30.1 (67.S°C)
550+ "C 9.9(76°C) 8.1 (65.4"C) 28.4 (71.S°C) 5.9 40.3 (70°C)
Source: Ofume and Nkan, in press.
 468 J.A. Ajienku and C. U.Ikoku

flowlines and abandonment of wells. Besides, present treatment problems have their own
inherent limitations. Despite all these, waxy crude oils are desirable because of their low
sulphur content. In Nigeria, pipelines have been known to wax up beyond recovery
(Izombe-Ashland). Production tubings have also been known to wax up,, necessitating
frequent wax cutting, which is expensive.
Methods of detection of wax deposition in the field include visual observation of
produced crudes and wireline equipment for wax crystals, and unusual drop in production
rate, wellhead pressure, and temperature. Knowledge of the type of crude can be helpful.
If measurement of wax content at completion and subsequent intervals shows a decrease
in content to a stabilized condition, it may indicate deposition at the wellbore. Jeffries-
Hanis and Coppel (1969) used this approach to confm asphaltene deposition in the
wellbore.
In the laboratory, gas-liquid chromatography (GLC)analysis can be performed to
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

determine the molecular weight and wax content; microscopic study can determine the
presence of water, sand, inorganic materials, and the nature of wax, and infra-red analy-
sis can determine chemical composition.

Rheological Characteristics
The cloud point is a critical point in the rheology of waxy crudes. Above the cloud point,
flow behavior is Newtonian, and below it, it is non-Newtonian due to wax precipitation.
Newtonian fluids are fluids that exhibit a linear relationship between shear stress and
shear rate passing through the origin of a graph (Figure 2). Below the pour point, thixot-
ropy is also exhibited, which, like yield value, is dependent on both shear and tempera-
ture history (Barry 1971; Davenport and Somper 1971). Thixotropy is the change of
viscosity with time (see Table 3). Mathematically, for temperature below the pour point,
the nowNewtonian viscosity behavior can be expressed as

Between the pour point and cloud point, -rY = 0, and the behavior is given by

? = Ky". (2)

Yield
Pseudo plastic

Bingharn -tic
~ i e l dOihtanl

t:
In
yt

-?!
U)

Z
r
m

Shear Rate ($I

Figure 2. Rheogram.
 Wary Crude Oil Handling in Nigeria 469

Table 3
Rheology Models
Meaning and Values
of Stiff and
Robertson's Constants Rheological Behavior
Fluid Type A B C (Smith 1979)
Newtonian P 1 .O 0 Unaffected by magnitude and
lund of motion to which
they are subjected
Non-Newtonian
Bingham plastic b 1 .O r,/pp Have a definite value which
must be exceeded before
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

AC = r,
flow starts. After,
viscosity no longer
depends on shear rate.
Pseudo plastic K n < 1.0 0 Do not have a yield value but
do have decreasing
viscosity with increased
agitatio.
Yield Pseudo plastic K n < 1.0 ~,/k In addition, has yield value.
AC = ry
Dilatant K n > 1.0 0 Viscosity will increase as
agitation increases.
Yield Dilatant K n > 1.0 r,/K Has yield value.
AC = 7,.
Thixotropic - - - Viscosity will normally
decrease upon increased
agitation, but this depends
upon duration of agitation
and viscosity of fluid and
rate of motion before
agitation.

Above the cloud-point, the Newtonian behavior is given by

The rheological parameters

Yield value r y , is the minimum shear stress that must be applied to initiate flow after a
downtime. Flow consistency index K is a measure of the viscosity under non-Newtonian
flow. For Newtonian flow, K is equivalent to viscosity, p,. The power law flow exponent
n is a measure of the degree of deviation from Newtonian flow behavior. If n is unity,
flow is Newtonian, but if n is greater or lesser than unity, flow is non-Newtonian (see
Table 3).
 4 70 J . A . Ajienka and C.U.Ikoku

Sometimes cloud and pour points are so close that the pour point is specified as the
critical point. These rheological models can be represented by the Robertson and Stiff
( 1976) generalized model as

where A, B. C are constants. The meanings and values of these constants as well as the
rheological behavior of each of the models as surnmarised by Smith (1979) are given in
Table 3. The static behavior is characterized by gelling and start-up problems that require
high pressures to initiate flow (~erkihsand Turner 1971).
Yan and Luo (1987) investigated the effect of temperature on the rheological proper-
ties of Daqing crude oils. Specifically, they correlated apparent viscosity against temper-
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

ature. So far there have been no reports on level of temperature dependence of the non-
Newtonian rheological parameters.
Without regard to the. total rheological picture, most pipelines often specify pour
point as the sole criterion for acceptability of waxy crudes. Sifferman (1979) reported
that it is not adequate to use the pour point alone as a total indicator of a crude oil's flow
properties or to compare only the pour points relative to ambient conditions in which
these crudes would be handled. (Table 4 illustrates this assertion.) He thus recommended
that three flow properties, namely, viscosity, gel strength (yield value). and pour point,
be used to characterize a crude oil's dynamic and static behavior.

Methods of Handling Waxy Crude Oils

There are basically two methods of handling waxy crudes: removal methods and preven-
tive methods. Removal methods are methods in which paraffin wax is allowed to build up
for periodic removal. They include
( I ) Mechanical methods of wax cutting and pigging. These are most frequently used
in Nigeria. However, it is difficult to achieve complete cleaning of tubular
goods, and wireline failures are common.
(2) Thermal methods. These involve heat tracing (Myers 1978) of pipeline and hot
oiling; they are also used in Nigeria where high-temperature non-waxy crude oil

Table 4
Comparison of Three Waxy Crude Oils
Average
Sample Gravity Pour Point carbon
Crude Oil ("API) (kglm3) ("F) ("C) Number Observations
Amna 36 845 75 24 21.6 Unloading problems in the
tanker at the North Sea
temperature of 45°F
Dickinson 34 855 95 35 18.5 Flows at room temperature
of about 70°F
Udang 40 825 100 38 20 Solid at room temperature
Source: Smith 1979.
Notes: Less than 4% basic sediment and water.
Percent wax content not reported.
No correlation between API gravity and pour point.
 -
Wary Crude Oil Handling in Nigeria

Table 5
HANDLING METHODS
I
Removal Methods Preventiv! M e t h d s

Mechanical Thermal Chemical Combinations

&
Chemical
Emulsion Heat Production
of the others control completion

A Wax crystal Paraffin

techniques

i
Dispersants

Group A Group B Gmup C

Copolymer Copolymer Copol ymer of
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

of ethylene of C8-Cu Olefin/rnaleic

Vinyl Acetate Methacrylates anhydride esters

wells are connected to waxy crude oil wells. The limitations include cost of
energy, impracticability of heating in hostile environments, and formation darn-
age due to reprecipitation of wax in low-temperature formations (Barker 1987).
(3) Chemical methods. These involve the use of solvents to dissolve and diluents to
reduce the concentration of wax by blending. A major handicap of these meth-
ods is the volume and thus cost of chemicals.
(4) Combination methods. These involve combinations of the above methods.
Preventive methods are predicated on the maxim that prevention is better than cure.
They inhibit or retard wax deposition and work best when chemicals are injected above
the cloud point (Price 1971) and when the well is flowing. The preventive methods are
economical because they can improve demulsification and corrosion control and mini-
mize production downtime and downhole problems. Wax crystal modifiers or dispersants
are used to distort or modify the crystal structure, co-crystallize with the wax crystals, or
depress the pour point to a manageable level. However, no one chemical is a cure-all.
Oil-in-water emulsions have been found to increase the pumpability of waxy crudes.
Sifferman (1979) reported studies on this. Other investigators in this regard are Lamb and
Simpson (1973), Marsden and Raghaven (1973), and Camy et al. (1975). The problems
in this method are the stability of the emulsion and the additional cost of handling and
separating the emulsion. Thermal control methods involve heating above the pour point
to prevent deposition. Finally, preventive production and completion techniques include
the use of plastic and coated pipes, application of back pressures, and the use of im-
proved handling facilities.
All these methods have their own limited applicability. Table 5 summarizes these
methods.

Case Studies of Waxy Crude Oil Handling in Nigeria

Case I : Mechanical Treatment

The flow rate in a 16-in. -by-24-krn oil delivery line, which transports oil from a flow
station through a trunk line to a terminal, reduced with time due to wax deposition.
Average production rate was 6500 BPD at discharge pressures of 120- 136 psi. The
 472 J.A. Ajienka and C . U.Ikoku

pipeline was pigged, and during the sixth time, the 16-in. pig with two neoprene cups and
14 brushes got stuck. To compound the problem, an earlier vetcolog survey revealed a
decrease in pipe thickness that limited pumping pressure to 600 psi. In view of the above
problem, the flow station.was shut down for about two months before pig was freed at a
cost of more than 1 million naira (unit of currency then W 5 = $I), while at the cost of
12/bbl, the production downtime cost the company about $4.7 million in two months.
Pigging history was as follows:
January 1987: recovered three-fourths headpan of waxhand
May 1987: recovered 4 headpans of soft wax
August 1987: recovered 1 headpan of soft wax
February 1988: recovered '/2 headpan of soft waxlsand
April 1988: recovered 1 headpan of soft wax
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

August 1988: pig stuck.

Attempted solutions included the following:
(I) Radiographic examination of bend. Pig not detected.
(2) Increased pumping pressure from flow station to 520 psi. Pig not dislodged.
(3) Fabrication of 6-in. branch connection at I-km intervals, flushing with hot water
at higher pressures until flow through the pipe was achieved. Flow station was
then opened for flow, and after three days, damaged pig was received with some
amount of wax.
The frequency of wireline wax cutting in some fields is about every other week. Most
problems occur in the production tubing.

Case 2: Chemical Control

This case study is on a swamp field that has wax depositional problems in the tubing
(ATW I) in which chemical control was found feasible. The general characteristics of the
crude are summarized below.
Specific gravity at laboratory temperature = 0.8300 at 8 1°F
Specific gravity at 60/60°F = 0.8378
API at 60°F = 37.4
Basic sediment and water BS and W(%) = 0.1
Pour point = 25°C (77'F)
Salt content = 0.031 grnlliter
Wax content = >42%
Table 6 shows the effect of additive on the pour point of the crude.
hoblems in the present company practices include product bias, neglect of the effect
of chemicals on viscosity, and yield value. Pour-point depression alone is not enough for
acceptability of chemicals. There is a need to compare the economics of handling to
determine optimum handling method. There is also the need to evaluate the effect of
temperature on the rheology of waxy crude oils.

Experimental Program and Results

Using a Fann 35 Viscometer and heat bath, the effect of temperature on the rheology of
waxy crude oils was investigated to cover both the Newtonian and non-Newtonian re-
 Waxy Crude Oil Handling in Nigeria

Table 6
Effect of Additive on Pour Point
. Quantity Added Pour Point ("C)with additive
(PP~) A B C D -
E
500 25 16 25 25 25
lo00 25 13 25 25 16
2000 25 less than 5 25 25 16
5000 25 less than 5 25 25 16
10,000(1 % of
inhibitor in sample) 25 less than 5 22 25 16
Notes: Obvious choice is sample B but company uses E because produce company is related to
the producing company.
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

Volumetric requirement: 1 liter of additive per m3 of oil produced.

gions of flow. Figures 3 to 6 show the results for one of the crudes with a pour point of
95°F (35°C).
A total of eight waxy crude oil samples were investigated and the results were re-
gressed to obtain the following correlations; for non-Newtonian flow:

K = TNN + 0.0247712API
0.017158 P.1338020' (6)
n = 1.1030150 - 0.158721 TNN - 0.0029286 API (7)
T, = 0.554669132e0.'2099'9 ,,T + 0.0241095API (8)

where TNN = TP - T (9)

and for Newtonian flow:

Shear rate (scc-I)

Figure 3. Shear stress versus shear rate curves.
 J.A. A j i e h and C . U . Ikoku
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

Time of shear (minu teS)

Figure 4. Illustration of thixotropy.

where TN = T - T p and e = exponential. ( 1 1)

Discussion of Results
Studies show that the most common methods of handling waxy crudes are mechanical
and chemical methods and no detailed comparative economic analysis of these methods
had been done. Also, the method of screening and ranking of chemical additives is inade-
quate, because it considers only pour point depression. So far there has been no effort to
attempt a generalized correlation of rheological parameters as functions of temperature
and gravity of crude.
From the correlations obtained, it can be observed that as the API increases, p and n
decreases, while T, and K increase. As temperature decreases below the pour point for a
given API, K and T,,increase, while n decreases, and as temperature increases above the
pour point, p decreases.

Conclusions and Suggestions

Based on this study the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) The predominant methods of handling waxy crude oil in Nigeria and their prob-
lems have been highlighted with case studies. The methods are mechanical re-
moval as a cure and chemical injection as a method of prevention. S o far there
has been no economic model to compare which of these methods should be used.
The choice has been a matter of preference. There are some fields where the
 Waq Crude Oil Handling in Nigeria

Pour point :95

'F (35 t.)
.I50
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

Temperature VF)
Figure 5. Rheological curves.

frequency of wax cutting is once in two weeks, which makes wax cutting unat-
tractive because of deferred production.
(2) Case 2 is a typical case of chemical treatment where the only consideration is
pour-point depression. This may be the critical factor due to the high ambient
temperature close to the pour point. But generally no effort is made to investi-
gate the effect'of treatment on other rheological properties such as viscosity and
yield value.

0
0 100 260 360 400 500 600 700 500 900 1000
Shear role (SQC-1)
Figure 6. Viscosity versus shear rate.
 476 J.A . Ajienka and C .U.Ikoku

(3) It is also our observation that efforts have not been made to work out a maximum
permissible downtime to prevent gelling where high yield value and thus start-up
is a problem. As a result, some flowlines have been gelled up completely and
lost (Izombe-Ashland). This buttresses the point that there is a need to investi-
gate problems associated with waxy crude oil transportation other than high pour
point.
(4) From our experimental study, generalized empirical correlations of rheological
parameters are presented. Combined with heat transfer models, we can evaluate
flow interruption scenarios and predict maximum allowable downtime to prevent
gelling. To our knowledge, no such generalized rheological methods for waxy
crude oils have been published. These correlations can also help us in the design
of waxy crude oil pipelines.
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

(5) The effect of temperature on the rheology of waxy crudes shows that although n
is not strongly depenent on temperature for a given API crude, K, T,, and p, are
strongly temperature-dependent.

Based on the above conclusions, the following suggestions are made:

(1) Adequate screening and ranking of wax inhibitors taking into account pour-point
depression, viscosity and yield value reduction should be performed. The criteria
for screening and ranking should not only be qualitative but quantitative.
(2) Adequate rheological studies should be conducted to help in thedesign and han-
dling of waxy crude oil pipelines.
(3) A comparative economic analysis of removal and preventive methods should be
conducted to help in decision making.
(4) There is need to reappraise hot oiling in Nigeria to establish the degree of forma-
tion damage. Also, the practice of choking flow to help production should not be
done without evaluating the total production system performance.
(5) Finally, a thorough knowledge of the nature of the crude at the time of discovery
would help in the design of well completion and production facilities to optimize
production. For instance, it should help us to install chemical injection valves
along the critical section of the production tubing prone to wax deposition in-
stead of waiting for expensive workover operations. Sometimes the cost of
workover operations is what forces companies to continue to rely on wax cutting
instead of chemical control.

Nomenclature
API = API gravity of crude
K .= Consistency index, lbf/100ft2sec-"
n = Power law exponent
T = Temperature, O F ( O C )
T, = Pour point "F("C)
TN = T - T p = Normalized Newtonian tkmperature "F("C).
Tw = T, - T = Normalized non-Newtonian temperature "F("C)
T,, = Yield value, lbfl 100ft2
p = Newtonian viscosity, cp
 Waxy Crude Oil Handling in Nigeria 477

Acknowledgment
We sincerely acknowledge the technical support w e received from the oil producing com-
panies such as Elf, AGIP, Gulf, Ashland, and SPDC.W e also thank the University of
Port Harcourt for generous computer time.

References
Barker, K.M.1987. Formation damage related to hot oiling. Paper SPE 16230 presented at the SPE
Production Operations Symposium, Oklahoma City, OK, March 8- 10.
Barry, E.G.1971. Pumping non-Newtonian waxy crude oils. J. Inst. Petrol. 57(554) (March):74-
85.
Bilderback, C.A., and L.A. McDougall. 1969. Complete paraffin control in petroleum production.
J . Petrol. Technol. (September): 151- 156.
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

Brewster, F.M. 1927. Handling congealing oil and paraffin problems in the Appalachian field.
Trans. AlME 77 (October):253-261.
Brod, M., B.C. Deane, and F. Rossi. 1971. ~ieldkx~erience with the use of additives in pipeline
transportation of waxy crudes. J . Imt. Petrol. 57(554) (March): 110- 116.
Burger, E.O., T.K. Perkins, and J.H. Striegler. Studies of wax deposition in the trans-Alaska
pipeline. J. Petrol. Technol. (June): 1075-86.
Carny, J.P., and S.S. Marsden, Jr. 1975. The rheology of crude dispersions. Paper SPE 5299,
presented at the International Symposium on Oil Field Chemistry, January.
Chandrasekharan, K.P., and P.K. Sikdar. 1970. Here's how waxy Indian crude is prepared for
pipeline transit. Oil and Gar Int. 10 (October):86-95, 1 11.
Davenport, T.C., and R.S.H. Somper. 1971. The yield value in breakdown of crude oil gels. I .
Inst. Petrol. 57(554) (March):86- 105.
Ford, P.E., J.W. Ells, and R.J. Russel. 1965. Frequent pigging helps more waxy crude below its
pour point. Oil and Gas J . (May 18) 183-189.
Harvey and Arnold. 1971. Design of waxy crude pipeline. Oil and Gar J . (March).
Hirchberg et al. 1964. lnfluence of temperature and pressure on asphaltene flocculation. J. Petrol.
Technol. (June):283-293.
Holder, G.A., and J. Winkler. 1965. Wax crystallization from distillate fuels, Parts 1, 2, and 3. J.
Inst. Petrol. 5 l(499) (July):228-252.
Irani, C., and J. Zajac. 1982. Handling of high pour point West African crude oils. J . Petrol.
Technol. (Februq):289- 298.
Jeffries-Hanis, M.J.,and C.P. Coppel. 1969. Solvent stimulation in low gravity oil reservoirs. J .
Perrol. Technol. (February): 167.
Lamb. M.J., and W.C. Simpson. 1973. Pipeline transport of waxed-latent crude as water suspen-
sion. Sixth World Petroleum Congress, Sec. VII, Paper 13, 13-33.
Marsden, S.S., and R. Raghaven. 1973. A system for producing and transporting crude oil as an
oillwater simulation. J. Inst. Petrol. 59(570) (November):273-278.
Mcclafin, G.G., and D.L. Whitfill. 1983. Control of paraffin deposition in production operations.
Paper SPE 12204. SPE California Regional Conference, San Francisco, October.
Mgbonu, G.C. 1984. Waxy crude oil handling in Nigeria: Practices and problems. B. Eng. thesis,
University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
Montgomery, J., and M. Roach. 1980. Production practices in China: A current appraisal. WorM
Oil (April):89-92.
Myers, R.W. 1978. An electrically heated buried gathering system transfers high pour point crude.
J . Petrol. Technol. (June):890-894.
Newberry, M.E.1982. SPE 11561, short course paper.
Newberry, M.E.1984. Chemical effects on crude oil pipeline pressure problems. J . Petrol. Tech-
nol. (May):779-786.
 4 78 J.A. Ajienka and C.U. Ikoku

Newbeny, M.E., G.E.Addison, and K.M. Barker. 1986. Paraf~nControl in the Northern Michi-
gan Niagaran Reef Trend. SPE Production Engineering. (May) 2 13- 220.
Ofunne, G.C. 1986. Rivate communication, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt. (June).
Ofume. G.C., and E.I. Nkang. In press. Assay of Nigerian crude oil for chemical manufacture,
manufacturing chemists.
Oil-water line moves highly viscous crude. 1972. Oil and Gar J . 70(6) (February 7):32.
Perkins, T.K., and J.B. Turner. 1971. Starting behaviour of gathering lines and pipelines filled
with gelled Prudhoe Bay oil. J. Petrol. Technol. (March):301-308.
Price, R.C. '1971. Flow improvers for waxy crudes. J. Insf. Petrol. 57(554) (March): 106- 109.
Reistle, C.E. 1927. Summary of existing information on handling congealing oils and p d ~ n s .
Tram. AIME 77 (October):227-252.
Robertson, R.E., and H.A. Stiff, Jr. 1976. An improved mathematical model of relating shear
stress to shear rate in drilling fluids and cement slurries. Soc. Petrol. Eng. J . (February):3 1 -
Downloaded by [Nanyang Technological University] at 11:18 25 April 2015

36.
Russel, R.J., and E.D.Chapman. 1971. Pumping of 8 5 T pour point Assam (NAHORKATIYA)
crude oil at 65°F. J. Imt. Petrol. 57(554) (March): 117- 128.
Scott, R.W. 1978. Oil and gas in China. World Oil .(June): 101- 11 1.
Sifferman, T.R. 1979. Flow properties of difficult-to-handle waxy crude oils. J . Petrol. Technol.
(August):1042- 1050.
Smith, B. 1979. Pumping heavy crudes- I: guidelines set out for pumping heavy crudes. Oil and
Gas J . (May 28): 111- 115.
Strubhar, M.K., J.S. Blackburn, and J.W. Lee. 1972. Production Operatiom Course 11-Well
Diagnosis. Dallas, TX: SPE-AIME.
Tissot, B.P., and D.H. Welte. 1978. Petroleum Geochemistry. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Tuttle, R.N. 1983. High:pour-point and asphaltic crude oil and condensates. J. Petrol. Technol.
(June): 1192- 1196.
Uhde, A., and G.Kopp. 1971. Pipeline problems resulting from the handling of waxy crudes. J .
Inst. Petro1.57(554) (March):63-73.
Van Englen, G.P., C.L.Kaul, B. Vos, and H.P. Aranha. 1981. Study of flow improvers for
transportation of Bombay high crude oil through submarine pipelines. J. Perrol. Technol.
(December):2539-2544; AIME Trans. 27 1 :2539-2544.
Vietti, W.V., and W.A. Oberlin. 1927. Problems encountered in handling panhandle crude. Truns.
AIME (October):269- 283.
Wood, F.E., H.W.Young, and A.W. Buell. 1927. Handling congealing oils and paraffin in Salt
Creek Field Wyoming. Tram. AIME 17 (October):262-268.
Yan, D., and Z. Luo. 1987. Rheological properties of daqing crude oil and their application in
pipeline transportation. SPE Prod. Eng. (November):267-276.
U n , J.L.. R. Pinaim, and M.E. Borgmeyer. 1977. Transport of crude oil as oil-in-water emul-
sions. ASME Paper 77-FE-26, 15- 17. June.