A

MINI PROJECT REPORT

ON
LOW POWER INVERTER FOR
DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS

1
ABSTRACT
The main aim of the project is to design a system that can give alternating
current by using direct current. This project is more useful when there is frequent
power cut at work places and also at residential areas.

Inverters have become an important device in our daily lives. Especially in

summer, there is abundant power shortage. It is really difficult for a common man to
be able to survive in such conditions. Therefore, this device is used to get that power
back and also it is very affordable and efficient too.

2
 INDEX

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER-2: BLOCK DIAGRAM AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

Block Diagram

Block Diagram Description

Circuit Diagram

Circuit Description

CHAPTER-3: COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

Battery

Pulse generator

Transistor

Center tapped Transformer

Resistor

Capacitor

CHAPTER-4: PCB DESIGNING

Introduction

PCB Construction

Soldering

CHAPTER-5: APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Applications

Advantages

CONCLUSION

FUTURE SCOPE

REFERENCES

3
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION OF INVERTER

In this modern society, electricity has great control over the most daily
activities for instance in domestic and industrial utilization of electric power for
operations. Electricity can be generated from public supply to consumers in different
ways including the use of water, wind or steam energy to drive the turbine as well as
more recently the use of gas. Generators, solar energy and nuclear energy are also
source of electricity.

In Nigeria, there is inconsistence supply of electricity by the power

supplying company to the consumers. Hence the use of additional electric power
source such as electric power generators and most recently the use of semiconductor
power devices such as the Bipolar Transistor, Thyristors and particularly power
transistors to generate electric power in conjunction with a DC battery in few
kilowatts. An Inverter offers a better additional power source to Generators as well as
UPS considering its long duration, cost effectiveness and maintainability.

Inverter
An inverter is used to provide uninterrupted 220V AC supply to the load
connected to its output socket. It provides constant AC supply at its output socket,
even when the AC mains supply is not available.

It is a combination of inverter circuit, charger circuit and a battery. The

charger circuit keeps the battery charged when the mains supply is available and when
the mains AC fails, the inverter circuit takes the DC power stored in the battery and
converts it into 220V/50Hz AC supply, which can be used to power any common
electronic equipment or computer systems. It performs the reverse role of rectifier

4
where the AC power is converted into DC power and functions by chopping DC
voltage through various means.

Most of the electrical equipment works with the 220V AC supply but
internally, their circuit works on the DC supply. Hence the external AC supply is
converted into DC supply by the power supply unit on these equipments.
Any device that works on DC supply can be used during the mains power
breakdown by connecting them to batteries. But batteries have a fixed life and running
power consuming equipment using the battery could be very expensive. Hence,
rechargeable batteries can be used in this type of situation to reduce the cost. An
inverter is used to power device that does not have the facility to connect to a DC
power source or device that requires AC power source for its operation.

The use of semiconductor power devices such as bipolar transistors,

thyristors for voltage amplification, particularly the power transistor as the power
switches, makes the inverter a better additional power supply. The inverter is less
noisy, provides complete automatic switchover function, posses no environmental
threats, less bulky and less expensive to maintain.

Fig 3.1 Basic Diagram of an Inverter

CHAPTER-2

5
 BLOCK DIAGRAM AND
BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF INVERTER

Fig 2.3 – Block Diagram of Inverter

2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

The block diagram can be divided into three parts: Battery, pulse generator
and step up transformer.

Battery
Hear we are using 12V led Acid battery
Pulse generator
Each transistor produces inverting square waves

6
Centre tapped Step up transformer
Inverting square waves signals are given to the centre tapped step-up
transformer it is step up the voltage 12v -230v.

2.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

2.4 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

This super simple design of an inverter circuit does not limit it in any way
from providing a high output power and an efficiency of a good 70%.There may be a
huge number of inverter circuits available over the internet and electronic magazines.
But these circuits are often very complicated and hi-end type of inverters. Build an
inverter that can be not only easy to build but also low cost and highly efficient in its
working.
The functioning of this mini inverter circuit is rather unique and different from
the normal inverters which involve discrete oscillator stage for powering the
transistors.However here the two sections or the two arms of the circuit operate in a
regenerative manner.It’s very simple and may be understood through the following
points:
The two halves of the circuit no matter how much they are matched will
always consist a slight imbalance in the parameters surrounding them, like the
resistors, transformer winding turns etc.Due to this, both the halves are not able to

7
conduct together at one instant. Assume that the upper half transistors conduct first,
obviously they will be getting their biasing voltage through the lower half winding of
the transformer via R2.However the moment they saturate and conduct fully, the
entire battery voltage is pulled through their collectors to the ground.

This sucks-out dry any voltage through R2 to their base and they immediately
stop conducting. This gives an opportunity for the lower transistors to conduct and the
cycle repeats. The whole circuit thus starts to oscillate.The base Emitter resistors are
used to fix a particular threshold for their conduction to break, they help to fix a base
biasing reference level. The power transistors are connected in Push Pull
configuration (Power amplifier). The transistors will generate 50Hz ac squire wave.
Thus an AC voltage is transferred to the primary of transformer; it is stepped up to
230V.

The transformer used here is an centre tapped step up transformer which is

connected in inverted manner. That is, the primary of a 12-0-12V to 220V step up
transformer can be treated as secondary for this inverter project.

This circuit uses 12V input (12V battery) to out 220V 50HZ. For safety please
note for the installation of cooling on the components transistors, it serves to remove
excess heat transistor.There are many topologies or circuit designs for creating higher
power AC from low voltage DC sources. Two common topologies are the Push-Pull
and H-Bridge. The Push-Pull topology is suitable for producing square and modified
square wave inverter while the H-Bridge is useful for producing modified square
wave and sine wave inverter.

CHAPTER-3
COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

8
3.1 BATTERY

Lead-acid battery
Lead-acid vehicle batteries consist of six cells; each has a nominal voltage
of 2 V. Each charged cell contains electrodes of lead metal (Pb) and lead peroxide
(PbO2), in an electrolyte of about 35% sulphuric acid mixed with
65%water = (H2SO4). Modern designs have gelified electrolytes. In a discharged
state both electrodes turn into lead sulphate and the electrolyte turns into waterLead
acid batteries for automotive use are not designed for deep discharge and should
always be kept at maximum charge, using constant voltage at 13.8 V (for six element
vehicle batteries). Their capacity will severely suffer from deep cycling. Specially
designed deep-cycle cells are much less susceptible to this problem, and are required
for applications where the batteries are regularly discharged.
Because of the open cells with liquid electrolyte in most cheap vehicle
batteries, overcharging with excessive charging voltages will generate oxygen and
hydrogen gas, forming an extremely explosive mix. This should be avoided. Caution
must also be observed because of the extremely corrosive nature of sulphuric acid.

Lead-Acid Battery 12v 2.5a

9
Function of the Battery
The function of the battery is to store electricity in the form of chemical
energy and when required to convert it to electrical energy. Electrical energy can be
produced from two plates immersed in a chemical solution. Several linked give a
higher capacity.

The Lead Acid Battery is the most popular type used in modern motor vehicles
and consists basically of the following parts:
1. Case.
2. Terminals
3. Plates.
4. Electrolyte
Case

The battery case is constructed of insulating, acid resistant material (hard

rubber or plastic) and has a number of compartments or cells. A 12 volt battery has 6
cells. Recesses in the bottom of the cells collect the sediment that falls from the
plates.

10
 This prevents the sediment from bridging the plates and causing internal short
circuiting. The top of the plate assembly is enclosed by a moulded one piece cover
which is sealed to the main case. Each cell has a removable plug to facilitate topping
up and testing. These plugs are vented to allow for the escape of gases produced
during charging.
Terminals
Positive pole: shown ‘+’ usually red in colour and is the larger of the two.
Negative pole: shown ‘–’ usually black or green and is the smaller of the two.
Battery connectors: Various types of connectors are shown below:

Die Cast Flat Type SMMT

(Helmet) Type (Clamp) Type
Plates
Each cell has a number of positive and negative plates with separators fitted
between them. The total number of plates per cell is normally not less than seven,
usually starting and finishing with a negative plate.

The plates are made of lead grids and active material which is coated or pasted
onto the grids. Each group of positive plates and each group of negative plates is held
together by its own plate strap.

11
 The plate strap joining the positive plates in the first cell is connected to the
positive (Plus) terminal pole of the battery. The plate strap joining the negative plates
in the last cell is connected to the negative (Minus) terminal pole of the battery.

Electrolyte
The battery is filled with electrolyte, which is a mixture of 35% sulphuric acid
and 65% de-ionised water. The separators between the plates are porous to allow the
circulation of the electrolyte, and the chemical action to take place. When the cell is
functioning, the acid reacts with the plates, converting chemical energy into electrical
energy. Electrical current flows from one pole of the battery, through the circuit back
to the battery. The heaviest demand is made on a battery when the engine is being
started. Once the engine is running, the alternator provides a flow of current to the
battery to recharge it and keep it in a good state of readiness.

Discharging

In a fully-charged battery the positive plates are made of lead peroxide and the
negative plates are spongy lead. During discharge or use:

 Sulphur in the acid combines with the plates to form lead sulphate;
 The oxygen and hydrogen released combine to form water, which dilutes the
electrolyte.

12
 This makes it possible to tell the state of charge by seeing how weak the
electrolyte is. A hydrometer is used to measure the strength of the electrolyte. Both
negative and positive plates become lead sulphate as the battery is discharged by use.
The resulting lead sulphate is bulkier than spongy lead or lead peroxide, so if the
battery is discharged too quickly the plates will buckle and some paste will fall out.
This shortens the life of the battery.

Charging
To charge a battery, a current must be forced back through it. So a positive voltage
must be applied to the positive terminal and negative to the negative terminal. Also
the voltage must be high enough to overcome the battery voltage and drive sufficient
current into the battery. About 14 Volts is adequate, for a 12V battery.
 Oxygen in the electrolyte combines with the lead sulphate of the positive plate
to become lead peroxide;
 Sulphate is released from both plates, which increases the concentration of
sulphuric acid in the electrolyte;
 The negative plate becomes spongy lead.
 Charging is thus the reverse of discharging, and the plate materials return to
their original forming lead peroxide for the positive plates and spongy lead for
the negative plates.

2.4 Battery Types

There are at least three variations of the lead-acid battery in current
automotive use. In the most common configuration, the vehicle battery has six cells,
each producing about 2.1 volts. Thus the total battery output voltage is about 12.6
volts. The three major contributors to battery chemistry are lead, lead dioxide, and
sulphuric acid. Unfortunately pure lead is too soft to withstand the physical abuse of
mobile applications, so about 6% antimony is added to strengthen it. Antimony added
to the lead grids acted as a catalyst and made out gassing (loss of hydrogen and
oxygen during use) worse, and frequent water replenishing was required.
So battery manufacturers looked for another material that could strengthen the
lead grids. Calcium was added to both the positive and negative electrodes.

13
 It reduced out gassing enough to allow manufacturers to claim they building
"maintenance-free batteries".
However, lead/calcium batteries are not very resistant to "deep-cycling" (deep
discharge followed by a full charge). It also required a higher charging voltage at
14.8 volts. Lower settings prevented charging to full capacity. This is too high for
lead/antimony batteries and will cause them to lose water rapidly. The third type of
battery frequently used in automotive service uses "hybrid" construction. Its positive
grid is strengthened with antimony, and the negative grid with calcium. Water usage is
greatly reduced, although regular checking is advisable. The hybrid battery is more
resistant to deep cycling than the lead/calcium, but is still not as good in this respect
as the original lead/antimony style. Older vehicles with voltage regulators set at about
14.0 volts simply will not fully charge lead/calcium or hybrid batteries.

2.5 Battery Capacity

While a battery that can deliver 10 A for 10 hours can be said to have a
capacity of 100 AH, that is not how the rating is determined by the manufacturers. A
100 AH rated battery most likely will not deliver 10 A for 10 hours. Battery
manufacturers use a standard method to determine how to rate their batteries. Their
rating is based on tests performed over 20 hours with a discharge rate of 1/20 (5%) of
the expected capacity of the battery an hour. So a 100 ampere-hour battery is rated to
provide 5 A for 20 hours. The efficiency of a battery is different at different discharge
rates. When discharging at 5% an hour, the battery's energy is delivered more
efficiently than at higher discharge rates. To calculate the 5% discharge rate of a
battery, take the manufacturer's ampere-hour rating and divide it by 20.

Charging in series and parallel

For charging purposes it is possible to put batteries in series or parallel
provided the charger can produce the correct voltage and current. There are two
charging methods used, these are constant current method or the constant voltage
method. In either case a Direct Current supply must be used. The connections that
are made differ, depending on the method used.

14
 You will see that, using the constant current method (below), the batteries are
connected in series.

The limit on the number of batteries that may be charged in series must not
exceed the supply voltage.

A constant-voltage charger gives a voltage output equivalent to the voltage of

a fully charged battery, e.g. 14.4V for a 12V battery. When a discharged battery is
connected to the charger, the initial charge current is high, but this gradually falls until
it is practically zero after 8 to 10 hours. The batteries are normally connected in
parallel with this type of charger.

15
Battery Boosting Safety Notes

Safe Use of Booster Pack/Jump Leads to assist start a vehicle

 Use a booster pack or jump leads that have a surge protection device.
 Refer to the vehicle manufactures specifications for important specific
information on jump starting.

General Information

 When jump starting a vehicle, always wear proper eye protection and never lean
over battery.
 Inspect both batteries before connecting booster cables. Do not jump start a
damaged battery.
 Ensure that the vehicle you are jump starting has the keys out of the ignition and
you have them with you outside the vehicle when connecting the leads or booster
pack. (Some vehicles will auto lock when you connect a good power supply
locking keys in the vehicle.)
 Be sure vent caps are tight and level.

3.2 PULSE GENERATOR

16
 In the above diagram we can find two transistors which is wired as a switch.
When a transistor is ON, its collector and emitter act as a short circuit. But when it is
OFF they acts as open circuit. So in the above circuit when a transistor is in OFF state
its collector will have the voltage Vcc and when it is ON its collector will be
grounded. When one transistor is ON the other will be OFF. The OFF time of
transistor is determined by RL time constant.
When the circuit is switched on, one of the transistor will be more conducting
than the other due imbalance in the circuit or difference in the parameters of the
transistor. Gradually the more conducting transistor will be driven to Saturation and
the less conducting transistor will be driven to Cutoff.

3.2.1 TRANSISTORS

Transistors are semiconductor devices used for applications like amplification

of voltages, current and are also used in oscillator circuits and switches. It’s a two
junction and 3 terminal devices made of three layers of n and p type materials. The
three regions are emitter, base and collector. They are of 2 types (i) pnp and (ii) npn.
Their most important specifications are Ic, Vce, hfe and Power rating. They come in
different casings like TO18, TO92C, and TO39 etcGiven below is a table of most
commonly used transistors with their specifications (approximate) and casings.
Datasheets from the companies can be referred to to know the exact specifications.

Fig 9
TO-92C package transistor

17
 Case IC VCE hFE Ptot Category Possible
Structure
Code style max. max. min. max. (typical use) substitutes
BC107 NPN TO18 100mA 45V 110 300mW Audio, low power BC182 BC547
BC108 NPN TO18 100mA 20V 110 300mW General purpose, low power BC108C BC183 BC548
BC108C NPN TO18 100mA 20V 420 600mW General purpose, low power
BC109 NPN TO18 200mA 20V 200 300mW Audio (low noise), low power BC184 BC549
BC182 NPN TO92C 100mA 50V 100 350mW General purpose, low power BC107 BC182L
BC182L NPN TO92A 100mA 50V 100 350mW General purpose, low power BC107 BC182
BC547B NPN TO92C 100mA 45V 200 500mW Audio, low power BC107B
Bel 548 NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 220 500mW General purpose, low power BC108B
BC549B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 240 625mW Audio (low noise), low power BC109
2N3053 NPN TO39 700mA 40V 50 500mW General purpose, low power BFY51
BFY51 NPN TO39 1A 30V 40 800mW General purpose, medium power BC639
BC639 NPN TO92A 1A 80V 40 800mW General purpose, medium power BFY51
TIP29A NPN TO220 1A 60V 40 30W General purpose, high power
TIP31A NPN TO220 3A 60V 10 40W General purpose, high power TIP31C TIP41A
TIP31C NPN TO220 3A 100V 10 40W General purpose, high power TIP31A TIP41A
TIP41A NPN TO220 6A 60V 15 65W General purpose, high power
2N3055 NPN TO3 15A 60V 20 117W General purpose, high power
BC177 PNP TO18 100mA 45V 125 300mW Audio, low power BC477
BC178 PNP TO18 200mA 25V 120 600mW General purpose, low power BC478
BC179 PNP TO18 200mA 20V 180 600mW Audio (low noise), low power
BC477 PNP TO18 150mA 80V 125 360mW Audio, low power BC177
BC478 PNP TO18 150mA 40V 125 360mW General purpose, low power BC178
TIP32A PNP TO220 3A 60V 25 40W General purpose, high power TIP32C
TIP32C PNP TO220 3A 100V 10 40W General purpose, high power TIP32A

Fig 9 gives some of the transistors with the symbols. fornpn and pnp. and fig
10 illustrates some of the casings. With the configurations for emitter, base and
collector leads.
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic
signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least
three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to
one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair of
terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling
(input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged
individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

18
 FIG. 3.5 TRANSISTOR

The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small
signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at
another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. It can produce a stronger output
signal, a voltage or current, which is proportional to a weaker input signal; that is, it
can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or
off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is
determined by other circuit elements.

HEAT SINK

19
 Fig HEAT SINK

A heat sink is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated by
an electronic or a mechanical device to a fluid medium, often air or a liquid coolant,
where it is dissipated away from the device, thereby allowing regulation of the
device's temperature at optimal levels.
In power transistor or large signal transistors, the power to be dissipated at the
collector causes junction temperature to rise to a high level.
It is possible to increase the power handling capacity of the transistor if a device that
can cause rapid conduction of heat away from the junction is used. Such a device is
called a heat sink.A heat sink is a mechanical device. It is connected to the case of the
semiconductor device. So it is providing a path for the heat transfer
The heat flows through the heat sink and is radiated to surrounding air. If a
heat sink is not used then all the heat has to he transferred from a transistor case to
surrounding air causing case temperature to increase.If the power handled by the
transistor is higher, then the case temperature will he higher. The temperature of the
two types of power transistor is

Germanium: 100°C to 110°C

Silicon : 150°C to 200°C

Heat sinks increase the power rating (ie. power handling capacity) of a
transistor by getting rid of the heat developed quickly.

3. 3 Centre Tapped Transformer

Input Voltage: 12V

20
Output Voltage: 220V AC
Output Current: 1A
Vertical mount type
Low cost and small package

Where to Use Centre Tapped transformer

A centre-tapped transformer also known as two phase three wire transformer is

normally used for inverter circuits. When a digital project has to work with AC mains
a Transformer is used to step-down the voltage (in our case, to 24V or 12V) and then
convert it to DC by using a rectifier circuit. In a center-tapped transformer the peak
inverse voltage is twice as in bridge rectifier hence this transformer is commonly used
in full wave rectifier circuits.

How to use Center Tapped Transformer

The operation and theory behind a Center tapped transformer is very similar to a
normal secondary transformer. A primary voltage will be induced in the primary coil
(I1 and I3) and due to magnetic induction the voltage will be transferred to the
secondary coil. Here in the secondary
coil of a centre tapped transformer, there will be an additional wire (T2) which will be
placed exactly at the center of the secondary coil, hence the voltage here will always
be zero.
If we combine this zero potential wire (T2) with either T1 or T2, we will get a voltage
of 12V AC. If this wire is ignored and voltage across T1 and T2 is considered then we
will get a voltage of 24V AC. This feature is very useful for the function of a full
wave rectifier.
Let us consider the voltage given by the first half of the secondary coil as Va and the
voltage across the second half of the secondary coil as Vb as shown in the diagram
below

TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying

21
current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding.
This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or
"voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

Figure: Transformer Symbol

(or)
Transformer is a device that converts the one form energy to another form of
energy like a transducer.

Figure: Transformer

Basic Principle:
A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of
an iron core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase
power so that if the voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice
versa.

22
 Figure: Basic Principle
Transformer Working:
A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked by an iron
core, as shown in figure below. There is no electrical connection between the coils;
instead they are linked by a magnetic field created in the core.

Figure: Basic Transformer

Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with
minimal loss of power. They only work with AC (alternating current) because they
require a changing magnetic field to be created in their core. Transformers can
increase voltage (step-up) as well as reduce voltage (step-down).

23
 Alternating current flowing in the primary (input) coil creates a continually
changing magnetic field in the iron core. This field also passes through the secondary
(output) coil and the changing strength of the magnetic field induces an alternating
voltage in the secondary coil. If the secondary coil is connected to a load the induced
voltage will make an induced current flow. The correct term for the induced voltage
is 'induced electromotive force' which is usually abbreviated to induced e.m.f.

The iron core is laminated to prevent 'eddy currents' flowing in the core.
These are currents produced by the alternating magnetic field inducing a small
voltage in the core, just like that induced in the secondary coil. Eddy currents waste
power by needlessly heating up the core but they are reduced to a negligible amount
by laminating the iron because this increases the electrical resistance of the core
without affecting its magnetic properties.

Transformers have two great advantages over other methods of changing voltage:

1. They provide total electrical isolation between the input and output, so they can
be safely used to reduce the high voltage of the mains supply.
2. Almost no power is wasted in a transformer. They have a high efficiency (power
out / power in) of 95% or more.

Classification of Transformer:

 Step-Up Transformer
 Step-Down Transformer

Step-Down Transformer:

Step down transformers are designed to reduce electrical voltage. Their primary
voltage is greater than their secondary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps down"

24
the voltage applied to it. For instance, a step down transformer is needed to use a
110v product in a country with a 220v supply.

Step down transformers convert electrical voltage from one level or phase
configuration usually down to a lower level. They can include features for electrical
isolation, power distribution, and control and instrumentation applications. Step down
transformers typically rely on the principle of magnetic induction between coils to
convert voltage and/or current levels.

Step down transformers are made from two or more coils of insulated wire
wound around a core made of iron. When voltage is applied to one coil (frequently
called the primary or input) it magnetizes the iron core, which induces a voltage in the
other coil, (frequently called the secondary or output). The turn’s ratio of the two sets
of windings determines the amount of voltage transformation.

Figure: Step-Down Transformer

25
 An
example of
this would be:
100 turns on the
primary and
50 turns on the
secondary, a
ratio of 2 to 1.

Step down transformers can be considered nothing more than a voltage ratio
device.

With step down transformers the voltage ratio between primary and secondary
will mirror the "turn’s ratio" (except for single phase smaller than 1 kva which have
compensated secondary). A practical application of this 2 to 1 turn’s ratio would be a
480 to 240 voltage step down. Note that if the input were 440 volts then the output
would be 220 volts. The ratio between input and output voltage will stay constant.
Transformers should not be operated at voltages higher than the nameplate
rating, but may be operated at lower voltages than rated. Because of this it is possible
to do some non-standard applications using standard transformers.

Single phase step down transformers 1 kva and larger may also be reverse
connected to step-down or step-up voltages. (Note: single phase step up or step down
transformers sized less than 1 KVA should not be reverse connected because the
secondary windings have additional turns to overcome a voltage drop when the load
is applied. If reverse connected, the output voltage will be less than desired.)

Step-Up Transformer:

A step up transformer has more turns of wire on the secondary coil, which
makes a larger induced voltage in the secondary coil. It is called a step up transformer
because the voltage output is larger than the voltage input.

26
 Step-up transformer 110v 220v design is one whose secondary voltage is
greater than its primary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps up" the voltage
applied to it. For instance, a step up transformer is needed to use a 220v product in a
country with a 110v supply.

A step up transformer 110v 220v converts alternating current (AC) from one
voltage to another voltage. It has no moving parts and works on a magnetic induction
principle; it can be designed to "step-up" or "step-down" voltage. So a step up
transformer increases the voltage and a step down transformer decreases the voltage.

The primary components for voltage transformation are the step up

transformer core and coil. The insulation is placed between the turns of wire to
prevent shorting to one another or to ground. This is typically comprised of Mylar,
nomex, Kraft paper, varnish, or other materials. As a transformer has no moving
parts, it will typically have a life expectancy between 20 and 25 years.

Figure: Step-
Up Transformer

Applications

Generally these Step-Up Transformers are used in industries applications

only.

27
Turns Ratio and Voltage
The ratio of the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils
determines the ratio of the voltages...

where Vp is the primary (input) voltage, Vs is the secondary (output) voltage, Np

is the number of turns on the primary coil, and Ns is the number of turns on the
secondary coil.

A transformer is an electrical device and it consists of 2 coils of wire that are

joined by an iron core. It offers the much required capability of changing the current
and voltage levels simply. The main function of the transformer is that to increase
(step-up) or decrease (step-down) AC voltages.

The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic

induction, that is, mutual inductance between 2 circuits that is linked by a common
magnetic flux. Transformer converts an electrical energy from one circuit to another
circuit with the help of mutual induction between the 2 windings without electrical
connection between them, and also converts power from one circuit to another}
circuit without changing the frequency however with a different voltage level.

In a step up transformer, secondary winding contains a lot of winding than the

first coil. Returning to a transformer, it has more windings in the primary than the
secondary winding. These are one of the main reasons we use AC current in our
homes and not DC. DC voltages can’t be modified using transformers.

28
 FIG. 12-0-12/220V CENTRE TAPPED TRANSFORMER

3.4 RESISTORS
Resistors can be of two types: fixed value resistors or variable resistors. The
formula for resistance is given by: R = ρ l / A where ρ is resistivity, l is length and A
is area of cross section. Different value resistors can be manufactured by changing the
length and area of cross section or the material itself which changes the resistivity.
Materials generally used for fabrication of resistors are nichrome (80 % Ni and 20 %
Cr), constat (55% cu and 45 % Ni ) and Manganin (85 % Cu and 10 % Mn and < 5 %
Ni). Metals are not used as they have a very high temperature coefficient of
resistance.

Three main methods of fabrication are (i) a slab or a rod of suitable resistivity,
(ii) Material using thinner cross section and longer length. The length is doubled and
then wound in such a way that inductance effects are cancelled out. (iii) Thin films of
material on insulating substrate. Each resistor has a current carrying capacity. Current
more than the prescribed wattage may damage the resistor.

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Color Code for Resistors

Band color & Band colour& its

its value tolerance
Black = 0 Gold = + - 5%
Brown = 1 Silver = + - 10 %
Red = 2 No color means 20 %
Orange = 3
Yellow = 4
Green = 5
Blue = 6
Violet = 7
Grey = 8
White = 9

The first two bands near an end indicate first 2 digits, digit corresponding to
3rd band is the power of 10 to be multiplied and fourth band indicates tolerance as
mentioned in the table. Refer fig 1, where brown = 1, black = 0, red = 2 and silver =
10 % tolerance. Hence its value is
10 x 10 2 Ω = 1 k Ω.

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 Most commonly used resistors in lab are fixed value resistors which exist for
standard values according to E12. Other ranges are E24 and E48 Ranges.

Table 1 is for the values of resistors of E12 range. Topmost row defines the
basic value units of resistors in ohms. Every following row is 10 fold of the upper
row.

Table 1: Table for E12 range values of resistors.

1.0 Ω 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.7 5.6 6.8 8.2 Ω

10 Ω 12 . . . . 68 82 Ω

100 Ω 680 820 Ω

1k 1.2k 6.8k 8.2k

10k 82k

100k 820k

1M 1.2M 6.8M` 8.2M

10M 12M 68M 82M

Variable resistors
Besides the fixed value resistors, there also exist variable resistors. The
resistance of variable resistors can vary in steps or continuously. Potentiometer is also
an example of continuously varying resistor.

Special purpose resistors

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 Light dependent resistors (LDR) and thermistors are examples of special
purpose resistors. Thermistor is a resistor whose value depends on its temperature. It
is also called a heat sensor. LDR is a resistance whose resistance depends upon the
amount of light falling on it.

3.5 CAPACITOR

A capacitor is a tool consisting of two conductive plates, each of which hosts

an opposite charge. These plates are separated by a dielectric or other form of
insulator, which helps them maintain an electric charge. There are several types of
insulators used in capacitors. Examples include ceramic, polyester, tantalum air, and
polystyrene. Other common capacitor insulators include air, paper, and plastic. Each
effectively prevents the plates from touching each other. A capacitor is often used to
store analogue signals and digital data. Another type of capacitor is used in the
telecommunications equipment industry.

FIG. IMAGE OF
CAPACITOR

This type of capacitor is able to

adjust the frequency and tuning of telecommunications equipment and is often
referred to a variable capacitor. A capacitor is also ideal for storing an electron.

32
 A capacitor cannot, however, make electrons. A capacitor measures in
voltage, which differs on each of the two interior plates. Both plates of the capacitor
are charged, but the current flows in opposite directions. A capacitor contains 1.5
volts, which is the same voltage found in a common AA battery.
As voltage is used in a capacitor, one of the two plates becomes filled with a
steady flow of current. At the same time, the current flows away from the other plate.
To understand the flow of voltage in a capacitor, it is helpful to look at naturally
occurring examples. Lightning, for example, is similar to a capacitor. The cloud
represents one of the plates and the ground represents the other. The lightning is the
charging factor moving between the ground and the cloud.

CHAPTER-5

33
 PCB DESIGNING

5.1 INTRODUCTION

A PCB is used to mechanically support and electrically connects electronic

components using conductive pathways, tracks or etched from copper sheets. It is
also referred to as PWB. A PCB populated with electronic components is PCA,
also known as a PCBA. PCB is inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They
require much more layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped
or point-to-point constructed circuits, but are much cheaper and faster for high-
volume production. One of the most discouraging things about making a hardware
project is building PCB. Due to the improvements in printing technologies it is
now relatively easy to make inexpensive high quality PCB's at home.

PCB stands for Printed Circuit Board. It is of two types:

1) General purpose - It is already drilled and etched.

2) Special purpose - It requires step by step process of making layout then

etching and then drilling.

5.2 PCB CONSTRUCTION

The different processes that take place in the fabrication of a PCB are as
follows:-

1. Layout designing
2. Transfer of pattern on copper board.
3. Drying
4. Etching
5. Tinning
6. Drilling
7. Soldering

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 8. Surface cleaning
9. Final inspection of SOLDERING
Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductors, the joint where the
two metallic conductors are to be joined or fused is heated with a device called
soldering iron and then an alloy of tin and lead called solder is applied which melts
and cover the joint. The solder cools and solidifies quickly to ensure a good and
durable connection between the joined metals. Covering the joint with solder prevents
oxidation.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED –
The various tools and equipments required for construction ofPCB are given
below:-

a) Solder kit consist of:-

i) Soldering iron.
ii) Soldering wire.
iii) Flux
b) Tweezers
c) Cutter
d) Multi-meter (Measuring instrument)

CHAPTER-6

35
 APPLICATIONS& ADVANTAGES
6.1APPLICATIONS OF INVERTER

DC POWER SOURCE UTILIZATION

An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar

panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required
voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation,
or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage.

UNINTRRUPTABLE POWER SUPPLY

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply

AC power when main power is not available. When main power is restored, a rectifier
supplies DC power to recharge the batteries.

6.2ADVANTAGES

1. Constant and uninterrupted supply.

2. There is no requirement of electricity and manpower to operate the device.
3. With no moving parts involved, its efficiency is further enhanced.
4. It acts as a power back up solution.
5. Circuit can be checked with 12 volt (DC) universal power supply.
6. This is an ecofriendly means of power generation.
7. It can be used in distant villages where transmission cost is much high.

CONCLUSION

The described design of the system will produce the desired output of the project.
The inverter will supply an AC source from a DC source.

36
 The project described is valuable for the promising potentials it holds within,
ranging from the long run economic benefits to the important environmental
advantages.

FUTURE SCOPE

As whole world is facing a problem of global warming and energy crisis, our
project will help to reduce these problems by using solar energy to generate

37
electricity. Solar energy is an infinite source of energy. Main motto of our project is to
promote use of renewable energy sources. This project is most useful in our life
because in this project one time investment fixed on life time. In future one day
nonrenewable energy will end then we will use to the renewable energy.

The solar inverter made by us is just a prototype for making future projects
which incorporate advanced technologies like micro controlled solar tracking, charge
control, etc. this is to show that solar inverters are very cheap and easy to install so
that the energy demands are shifted on using renewable sources of energy. There is
more advancements pending in this field which will revolutionise the energy stream
and solar energy will be playing the most important role of all.

REFERENCES

38
The reference of the books and websites, we have referred in order to complete
my training report are as follows:-

[1] Khan, B.H.: Non-Conventional Soures of Energy, 5/e, McGraw Hill

Education(India).

[2] Van Valkenburg, M.E. :Network Analysis, 3/e, McGraw Hill Education
(India).

[3] Milliman, Jacob & Christos Halkias: Integrated Electronics, 2/e, McGraw
Hill Education(India).

[4] Gupta, J.B. :Electronics Devices & Circuit, 3/e, S.K. Kataria& Sons, 2009.

[5] Salivahanan, S. & S. Arivazhagan: Digital Electronics, 3/e, Vikas Publication,

2007.

[6] Fitzgerald, A.E., Charles Kingsley & Stephen D. Umans :Electric Machinery,
3/e, McGraw Hill Publication (India).

[7] Hussain, Ashfaq : Electrical Machines, Second Edition, DhanpatRao

Publications.

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