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Unit Number Page Number
Unit 1 03
ww 69
w.E Unit 2
Unit 3
asy 163
Unit 4 En 249
Unit 5
g324
ine
e rin
By www.EasyEngineering.net
g.n
et

1 Differential calculus
1.1 Representation of a function.
wwDefinition. A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D exactly
w.E
one element, called f (x), in a set E.
The set D is called the domain of the function. The number f (x) is the value of
asy
f at x. The range of f is the set of all possible values of f (x) as x varies throughout
the domain. A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain of a
En
function f is called an independent variable. A symbol that represents a number
gin
in the range of f is called a dependent variable.
Example. The area A of a circle depends on the radius r of the circle. The rule
ee
that connects r and A is given by the equation A = πr2 . With each positive number
rin
r, there is associated one value of A and we say that A is a function of r. Here, r is
the independent variable and A is the dependent variable.
g.n
We can think of a function as a machine. If x is in the domain of the function
et
f , then when x enters the machine, it is accepted as an input and the machine
produces an output f (x) according to the rule of the function. Thus, we can think
of the domain as the set of all possible inputs and the range as the set of all possible
outputs.
input x → f → f (x) output
Another way to represent a function is by an Arrow diagram. Each arrow

connects an element of D to an element of E. The arrow indicates that f (x) is

2 Engineering Mathematics - I
associated with x, f (a) is associated with a and so on.
x f (x)
a f (a)
y f (y)
The most common method for visualizing a function is its graph. If f is a
wwfunction with domain D, then its graph is the set of ordered pairs {(x, f (x))/x ∈ D}.
In other words, the graph of f consists of all points (x, y) in the coordinate plane
w.E
such that y = f (x), and x is in the domain of f .
Y
Y
asy
(x, f (x))
En
f (x)
range y = f (x)
0 1
f (1)
2
f (2)
x gin X 0 Domain
X
ee rin
The graph of a function f gives us a useful picture of the behavior of a function.
g.n
Since the y−coordinate of any point (x, y) on the graph is y = f (x), we can read the
value of f (x) from the graph as being the height of the graph above the point x. The
graph of f also allows us to picture the domain of f on the x−axis and its range on
the y−axis. et
Example 1.1. Sketch the graph of f (x) = 2x + 1 and find the domain and range.
Solution.
Y
−1
x 0
2 1
y 1 0
X
−1/2
y = 2x + 1

Differential calculus 3
The equation of the graph is y = 2x + 1. This represents a line with slope 2 and
y−intercept 1. With these informations, we can sketch the portion of the graph of
f . The expression 2x + 1 is defined for all real numbers, and hence the domain of
f is the set of all real numbers, which we denote by R. The graph shows that the
range is also R.
Example 1.2. Sketch the graph of g(x) = x2 and find the domain and range.
Solution. The equation of the graph is y = x2 .
ww Y
w.E x
y
−2
4
−1
1
0
0
1
1
2
4
8
6
asy 4
2
y = x2
En −2 −1 0 1 2
X
gin
From the tabular column we can plot the points (−2, 4), (−1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1) and (2, 4)
ee
and join them to produce the graph, which represents a parabola. The domain of
rin
g is R. The range of g consists of all values of g(x), that is, all numbers of the form
x2 . But x2 ≥ 0 for all numbers x and any positive number y is a square. Hence, the
range of g is {y : y ≥ 0} = [0, ∞].
g.n
the xy−plane represent the graph of some function. This can be answered by the
vertical line test.
et
The graph of a function is a curve in the xy−plane. But whether all curves in
The vertical line test. A curve in the xy−plane is the graph of a function of
x if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
Consider the following graphs.

Y Y
(a, c)
x=a x=a
(a, b) (a, b)
X X
a 0 a
0
ww In the first graph, each vertical line x = a intersects the curve only once, at
w.E
(a, b), then exactly one function value is defined by f (a) = b. But in the second
graph, the line x = a intersects the curve twice at (a, b) and (a, c), that is, the
asy
function assigns two different values to a. Hence, the first curve represents the
graph of a function while the second graph is not.
En
As an illustration consider the parabola x = y2 − 4. The curve that represents
this equation is give below.
gin
Y
ee This curve does not represent the
rin
graph of a function of x because, we can
see that every vertical line intersects
x = y2 − 4
g.n
the parabola twice. This parabola is the
union of the graphs of two functions of
(−4, 0)
0 X
√
we get y = ± x + 2.
et
x. Rewriting the equation as y2 = x + 4
Hence, the upper and lower halves of the parabola are the graphs of the
√ √
functions f (x) = x + 4 and g(x) = − x + 4. The separate graphs are given below.

√
Y
Y y= x+4
(−4, 0)
(−4, 0) 0 X
0 X
√
y=− x+4
ww If we reverse the roles of x and y, then we get the equation x = h(y) = y2 − 4

definitely define x as a function of y with y as the independent variables and x as
w.E
the dependent variable and in this case, the parabola represent the graph of the
function h.
Piecewise difined functions.

asy
En

1 − x , if x ≤ −1



Example 1.3. Consider the function f defined by f (x) =  .

gin

 x2

 , if x > −1
For all x ≤ −1.

x -3 -2 -1
ee Y
6
rin
y=1−x 4 3 2
5
4 g.n
For all x > −1.
x
y = x2
-1
1
0
0
1
1
2
4
3
9
3
2
1
et
The combined graph of the function f is X
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
as follows
Notice that the point (−1, 1) in y = x2 is not included and there is a discontinuity
between the graph for all x ≤ 1 (i.e.y = 1 − x) and the graph for all x > 1 (i.e. y = x2 ).

Example 1.4. Consider the absolute value function f (x) = |x|, which is defined as

x , if x ≥ 0



follows f (x) =  . The graph of f (x) consists of two branches namely


−x , if x < 0


y = x for all x ≥ 0 and y = −x for all x < 0.
The combined graph of f is given below.

y = x (x ≥ 0)
Y
ww x
y
0
0
1
1
2
2
3
3
3 y = |x|
w.E x
y = −x (x < 0)
-3 -2 -1 0
2
1
X
y 3 2
asy
1 0
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
En
Notice that the point (0, 0) is not included in the graph of y = −x (x < 0).
gin







x , if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
ee


Example 1.5. Consider the function f (x) =  , if 1 < x ≤ 2 .


2−x

rin



0 , if x > 2


y = x (0 ≤ x ≤ 1)
y = 2 − x (1 ≤ x ≤ 2)
x 1 2 x g.n
y = 0 (x > 2)
2 3 4 5
x
y
0
0
1
1
y 1 0 y 0
et 0 0 0
The graph of f is given below.
1
X
0 1 2 3 4 5

Example 1.6. Consider the greatest integer function defined by f (x) = [x].
By definition [x]= Largest integer that is less than or equal to x
= max{m ∈ Z; m ≤ x}.
Example. [2.7] = 2, [−1.3] = −2, [4] = 4
The graph of the function is as follows
The open dots are not included at the

Y
ww 5
corresponding points.
The Examples 1.3 to 1.6 indicate that
w.E 4
3
2
there is jump from one value to the
next. Hence, the above functions are
1
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
asy X
called piecewise functions. The function
discussed in Example 1.6 is called step
−1
−2 En function.
gin
symmetry
ee rin
Even function. If a function f satisfies f (−x) = f (x) for every number x in its
domain, then f is called an even function.
Example. f (x) = x2 is even,

g.n
since f (−x) = (−x)2 = x2 = f (x).
Geometrically, tha graph of an even
Y
et
function is symmetric about the y−axis.
f (−x) f (x)
Consider the curve of y = x2 − 4.
0 X
−x x

Odd function. If f statifies f (−x) = − f (x) for every number x in the domain, then
f is called an odd function.
Example. Consider f (x) = x3
f (−x) = (−x)3 = −x3 = − f (x).
∴ f (x) = x3 is an odd function.
Y
f (x)
−x
X
ww − f (x)
0 x
w.E
The graph of the odd function is symmetric about the origin.
(i) f (x) = x5 − x. asy

Example 1.7. Determine the nature of the following functions.
(ii) g(x) = 1 + x4 . (iii) h(x) = x + x2 .
Solution.
(i) f (x) = x5 − x. En
gin
f (−x) = (−x)5 − (−x) = −x5 + x = −(x5 − x) = − f (x).
∴ f (x) is odd.
(ii) g(x) = 1 + x4 . ee
g(−x) = 1 + (−x)4 = 1 + x4 = g(x).
rin
∴ g(x) is even.
(iii) h(x) = x + x2 . g.n
h(−x) = (−x) + (−x)2 = −x + x2 .
h(−x) , h(x) and h(−x) , −h(x)
et
∴ h(x) is neither even nor odd.
Increasing and decreasing functions. A function f is called increasing on an

interval I, if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 in I.
It is called decreasing on I, if f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 in I.

1.2 Limit of a function
Definition. Intuitive definition of a limit. Suppose f (x) is defined. When x is

near the number a, then we write lim f (x) = L. This means that the limit of f (x),
x→a
as x approaches a equals L.
lim f (x) = L can also be represented as f (x) → L as x → a.
x→a
One sided limits. The left hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a is written as
lim f (x) = L which means that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left
ww x→a−
is equal to L if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x
sufficiently close to a with x less than a.
w.E Similarly, if we require that x greater than a, we get the right hand limit of
f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L and we write lim f (x) = L.
x→a asy x→a−

x→a+
Result. lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L.
x→a+
Infinite limits.
En
gin
(i) Let f ba a function defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) = ∞ means that the value of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large by taking x
x→a
ee
sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
rin
(ii) Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, expect possibly at a itself. Then
x→a
by taking x sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a. g.n
lim f (x) = −∞ means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large negative
1
Example. lim 2 = ∞.
x→0 x
1
!
lim − 2 = −∞.
x→0 x
et
Asymptote. The vertical line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve
y = f (x) if atleast one of the following statements is true:
lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = ∞.
x→a x→a− x→a+
lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = −∞, lim f (x) = −∞.
x→a x→a− x→a+
2x
Example. (i) For the function f (x) = , x = 3 is a vertical asymptote.
x−3

π
(ii) For the curve f (x) = tan x, x =
is a vertical asymptote.
2
Laws of limits. Suppose that c is a constant and the limits lim f (x) and lim g(x)
x→a x→a
exist, then the following laws are true.
1. lim f (x) + g(x) = lim f (x)+ lim g(x).

x→a x→a x→a

2. lim f (x) − g(x) = lim f (x) − lim g(x).
x→a x→a x→a

3. lim c f (x) = c lim f (x).
x→a x→a
ww 4. lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) × lim g(x).

x→a x→a x→a
" # lim f (x)
f (x)
w.E 5. lim
x→a g(x)
= x→a

lim g(x)
x→a
. if lim g(x) , 0.
n
x→a
6. lim f (x) n = lim f (x) , where n is a positive integer.
asy

x→a x→a
7. lim c = c.
En
x→a
8. lim x = a.
gin
x→a
9. lim xn = an , where n is a positive integer

x→a
10. lim
x→a
11. lim
√n
p
n
x=
√n
f (x) =
q
n lim f (x).
ee
a, where n is a positive integer and a > 0.
rin
g.n
x→a x→a
Direct substitution property. If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a

is in the domain of f , then lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
Theorem. If f (x) ≤ g(x), when x is near a and the limits of f and g both exist as x
approaches a, then lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x).
x→a x→a
et
The Squeeze Theorem. If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x), when x is near a and
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L, then lim g(x) = L.
x→a x→a x→a
The above theorem is sometimes called Sandwich Theorem or the Pinching
Theorem.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌

Example 1.8. Find lim (2x2 − 3x + 4).

x→5
Solution. lim (2x2 − 3x + 4) = lim 2x2 − lim 3x + lim 4

x→5 x→5 x→5 x→5
= 2 lim x2 − 3 lim x + 4
x→5 x→5
2
= 2 × 5 − 3 × 5 + 4 = 50 − 15 + 4 = 39.
x3 + 2x2 − 1
Example 1.9. Find lim .
x→−2 5 − 3x
wwSolution. lim
x→−2
x3 + 2x2 − 1
5 − 3x
=
lim x3 + 2x2 − 1
x→−2
lim 5 − 3x
x→−2
w.E =
lim x3 + lim 2x2
x→−2 x→−2
lim 5 − lim 3x
− lim 1
x→−2
asy
x→−2 x→−2
lim x3 + 2 lim x2 − 1
x→−2 x→−2
=
En
lim 5 − 3 lim x
x→−2 x→−2
−8 + 2(−2)2
−1
=
=gin 5 − 3(−2)
−8 + 8 − 1
=− .
1
Example 1.10. Find lim

x→1
x2 − 1
x−1
.
ee
5+6 11
rin
Solution. lim
x2 − 1
x→1 x − 1
= lim
x→1
(x + 1)(x − 1)
x−1
= lim (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2.
x→1 g.n
Example 1.11. Find lim f (x) where f (x) = 
x→1

 x + 1 , ifx , 1






π
 , ifx = 1
. et
Solution. f is defined at x = 1 and g(1) = π.
But the value of a limit as x approahces 1 does not depend on the value
of the function at 1.
Since g(x) = x + 1 for x , 1, we have
lim g(x) = lim (x + 1) = 2.
x→1 x→1

(3 + x)2 − 9
Example 1.12. Evaluate lim .
x→0 x
(3 + x)2 − 9 (3 + x − 3)(3 + x + 3)
Solution. lim = lim
x→0 x x→0 x
x(6 + x)
= lim
x→0 x
= lim (6 + x) = 6.
x→0
√
x2 + 9 − 3
ww x→0 x2
Solution. On rationalizing the numerator we get
√ √ √
w.E lim
x→0
x2 + 9 − 3
x2
= lim
x→0
x2 + 9 − 3
2
x2
x +9−9
× √
x2 + 9 + 3
x2 + 9 + 3
asy
= lim √
x→0 x2 x2 + 9 + 3
x2
En
= lim √
x→0 x2 x2 + 9 + 3
1 1 1
= lim √
x→0
gin =
x2 + 9 + 3 3 + 3 6
= .
Example 1.14. Show that lim |x| = 0.

x→0
Solution. We know that |x| = 


x





ee
, ifx ≥ 0
−x , ifx < 0
.
rin
g.n


Since |x| = −x for x < 0, we have lim |x| = lim −x = 0.
x→0− x→0−
Also |x| = x for x > 0, we have lim |x| = lim x = 0.
∴ lim |x| = lim |x| = 0.
x→0− x→0+
Hence, lim |x| = 0.
x→0
x→0+ x→0+
et
|x|
Example 1.15. Prove that lim does not exist.
x→0 x

x , ifx ≥ 0




Solution. We know that |x| = 
 .
−x , ifx < 0



|x| x
Now, lim = lim = 1.
x→0+ x x→0+ x
|x| −x
lim = lim = −1.
x→0− x x→0− x
|x| |x| |x|
Since lim , lim , lim does not exist.
x→0+ x x→0− x x→0 x
√
 x − 4 , ifx > 4



Example 1.16. If f (x) =  , determine whether lim f (x) exists.

 x→4
8 − 2x , ifx < 4


√
Solution. We have f (x) = x − 4 for x > 4.
ww
√
∴ lim f (x) = lim x − 4 = 0.
x→4+ x→4+
Also, f (x) = 8 − 2x for x < 4.
w.E ∴ lim f (x) = lim (8 − 2x) = 0.

x→4− x→4−
Since lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0, we have lim f (x) exists and lim f (x) = 0.
asy
x→4+ x→4− x→4 x→4
Example 1.17. Show that for the greatest integer function [x], lim [x] does not
x→3
exist.
En
Solution. By definition [x] = 3 for 3 ≤ x < 4.
∴ lim [x] = lim 3 = 3.
x→3+ x→3+ gin
Also [x] = 2 for 2 ≤ x < 3.
∴ lim [x] = lim 2 = 2.
x→3− x→3− ee
Since lim [x] , lim [x], lim [x] does not exist.
rin
g.n
x→3+ x→3− x→3
1.3 Continuity
Definition. A function f is continuous at a number a, if lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a
et
f is discontinuous at a if it is not continuous at a.
Note. For proving a function f to be continuous, we have to prove the following.
1. f (a) must be defined.
2. lim f (x) exists.

x→a

3. lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a
x2 − x − 2
Example. Consider f (x) = .
x−2
Here, f (x) is not defined at x = 2.
∴ f is not continuous at x = 2.

x2 −x−2
, ifx , 2



 x−2

If we define f (x) as f (x) = 
 .
, ifx = 2

1

Then
ww(i) f (2) is defined and f (2) = 1.

x2 − x − 2 (x − 2)(x + 1)
w.E
(ii) lim f (x) = lim
x→2 x→2 x−2
= lim
x→2 x−2
= lim (x + 1) = 3
x→2
(iii) Since f (2) = 1 , lim f (x), f (x) is not continuous at x = 2.

x→2
asy
Definition. A function f is said to be continuous from the right at a number a if
En
lim f (x) = f (a), and f is said to be continuous from the left at a if lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a+ x→a−
Example. Consider the greatest integer function f (x) = [x]. We notice that
x→n+ x→n+
gin
lim f (x) = lim [x] = n = f (n)
lim f (x) = lim [x] = n − 1 , f (n).
left.
x→n− x→n−
ee
∴ f (x) = [x] is continuous from the right but not continuous from the
rin
Definition. A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every
number in the interval. g.n
Theorem. If f and g are continuous at a and c is a constant, then the following
functions are also continuous at a.
1. f + g 2. f − g 3. c f 4. f g 5.
f
g(a) , 0.
et
g
Theorem.
(a) Any polynomial is continuous everywhere. i.e., it iscontinuous on R = (−∞, ∞).
(b) Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined, i.e., it is continuous

on its domain.

Theorem. The following types of functions are continuous at every number in

their domains.
1. Polynomials.
2. Rational functions.
3. Root functions.
4. Trigonometric functions.
ww 5. Inverse trigonometric functions.
w.E6. Exponential functions.
7. Logarithmic functions.
asy
Theorem. If f is continuous at b, and lim g(x) = b, then lim f (g(x)) = f (b).
En x→a
x→a
i.e., lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a
gin
Theorem. If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then the composite
function f og given by ( f og)(x) = f (g(x)) is continuous at a.
ee
The intermediate value theorem. Suppose that f is continuous on the closed
rin
interval [a, b] and let N be any number between f (a) and f (b), where f (a) , f (b).
g.n
Then there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f (c) = N.
Result. The intermediate value theorem is useful in the location of the roots
of the given equation.
Example 1.18. Find the domain where the fnction f is continuous. Also find the
et
numbers  at which the function f is discontinous where
1 + x2





 , if x ≤ 0



f (x) =  , if 0 < x ≤ 2 . [A.U. Dec. 2015]


2−x



(x − 2)2 x

, if x > 2


Solution. The function f changes its value at x = 0, and x = 2.

lim f (x) = lim (1 + x2 ) = 1.

x→0− x→0−
lim f (x) = lim (2 − x) = 2.
x→0+ x→0+
Since, lim f (x) = lim f (x), f is not continuous at x = 0.
x→0− x→0+
lim f (x) = lim (2 − x) = 0.
x→2− x→2−
lim f (x) = lim (x − 2)2 = 0.
x→2+ x→2+
Since, lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0 = f (2), f (x) is continuous at x = 2.
x→2− x→2+
∴ The only number at which the function is discontinuous is at x = 0.
ww The domain of continuity of f is {(−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

The graph of f is given below
w.E
For all x ≤ 0.
The combined graph of the function f is
y = f (x) = 1 + x2 .
asy as follows
Y
x
y
-3
10
-2
5
-1
2 En
0
1
10
9
For all 0 < x ≤ 2.
gin 1 + x2
8
7
y = f (x) = 2 − x.
x
y
0
2
1
1
2
0
ee 6
5
4 rin
For all x > 2. 3
g.n
y = f (x) = (x − 2)2 .
x
y
2
0
3
1
4
4
−4 −3 −2 −1 0
2
1
2−x
1 2
et3
(x − 2)2
4
X
Notice that the point (−1, 1) in y = x2 is not included and there is a discontinuity
between the graph for all x ≤ 1 (i.e.y = 1 − x) and the graph for all x > 1 (i.e. y = x2 ).
Example 1.19. Show that there is a root of the equation 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 between

1 and 2.
Solution.Let f (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2.
f (1) = 4(1)3 − 6(1)2 + 3(1) − 2 = 4 − 6 + 3 − 2 = −1 < 0.
f (2) = 4(2)3 − 6(2)2 + 3(2) − 2
= 4 × 8 − 6 × 4 + 3 × 2 − 2 = 32 − 24 + 6 − 2 = 12 > 0.
wwThe function changes its sign between 1 and 2.
w.E
Since f (x) is a polynomial, which is
continuous in its domain the graph of
Y
asy
y = f (x) must cross the x−axis atleast
at one point say x = c between x = 1
f (1)
En
and x = 2 such that f (c) = 0, which is c 2
X
gin
the root of the equation f (x) = 0. This
proves that the given equation f (x) = 0
1
f (2)
has a root between 1 and 2.

ee rin
Example 1.20. Prove that the equation x3 − 15x + 1 = 0 has atmost one real root
in the interval [−2, 2].
g.n
[A.U.Nov.2016]
Solution. Let f (x) = x3 − 15x + 1
f (−2) = −8 + 30 + 1 = 23 = +ve.
et
f (−1) = −1 + 15 + 1 = 15 = +ve. + + +
f (0) = 1 = +ve.
f (1) = 1 − 15 + 1 = −13 = −ve. −2 −1 0 1 2
f (2) = 8 − 30 + 1 = −21 = −ve. − −

Hence, f (0) > 0 > f (1).

f changes sign between 0 and 1.
∴ By intermediate value theorem, there is a number c between 1 and 2
such that f (c) = 0.
∴ The given equation has atleast one root c in the interval (0, 1).
Since f (x) changes sign in the interval [−2, 2] only once between 0 and
1, y = f (x) crosses the x axis only once.
i.e., f (x) attains 0 only once in [−2, 2]
ww Hence, there is atmost one real root in the interval [−2, 2].
w.E
1.4 Derivatives and differentiation rules
asy
Definition. The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P(a, f (a)) is the line
f (x) − f (a)
through P with slope m = lim
x→a
En x−a
.
gin
Definition. The derivative of a function f at a number a, denoted by f ′ (a) is
f (a + h) − f (a)
defined as f ′ (a) = lim
is f ′ (a) = lim
h→0
f (x) − f (a)
.
h
ee , if the limit exists.
rin
Note. Let x = a+h. As h → 0, x → a. The equivalent definition for the derivative
x→a x−a
✎
Worked Examples
☞
g.n
✍ ✌
et
Example 1.21. Find an equation to the tangent line to the parabola y = x2 at the
point P(1, 1).
Solution. Given a = 1, f (a) = 1, f (x) = x2 .
f (x) − f (1)
Slope m = lim
x→1 x−1
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
= lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2.
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x−1 x→1

Equation of the tangent line through (1, 1) is
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).
y − 1 = 2(x − 1)
y = 2x − 2 + 1
y = 2x − 1.
wwExample 1.22. Find an equation to the tangent line to the hyperbola y =

point (3, 1).
x
at the
w.E
Solution. Given a = 3, f (a) = f (3) = 1.
We have m = lim
f (a + h) − f (a)
asy
h→0
= lim
h
f (3 + h) − f (3)
En
h→0 h
3
−1
= lim 3+h
h→0
= lim gin
h
3−3−h
h→0 h(3 + h)
= lim
−h
ee
h→0 h(3 + h)
= lim
−1
h→0 (3 + h)
=
−1
3
.
rin
∴ The equation of the tangent line is
g.n
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).
y−1=
−1
3
(x − 3)
et
3y − 3 = −x + 3
x + 3y − 3 − 3 = 0
x + 3y − 6 = 0.
Example 1.23. Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 − 8x + 9 at a number

a. Find also the equation the tangent line at the point (3, −6).
f (a + h) − f (a)
Solution. f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
(a + h) − 8(a + h) + 9 − (a2 − 8a + 9)
2
= lim
h→0 h
a + h + 2ah − 8a − 8h + 9 − a2 + 8a − 9
2 2
= lim
h→0 h
h2 + 2ah − 8h
= lim
h→0 h
ww = lim (h + 2a − 8) = 2a − 8.
h→0
We have m = f ′ (a) = f ′ (3) = 2 × 3 − 8 = −2.
w.E ∴ The equation of the tangent line is
asy
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).
y + 6 = −2(x − 3)
En = −2x + 6
gin
2x + y = 0.
ee
Derivative of a function. Let f (x) be a given function. The derivative of f (x) at
f (x + h) − f (x)
any variable point x is defined by f ′ (x) = lim .
h→0 h
Example 1.24. If f (x) = x3 − x, find a formula for f ′ (x). rin
Solution.Given f (x) = x3 − x. g.n
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0
= lim
f (x + h) − f (x)
h
(x + h)3 − (x + h) − (x3 − x)
et
h→0 h
x + 3x h + 3xh2 + h3 − x − h − x3 + x
3 2
= lim
h→0 h
2 2
3x h + 3xh + h − h3
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 3x2 + 3xh + h2 − 1 = 3x2 − 1.
h→0

√
Example 1.25. If f (x) = x, find the derivative of f . State the domain of f ′ .
√
Solution.Given f (x) = x.
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
√ √
x+h− x
= lim
h→0 h
√ √ √ √
x+h− x x+h+ x
= lim × √ √
h→0 h x+h+ x
ww = lim √
h→0 h
x+h−x
x+h+ x
√
w.E = lim √
h→0 h
h
√
x+h+ x
1 1 1
asy
= lim √
h→0
√ = √
x+h+ x
√ = √ .
x+ x 2 x
En
From this we notice that f ′ (x) exists if x > 0.
∴ The domain of f ′ is (0, ∞).
gin
ee
Example 1.26. Where is the function f (x) = |x| differentiable. [A.U. Nov. 2015]

x if x ≥ 0

rin



Solution. We have that |x| =  .
−x if x < 0


Consider x > 0. Then |x| = x. We choose h small enough such that x + h > 0.
∴ |x + h| = x + h. g.n
∴ When x > 0,
f ′ (x) = lim
f (x + h) − f (x)
et
h→0 h
|x + h| − |x|
= lim
h→0 h
x+h−x h
= lim = lim = lim 1 = 1.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
∴ f is differentiable for x > 0.

Consider x = 0.
f (0 + h) − f (x)
f ′ (0) = lim
h→0 h
|0 + h| − |x|
= lim
h→0 h
|h|
= lim [if it exists]
h→0 h
Let us find the left and right limits.

|h| h
lim = lim = lim 1 = 1.
ww
h→0+ h h→0+ h h→0+
|h| −h
lim = lim = lim −1 = −1.
h→0− h h→0− h h→0
Since the two limits are different, f ′ (0) does not exist.
w.E ∴ f is not differentiable at x = 0.

Consider x < 0.
asy
In this case |x| = −x.
En
Choose h small so that x + h < 0.
∴ |x + h| = −(x + h)
∴ For x < 0,
gin
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0
= lim
h→0
h
−(x + h) − (−x)
h
ee
f (x + h) − f (x)
rin
= lim
h→0
−x − h + x
h
= lim
−h
h→0 h
= lim −1 = −1.
h→0
g.n
∴ f is differentiable for x < 0.
et
Combining all the three cases we obtain that f is differentiable at all x except 0.

ifx > 0
1



′

∴ f (x) = 
 .
−1 ifx < 0


Theorem. If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.

Proof. Given that f is differentiable at a.
f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (x) = lim exits. (1)
x→a x−a

f (x) − f (a)
Now, f (x) − f (a) = (x − a)
x−a
Taking limits as x → a both sides we get
f (x) − f (a)
lim f (x) − f (a) = lim (x − a)
x→a x→a x−a
f (x) − f (a)
= lim × lim (x − a)
x→a x−a x→a
= f ′ (a) × 0 [by (1)]
lim f (x) − f (a) = 0 (2)

x→a
ww Also lim f (x) = lim f (a) + ( f (x) − f (a))

x→a x→a
= lim + lim ( f (x) − f (a))
w.E x→a
= f (a) + 0
x→a
[by (1)]
x→a
asy
lim f (x) = f (a)
∴ f (x) is continuous at a.
En
Result. The converse of the above theorem is false.
gin
i.e., If a function is continuous at a need not be differentiable at a.
For example consider the function f (x) = |x|.

lim f (x) = lim |x| = 0 = f (0).
x→a x→a
ee
But by example 1.26, f (x) = |x| is not differentiable at 0.
rin
g.n
Higher derivatives. If a function f is differentiable, then its derivative f ′ is also
a function. Hence, f ′ may have a derivative of its own denoted by ( f ′ )′ = f ′′ . f ′′ is
called !the second derivative of f . The second derivative of y = f (x) is denoted by
d dy
dx dx
d2 y
= 2 . In a similar way we can have the third derivative of f denoted by
dx
d d2 y
!
d3 y
et
( f ′′ )′ = f ′′′ . If y = f (x) then we have y′′′ = f ′′′ (x) = = . If this process is
dx dx2 dx3
continued we can get in general, the nth derivative of f denoted by f (n) is obtained
dn y
by differentiating f n times. Generally if y = f (x) then we write y(n) = f (n) (x) = n .
dx
Rules on differentiation
1. The sum rule. If f and g are both differentiable, then

d d d
g(x) .

f (x) + g(x) = f (x) +
dx dx dx
Proof. Let F(x) = f (x) + g(x). Then,
F(x + h) − F(x)
F ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
f (x + h) + g(x + h) − [ f (x) + g(x)]
= lim
h→0 h
[ f (x + h) − f (x)] + [g(x + h) − g(x)]
= lim
h→0 h
[ f (x + h) − f (x)]
= lim + lim [g(x + h) − g(x)]h
ww h→0 h
= f ′ (x) + g′ (x).
h→0
w.E 2. Constant multiple rule. If c is a constant and f is a differentiable function,

then
d
c f (x) = c
d
f (x) .
dx
asy
dx
Proof. Let F(x) = c f (x). Then,
En F ′ (x) = lim
h→0
F(x + h) − F(x)
h
gin = lim
h→0
c f (x + h) − c f (x)
h
ee
c[ f (x + h) − f (x)]
= lim
h→0 h
= c lim
h→0
[ f (x + h) − f (x)]
h
rin
= c f ′ (x) = c
d
dx

f (x) .
g.n
3. The difference rule.
d
dx

f (x) − g(x) =
d
dx
f (x) −
If f and g are both differentiable, then
d
dx

g(x) .
et
Proof. We have f (x) − g(x) = f (x) + (−)g(x).
d d
f (x) − g(x) = f (x) + (−1)g(x)
dx dx
d d
= f (x) + (−1)g(x) [by sum rule]
dx dx
d d
= f (x) + (−1) g(x) [by constant multiple rule]
dx dx

d d
= f (x) − g(x) .
dx dx
4. The product rule. If f and g are both differentiable, then

d d d
f (x) × g(x) = f (x) g(x) + g(x) f (x) .
dx dx dx
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x)g(x)
Proof. ( f (x)g(x))′ = lim
h→0 h
f (x + h)g(x + h) − f (x + h)g(x) + f (x + h)g(x) − f (x)g(x)
= lim
h→0 h
ww = lim
h→0
f (x + h){g(x + h) − g(x)} + g(x){ f (x + h) − f (x)}
(
h
g(x + h) − g(x) f (x + h) − f (x)
)
w.E = lim f (x + h)
h→0
= lim f (x + h) lim
h
+ g(x)
g(x + h) − g(x)
h
+ lim g(x) lim
f (x + h) − f (x)
asy
h→0 h→0
( f (x)g(x))′ = f (x)g′ (x) + g(x) f ′ (x).

h h→0 h→0 h
5. Quotient rule. En
If f d and g are both differentiable, then
"
d f (x)
dx g(x)
#
=
d
g(x) dx
[g(x)] 2 gin
f (x) − f (x) dx g(x)
.
Proof.
f (x)
g(x)
!′ 


= lim 
h→0 


ee
 f (x+h) f (x) 
 g(x+h) − g(x) 
h







rin
= lim
h→0
(
f (x + h)g(x) − g(x + h) f (x)
hg(x + h)g(x)
)
g.n
= lim
h→0
= lim
(
(
hg(x + h)g(x)
g(x)[ f (x + h) − f (x)] − f (x)[g(x + h) − g(x)]
et
f (x + h)g(x) − f (x)g(x) + f (x)g(x) − g(x + h) f (x)
)
)
h→0 hg(x + h)g(x)

f (x+h)− f (x)
− f (x) g(x+h)−g(x)
 
 g(x)

 h h


= lim 

g(x + h)g(x)

h→0 
 

f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
lim g(x) − lim f (x)
h→0 h h→0 h
=
lim g(x + h)g(x)
h→0

f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)

lim g(x) lim − lim f (x) lim
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
=
g(x)g(x)
g(x) f ′ (x) − f (x)g′ (x)
= .
[g(x)]2
Derivatives of simple functions

d
1. If c is a constant, prove that (c) = 0.
dx
Proof. Let f (x) = c.
ww f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
w.E = lim
c−c
h→0 h
0
= lim = 0.
h→0 h
asy
2. If n is a positive integer, then prove that
Proof. Let f (x) = xn .
d n
dx
(x ) = nxn−1 .
En
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0
= lim
h
(x + h)n − xn
gin
ee
h→0 h
x + C1 xn−1 h + nC2 xn−2 h2 + nC3 xn−3 h3 + · · · + hn − xn
n n
rin
= lim
h→0 h
n−1 n(n−1) n−2 2 n(n−1)(n−2) n−3 3
nx h + 2 x h + x h + · · · + hn
g.n
6
= lim
h→0 h
n−1 n(n − 1) n−2 1 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 2
= lim nx + x h + x h + · · · + hn−1
h→0
= lim nxn−1 + lim

h→0 h→0
2
n(n − 1) n−2 1
2
x h + lim
h→0
6
n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 2
6
et
x h + · · · + lim hn−1
h→0
= nxn−1 + 0 + 0 + · · · + 0 = nxn−1 .
d n
General rule. If n ia any real number, then (x ) = nxn−1 .
dx

d x
3. Derivative of e x . Prove that (e ) = e x .
dx
eh − 1
Definition of the number e. e is a number such that lim = 1.
h→0 h
Proof. Let f (x) = e x .
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
e x+h − e x
= lim
h→0 h
e e − ex
x h
ww = lim
h→0
= lim e
h
h
x e −1
!
w.E h→0
x
= lim e × lim
h
eh − 1
h
!
= ex × 1 = ex .
asy
h→0 h→0
Two important limits
1. Prove that lim

sin θ
θ→0 θ
= 1.
En
gin
Proof. Consider a circle with center
D
O and radius 1 unit.

subtends an angle θ at the centre
π
ee
Let arc(AB) B
rin E
and assume that 0 < θ < . Draw
2
BC perpendicular to OA. Let the
θ
0 C
g.n A
tangents at A and B meet at E.

Produce AE and OB to intersect at D. et
Now we have arcAB = θ.
BC BC
From ∆OAB, sin θ = OB = 1 .
∴ |BC| = sin θ.
From the figure we have
|BC| < |AB| < arcAB.

∴ sin θ < θ.
sin θ
⇒ < 1. (1)
θ
Again form the figure,
arcAB < |AE| + |EB|
∴ θ = arcAB < |AE| + |EB| < |AB| + |ED| = |AD| = |OA| tan θ = tan θ.
∴ θ < tan θ.
sin θ
i.e., θ <
ww cos θ
θ cos θ < sin θ
sin θ
w.E cos θ <

θ
Taking limit as θ → 0 we get

<1 [by(1)]
lim cos θ < lim

θ→0
sin θ
θ→0 θ asy
< lim 1
θ→0
1 < lim
θ→0 θ
sin θ
<1
En
sin θ
By squeeze theorem lim
θ→0 θ
gin= 1.
2. Prove that lim

θ→0
cos θ − 1
θ
= 0. ee rin
Proof. lim
θ→0
cos θ − 1
θ
= lim
θ→0
cos θ − 1 cos θ + 1
θ
2
×
cos θ + 1
− sin2 θ
g.n
et
cos θ − 1
= lim = lim
θ→0 θ(cos θ + 1) θ→0 θ(cos θ + 1)
sin θ sin θ 0
= − lim × lim = −1 × = 0.
θ→0 θ θ→0 (cos θ + 1) 1+1
cos θ − 1
∴ lim = 0.
θ→0 θ
Derivatives of trigonometric functions
d
1. Prove that (sin x) = cos x.
dx

Proof. Let f (x) = sin(x)

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
sin(x + h) − sin(x)
= lim
h→0 h
sin(x) cos(h) + cos(x) sin(h) − sin(x)
= lim
h→0 h
sin(x)(cos(h) − 1) + cos(x) sin(h)
= lim
h→0 h
!
sin(x)(cos(h) − 1) cos(x) sin(h)
= lim +
ww h→0
= lim sin(x)
h
(cos(h) − 1)
h
h
+ lim cos(x)
sin(h)
h
!
w.E
h→0 h→0
!
(cos(h) − 1) sin(h)
= sin(x) lim + cos(x) lim
h→0 h h→0 h
asy
= sin(x) × 0 + cos(x) × 1 = 0 + cos(x) = cos(x).
2. Prove that
d
dx
En
(cos x) = − sin x.
gin
Proof. Let f (x) = cos(x)
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0
= lim
h→0
= lim
ee h
cos(x + h) − cos(x)
h
cos(x) cos(h) − sin(x) sin(h) − cos(x)
rin
h→0
= lim
h
cos(x)(cos(h) − 1) − sin(x) sin(h)
g.n
h→0
= lim
h→0 h
h
cos(x)(cos(h) − 1) sin(x) sin(h)
(cos(h) − 1)
−
h
!
sin(h)
!
et
= lim cos(x) − lim sin(x)
h→0 h h→0 h
= cos(x) × 0 − sin(x) × 1 = − sin(x).
f ′ (x) = − sin x.
d
3. Prove that (tan x) = sec2 x.
dx

Proof. Let f (x) = tan(x)

d d
cos x dx (sin x) − sin x dx (cos x)
!
d d sin x
(tan x) = = 2
dx dx cos x cos x
cos x × cos x − sin x × (− sin x)
=
cos2 x
2
cos2 x + sin x 1
= = = sec2 x.
cos2 x cos2 x
d
4. Prove that (cosecx) = −cosecx cot x.
dx
ww Proof.
d
dx
(cosecx) =
d 1
dx sin x
!
=
d
sin x dx
sin2 x
d
(1) − 1 × dx (sin x)
w.E =
sin x × 0 − 1 × (cos x)
− cos x
sin2 x
−1 cos x
=
asy 2
sin x
= ×
sin x sin x
= −cosecx cot x.
En
d
5. Prove that (sec x) = sec x tan x.
dx
gin d
cos x dx d
(1) − 1 × dx (cos x)
!
d d 1
Proof. (sec x) = = 2
dx dx cos x cos x
=
=
sin x
2
=
ee
cos x × 0 − 1 × (− sin x)
cos2 x
sin x
cos x cos x cos x
×
1
= sec x tan x.
rin
6. Prove that
d
(cot x) = −cosec2 x. g.n
et
dx
d d
d d cos x sin x dx (cos x) − cos x × dx (sin x)
Proof. (cot x) = =
dx dx sin x sin2 x
sin x × (− sin x) − cos x × (cos x)
=
sin2 x
− sin2 x − cos2 x −(sin2 x + cos2 x) 1
= 2
= 2
= − 2 = −cosec2 x.
sin x sin x sin x
The chain rule. If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at g(x), then the

composite function F = f og defined by F(x) = f (g(x)) is differentiable at x and F ′ is

given by the product F ′ (x) = f ′ (g(x)) × g′ (x).

Proof. Let y = F(x) = f (g(x))
Let u = g(x) ⇒ y = f (u)
Let ∆x be a small change in x, then ∆u is the corresponding change in u.
∆u = g(x + ∆x) − g(x).
Then the corresponding change in y is given by
∆y = f (u + ∆u) − f (u)
dy ∆y
ww Now, = lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
= lim
∆y ∆u
×
w.E ∆x→0 ∆u
= lim
∆y
∆x→0 ∆u
∆x
× lim
∆u
∆x→0 ∆x
= lim
asy
∆y
∆x→0 ∆u
dy du
× lim
∆u
∆x→0 ∆x
[∆u → 0 as ∆x → 0]
= ×
du dx
d En d
d
=
du
gin
( f (u)) ×
dx
(g(x)) = f ′ (u) × g′ (x)
[F(x)] = f ′ (g(x)) × g′ (x)

dx
✎
ee
F ′ (x) = f ′ (g(x)) × g′ (x)
☞
rin
✍
Worked Examples
1 + cos 2x
✌
g.n
Example 1.27. Evaluate limπ
Solution. limπ
1 + cos 2x
=
x→ 2
lim
(π − 2x)2
2 cos2 x
.
et
[A.U.Jan. 2015]
x→ 2 (π − 2x)2 x→ π2 (π − 2x)2
π
Let −x=y
2
π
As x → , y → 0
2
1 + cos 2x 2 cos2 x
∴ limπ = limπ
x→ 2 (π − 2x)2 x→ 2
2
4 π−x 2


1 cos2 π2 − y
= lim
2 y→0 y2
1 sin2 y
= lim 2
2 y→0 y
!2
1 sin y
= lim
2 y→0 y
!2
1 sin y 1 1
= lim = × 12 = .
2 y→0 y 2 2
wwExample 1.28. If y = x8 + 12x5 − 4x4 + 10x3 − 6x + 5, find

dy
dx
.
w.E
Solution. Given, y = x8 + 12x5 − 4x4 + 10x3 − 6x + 5
dy d 8
asy

= x + 12x5 − 4x4 + 10x3 − 6x + 5
dx dx
d 8 d d d d d
=
dx
En
(x ) + (12x5 ) − (4x4 ) + (10x3 ) − (6x) + (5)
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
dx
d
= 8x8−1 + 12 (x5 ) − 4 (x4 ) + 10 (x3 ) − 6 (x) + 0
dx
dx
gin dx dx dx
= 8x7 + 12 × 5(x5−1 ) − 4 × 4(x4−1 ) + 10 × 3(x3−1 ) − 6 × 1
ee
= 8x7 + 60x4 − 16x3 + 30x2 − 6.
rin
ex
Example 1.29. If y = − x, find
dy
dx
d2 y
and 2 .
dx g.n
Solution. Given y = e x − x.
dy
dx
= ex − 1
et
d2 y
= ex .
dx2
dy
Example 1.30. If y = x2 sin x, find .
dx
Solution. Given y = x2 sin x.

Applying the product rule we obtain
dy d 2
= x sin x
dx dx
d d
= x2 (sin x) + sin x (x2 )
dx dx
= x2 × (cos x) + sin x × (2x)
= x2 cos x + 2x sin x.
sec x dy
Example 1.31. If f (x) = , find . For what values of x, does the graph of
ww 1 + tan x
f , has a horizontal tangent.
Solution. Given f (x) =
sec x
.
dx
w.E 1 + tan x
By the quotient rule, we have
asy
d d
(1 + tan x) dx (sec x) − sec x dx (1 + tan x)
f ′ (x) =
(1 + tan x)2
En

(1 + tan x)(sec x tan x) − sec x 0 + sec2 x
=
(1 + tan x)2
=
gin
sec x tan x + sec x tan2 x − sec3 x
(1 + tan x)2
=
ee
sec x(tan x + tan2 x − sec2 x)
(1 + tan x)2
sec x(tan x − (sec2 x − tan2 x))
rin
=
(1 + tan x)2
sec x(tan x − 1) g.n
f ′ (x) =
(1 + tan x)2
sec x(tan x − 1)
(1 + tan x)2
. et
The points where the graph of f has a horizontal tangent are given by f ′ (x) = 0
sec x(tan x − 1)
i.e., =0
(1 + tan x)2
⇒ sec x(tan x − 1) = 0
But sec x , 0

∴ tan x − 1 = 0
π
i.e., tan x = 1 ⇒ x = nπ + , n is an integer.
4
Example 1.32. Find the points on the curve y = x4 − 6x2 + 4 where the tangent line
is horizontal.
dy
Solution. Horizontal tangent occur at points where = 0.
dx
i.e.,4x3 − 6 × 2x = 0
ww 4x3 − 12x = 0
4x(x2 − 3) = 0
w.E √
i.e.,x = 0 or x2 − 3 = 0 ⇒ x2 = 3 ⇒ x = ± 3.
asy
When x = 0, y = 4.
The point is (0, 4).
√
When x = 3, y =
En
√ 4 √ 2
3 − 6 3 + 4 = 9 − 18 + 4 = −5.
gin
√
The point is ( 3, −5).
√ √ 4 √ 2
When x = − 3, y = − 3 − 6 − 3 + 4 = 9 − 18 + 4 = −5.
√
The point is (− 3, −5).
ee √
rin√
The given curve has horizontal tangents at the points (0, 4), ( 3, −5) and (− 3, −5).
g.n
Example 1.33. At what point on the cure y = e x , is the tangent line parallel to the
line y = 2x.
Solution. Given y = e x ⇒ y′ = e x .
slope of the tangent at x = e x .
et
Since the tangent line is parallel to the line y = 2x,
Slope of the tangent = 2.
i.e., e x = 2 ⇒ x = log 2.
When x = log 2, y = elog 2 = 2.
∴ The required point is (log 2, 2).

Example 1.34. If f (x) = xe x find f (n) (x).

Solution. Given f (x) = xe x .
d
f ′ (x) = xe x

dx
d x d
=x e + e x (x) = xe x + e x .1 = e x (x + 1).
dx dx
d
f ′′ (x) = (x + 1)e x

dx
d x d
= (x + 1) e + e x (x + 1)
dx dx
ww = (x + 1)e x + e x .1 = e x (x + 1 + 1) = e x (x + 2).
d
w.E f ′′′ (x) = (x + 2)e x

dx
d x d
= (x + 2) e + e x (x + 2)
dx dx
asy
= (x + 2)e x + e x .1 = e x (x + 2 + 1) = e x (x + 3).
En
Applying this process successively n times we get
gin f (n) (x) = e x (x + n).
Example 1.35. If y =
x2 + x − 2
3
x +6
x2 + x − 2
ee
, find
dy
dx
.
rin
Solution. Given y =
dy
x3 + 6
d
(x3 + 6) dx
.
d
(x2 + x − 2) − (x2 + x − 2) dx (x3 + 6) g.n
dx
=
=
(x3 + 6)2
(x3 + 6)(2x + 1) − (x2 + x − 2)(3x2 )
(x3 + 6)2
et
2x + x + 12x + 6 − 3x4 − 3x3 + 6x2
4 3
=
(x3 + 6)2
−x4 − 2x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 6
= .
(x3 + 6)2
ex
Example 1.36. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = at the
1 + x2

e
point (1, ).
2
ex
Solution. Given y =
1 + x2
ex
!
dy d
=
dx dx 1 + x2
d d
(1 + x2 ) dx (e x ) − e x dx (1 + x2 )
=
(1 + x2 )2
(1 + x2 )e x − e x 2x
=
(1 + x2 )2
ww !
=
e x (1 + x2 − 2x) e x (1 − x)2
(1 + x2 )2
=
(1 + x2 )2
w.E
dy e(1 − 1)
e ! = = 0.
dx 1, (1 + 1)2
2
asy
∴ Slope of the tangent m = 0.
Equation of the tangent line is
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
e En
y − = 0(x − 1)
2
e
y − = 0. gin
2
√
√
ee
Example 1.37. Find F ′ (x) if F(x) = x2 + 1.
√
Solution. Let y = x2 + 1, let u = x2 + 1 and y = u.
rin
NowF ′ (x) =
dy du
× .
du dx g.n
Example 1.38. Find
1 −1
2
dy
1
= u 2 × 2x = √ x = √
u
x
2
x +1
.
if (i) y = sin(x2 ) (ii) y = sin2 x.

et
dx
Solution. (i) Given y = sin(x2 ).
Let u = x2 . Then y = sin u.
dy dy du
Now = × .
dx du dx
= cos u × 2x = cos(x2 )2x = 2x cos(x2 ).

(ii) Given y = sin2 x

Let u = sin x. Then y = u2 .
dy dy du
Now = × .
dx du dx
= 2u cos x = 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x.
Example 1.39. Differentiate the following functions
ww 3
(i) y = (x − 1) 100
.
(iv) y = esin x .
w.E
(ii) y = √
3
1
x2 + x + 1
.
(v) y = sin(cos(tan x)).
(vi) y = esec 3x .
(iii) y = (2x + 1)5 (x3 − x + 1)4 . asy (vii) y =

x−2
2x + 1
!9
.
En
Solution. (i) Given y = (x3 − 1)100
gin
Let u = x3 − 1. Then y = u100 .
Now
dy dy du
= × .
dx du dx ee
= 100u99 × 3x2 = 300x2 (x3 − 1)99 . rin
(ii) Given y = 1 g.n
et
√
3
x2 +x+1
−1
Let u = x2 + x + 1. Then y = u 3 .
dy dy du
Now = × .
dx du dx
−1 −1 −1
= u 3 × (2x + 1)
3
−1 −4 −1 −(2x + 1)
= u 3 × (2x + 1) = 4 × (2x + 1) = 4
.
3 3u 3 3(x2 + x + 1) 3
(iii) Given y = (2x + 1)5 (x3 − x + 1)4

−1
Let u = x2 + x + 1. Then y = u 3 .
dy d
Now = (2x + 1)5 (x3 − x + 1)4
dx dx
d 3 d
= (2x + 1)5 (x − x + 1)4 + (x3 − x + 1)4 (2x + 1)5
dx dx

= (2x + 1) 4(x − x + 1) (3x − 1) + (x − x + 1)4 5(2x + 1)4 × 2
5 3 3 2 3
= 4(2x + 1)5 (x3 − x + 1)3 (3x2 − 1) + 10(x3 − x + 1)4 (2x + 1)4
= 2(2x + 1)4 (x3 − x + 1)3 {2(2x + 1)(3x2 − 1) + 5(x3 − x + 1)}
ww = 2(2x + 1)4 (x3 − x + 1)3 {12x3 − 4x + 6x2 − 2 + 5x3 − 5x + 5)}
w.E
(iv) Given y = esin x
= 2(2x + 1)4 (x3 − x + 1)3 {17x3 + 6x2 − 9x + 3)}.
dy
dx asy
= esin x cos x.
(v) Given y = sin (cos(tan x)).
En
dy
dx gin
= cos (cos(tan x)) (− sin(tan x)) sec2 x
(vi) Given y = esec 3x .

ee
= − cos (cos(tan x)) sin(tan x) sec2 x.
rin
dy
= esec 3x × sec 3x × tan 3x × 3 = 3 sec 3x tan 3xesec 3x .
g.n
dx
(vii) Given y =
x−2
!9
.
et
2x + 1
!8 !
dy x−2 (2x + 1) × 1 − (x − 2) × 2
=9
dx 2x + 1 (2x + 1)2
!8
(x − 2)8
!
x−2 2x + 1 − 2x + 4
=9 = 45 .
2x + 1 (2x + 1)2 (2x + 1)10

1.5 Implicit differentiation, logarithmic differentiation and

Inverse trigonometric function.
Whenever an equation containing two variables x and y, it is not always

dy
possible to express y interns of x and it is not easy to find directly. In such
dx
case, we differentiate both sides with respect to x and then solve the resultant
dy
equation for .
✎ ☞ dx
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
wwExample 1.40. If x2 + y2 = 25, find

dy
dx
. Find also the equation of the tangent to the
w.E
circle at the point (3, 4).
Solution. Given x2 + y2 = 25.
asy
Differentiating both sides w.r.to x we get
dy
En
2x + 2y =0
dx
dy
x+y =0
y
dx
dy
= −x ⇒ gin
dy −x
= .
ee
dx dx y
dy −3
At (3, 4)
dx
=
4
.
−3 rin
Slope of the tangent at (3, 4) = m =
Equation of the tangent is
4
.
g.n
y−4=
−3
4
(x − 3)
4y − 16 = −3x + 9
et
3x + 4y = 16 + 9
3x + 4y = 25.
dy
Example 1.41. If x3 +y3 = 6xy, find . Find the tangent to the Folium of Descartes
dx
x3 + y3 = 6xy at the point (3, 3). At what point in the first quadrant is the tangent

line horizontal.
Solution. Given x3 + y3 = 6xy.
" #
2 2 dy dy
3x + 3y =6 x +y×1
dx dx
" #
2 2 dy dy dy
x +y = 2 x + y = 2x + 2y
dx dx dx
dy dy
y2 − 2x = 2y − x2
dx dx
ww dy 2
dx
(y − 2x) = 2y − x2
dy 2y − x2
w.E At(3, 3)
=
dx y2 − 2x
dy 2 × 3 − 32
=
.
= −1.
asy
dx 32 − 2 × 3
Slope of the tangent at (3, 3) = m = −1 .
En
The equation of the tangent is y − 3 = −1(x − 3) = −x + 3 ⇒ x + y = 6.
dy
2y − x
i.e., 2
2
=0gin
The points at which the tangent line is horizontal are given by
dx
= 0.
y − 2x
i.e., 2y − x2 = 0
i.e., y = .
x2
2
ee rin
Substituting y =
x2
2
g.n
in the equation of the curve we obtain
3
x +
x3 +
x2
2
x6
!3
!
= 6x ×
= 3x3
x2
2 et
8
x6
− 2x3 = 0
8
3
!
3 x
x −2 =0
8

x3 x3 − 16 = 0

x3 = 0 or x3 − 16 = 0
x3 = 0 or x3 = 16
But x , 0
4
∴ x3 = 16 = 24 ⇒ x = 2 3 .
4 4 2 8 8 5
when x = 2 3 , y = 12 2 3 = 12 2 3 = 2 3 −1 = 2 3 .
4 5
∴ In the first quadrant, the tangent line is horizontal at (2 3 , 2 3 ).
dy
wwExample 1.42. Find

dx
if sin(x + y) = y2 cos x.
Solution. Given sin(x + y) = y2 cos x.
w.E Differentiating both sides w.r.to x we get
cos(x + y) 1 +
dy
!
= y2 (− sin x) + cos x × 2y
dy
asy dx
cos(x + y) + cos(x + y)
dy
= −y2 sin x + 2y cos x
dy
dx
dy
En
cos(x + y) − 2y cos x
dx
dy 2
= −y sin x − cos(x + y)
dx
gin
dx dx
dy
(cos(x + y) − 2y cos x) = − y2 sin x + cos(x + y)
dx
ee

2
dy − y sin x + cos(x + y)
=
dx (cos(x + y) − 2y cos x)
y2 sin x + cos(x + y)
rin
g.n
= .
2y cos x − cos(x + y)
et
dy
Example 1.43. If sin y = x sin(a + y) find .
dx
Solution. Given sin y = x sin(a + y)
sin y
∴x=
sin(a + y)
Differentiating with respect to y we get
dx sin(a + y) cos y − sin y cos(a + y) sin(a + y − y) sin(a)

= 2
= 2
=
dy sin (a + y) sin (a + y) sin2 (a + y)
dy sin2 (a + y)
∴ = .
dx sin(a)

p √ dy 1
Example 1.44. If x 1 + y + y 1 + x = 0, prove that =− .
p √ p dx √ (1 + x)2
Solution. Given x 1 + y + y 1 + x = 0 ⇒ x 1 + y = −y 1 + x
squaring both sides we get
x2 (1 + y) = y2 (1 + x)
x2 + x2 y = y2 + y2 x
x2 + x2 y − y2 − y2 x = 0
x2 − y2 + x2 y − y2 x = 0
ww (x − y)(x + y) + xy(x − y) = 0
w.E (x − y)(x + y + xy) = 0
∴ x − y = 0 or x + y + xy = 0
asy
i.e.,x = y or x + y + xy = 0
But x , y.
∴ x + y + xy = 0 En (1)
gin
ee
!
dy dy
1+ + x +y =0
dx dx
1+
dy
dx
dy
+x +y=0
dx rin
dy
dx
(1 + x) = −y − 1
g.n
dy −(y + 1)
dx
=
(1 + x)
.
But form (1) we have y(1 + x) = −x ⇒ y =

−x
.
et
x
1+x
dy 1 − 1+x 1+x−x 1
∴ =− =− 2
=− .
dx 1+x (1 + x) (1 + x)2
r q √ dy
Example 1.45. If y = x + x + x + · · · ∞, find .
r dx
q √
Solution. Given y = x + x + x + · · · ∞.

√
y= x+y
y2 = x + y.
Differentiating w.r.to x we get
dy dy
2y =1+
dx dx
dy
(2y − 1) = 1
dx
dy 1
= .
dx (2y − 1)
r q √ dy
wwExample 1.46. If y = sin x + sin x + sin x + · · · ∞, find

r q √
Solution. Given y = sin x + sin x + sin x + · · · ∞.
dx
.
w.E p
y = sin x + y.
Squaring on both sides we get
y2 = sin x + y.
asy
En
dy dy
2y = cos x +
dx dx
dy
dy dy
2y −
dx dx
= cos x
gin
dx
dy
(2y − 1) = cos x
=
cos x
dx (2y − 1)
. ee rin
Example 1.47. Find y′′ if x4 + y4 = 16.
Solution. Given x4 + y4 = 16 g.n
4x3 + 4y3
dy
=0
et
dx
dy
x3 + y3 =0
dx
3 dy
y = −x3
dx
dy x3
=− .
dx y3

Again differentiating w.r.to x

dy
d2 y y3 × 3x2 − x3 × 3y2
=− dx
dx2 y6
! !
2 2 dy 2 2 dy
−3x y y − x −3x y y − x
dx dx
= =
y6 y6
−x3
!!
2
−3x y − x 3
y −3x2 y4 + x4 −3x2 × 16 −48x2
= = = = .
y4 y7 y7 y7
wwDerivative of Inverse Trigonometric functions
w.E 1. Find
dy
dx
if y = sin−1 x.
Solution. Given y = sin−1 x.
sin y = x.
asy
Differentiating w.r.to x
cos y
dy
dx
=1
En
gin
dy 1 1 1 1
= = p = q = √ .
dx cos y cos2 y 2 1 − x 2
1 − sin y
dy
2. If y = cos−1 x, find
dx
.
Solution. Given y = cos−1 x.
ee rin
cos y = x.
Differentiating w.r.to x g.n
− sin y
dy
=
dx sin y
dy
dx
−1
=1
= q
−1
2
= p
1
−1
− cos 2y
= √
1
−1
− x 2
.
et
sin y
dy
3. If y = tan−1 x, find
.
dx
Solution. Given y = tan−1 x.
tan y = x.

dy
sec2 y =1
dx
dy 1 1 1
= = = .
dx sec y 1 + tan y 1 + x2
2 2
dy
4. If y = cot−1 x, find
.
dx
Solution. Given y = cot−1 x.
cot y = x.
dy
−cosec2 y
ww
=1
dx
dy −1 −1 −1
= = = .
dx cosec y 1 + cot y 1 + x2
2 2
w.E dy
5. If y = sec−1 x, find
dx
.
Solution. Given y = sec−1 x.
sec y = x.
asy
sec y tan y
dy
En
=1
dy
=
dx
1
gin
= p
1
= p
1
= √
1
dx sec y tan y x tan2 y x sec2 y − 1 x x2 − 1
.
dy
6. If y = cosec−1 x, find
dx
.
Solution. Given y = cosec−1 x.
ee rin
cosecy = x.
g.n
−cosecy cot y
dy
=
−1
dy
dx
=1
= p
−1
= p
−1
= √
−1
dx cosecy cot y x cot y x cosec y − 1 x x2 − 1
2 2
.
et
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
1 √
Example 1.48. Find the derivatives of (i) −1 (ii) x tan−1 x.
sin x
1
−1 −1

Solution. (i) Let y = = sin x .
sin−1 x

dy −2 1 1
= (−1) sin−1 x √ = 2 √ .
dx 1 − x2 sin−1 x

1 − x2
√
(ii) Let y = x tan−1 x .
√
dy 1 −1 √ x .1 = x −1 √ x .

1
= (x) √ 2 × 2√ x
+ tan 2(1+x) + tan
dx 1 + ( x)
√
Example 1.49. Differentiate w.r.to x (i) sin−1 x (ii) (1 + x2 ) tan−1 x
cos x
(iii) sec−1 (x4 ) (iv) tan−1 .
√1 + sin x
Solution. (i) Let y = sin−1 ( x).
dy 1 1 1 1
ww dx
= q
1− x
√ 2 × 2 √ x = 2 √ x √1 − x = 2 √ x(1 − x) .
(ii) Let (1 + x2 ) tan−1 x.
w.E dy
dx
= (1 + x2 ) ×
1
1 + x2
+ tan−1 x × 2x = 1 + 2x tan−1 x.
1 asy
(iii) Let sec−1 (x4 ).
dy
× 4x3 = √
4
.
En
= q
dx 4 4
2 x x 8−1
x x −1
cos x
(iv) Let y = tan−1
1 + singin
x
.
ee

 sin π2 − x 
 
−1 
= tan   .
rin

π
1 + cos 2 − x

 sin 2 π4 − 2x 

= tan−1 
π
1 + cos 2 4 − 2 x 
 .
g.n
et

 2 sin π4 − 2x cos π4 − 2x 

= tan−1   .
2 π x
2 cos 4 − 2

π x
= tan−1 tan − .
π x 4 2
y= −
4 2
dy −1
= .
dx 2
!
−1 2x dy
Example 1.50. If y = tan 2
find .
1−x dx

!
−1 2x
Solution. Given y = tan .
1 − x2
Let x = tan θ !
−1 2 tan θ
∴y = tan = tan−1 (tan 2θ) = 2θ
1 − tan2 θ
y = 2 tan−1 x.
dy 2
= .
dx 1 + x2
dy
Example 1.51. If sin−1 3x − 4x3 find .
dx
−1 3
Solution. Let y = sin 3x − 4x .
ww Let x = sin θ.
y = sin−1 (3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ) = sin−1 (sin 3θ) = 3θ = 3 sin−1 x.
w.E dy
dx
= √
3
1 − x2
.
Example 1.52. If y = tan−1

asy
a−x
a − x 1 + ax
find
dy
dx
.
Solution. y = tan−1
1 + ax
En
Let a = tan α, x = tan θ.
∴ y = tan−1
gin
tan α − tan θ
1 + tan α tan θ
= tan−1 (tan(α − θ)) = α − θ = α − tan−1 (x).
ee
dy −1
= .
dx 1 + x2
Logarithmic Differentiation
dy rin
Result. If y = loge x, find
Solution. Given y = loge x
dx
.
g.n
∴ x = ey .
Differentiating w.r.to y
dx
= ey = x
et
dy
dy 1
= .
dx x
dy
Note. (i) If y = b x find .
dx
Solution. Given y = b = e x log b
x

dy
= e x log b log b = b x log b.
dx
dy
(ii) If y = logb x find .
dx
Solution. Given y = logb x
∴ by = x.
dy
by log b = 1.
dx
dy
= y1 = 1 .
dx b log b x log b ✎ ☞
ww Worked Examples
✍ ✌
w.E
Example 1.53.! Differntiate (i) log(x3 + 1) (ii) log(sin x) (iii) log(2 + sin x)
x+1 p
asy
(iv) log √ (v) log |x| (vi) log(x).
x+2
Solution. (i) Let y = log(x3 + 1).

En
dy
= 3
1
dx x + 1
3x2 = 3
gin
3x2
x +1
.
(ii) Let y = log(sin x).

dy
=
1
dx sin x
ee
cos x = cot x.
rin
(iii) Let y = log10 (2 + sin x).
dy 1 cos x g.n
=
dx (2 + sin x) log 10
(iv) Let y = log √

x+1
x+2
!
.
cos x =
√
(2 + sin x) log 10
.
et
= log (x + 1) − log x + 2 .
= log (x + 1) − log (x + 2)1/2 .

1
= log (x + 1) −
log (x + 2) .
2
dy 1 1
= − .
dx (x + 1) 2(x + 2)


log x , if x > 0



(v) Let y = log |x| =  .


log(−x) , if x < 0


 
1 1
, if x > 0  x , if x > 0
 
dy 
 

x
 
= = .
dx 


 1 (−1) , if x < 0 

  1 , if x < 0

−x x
dy 1
∴ = for allx , 0.
dx x
(vi) Let y = log x = log x 1/2 .
p
ww dy 1
dx 2
= log x −1/2 =
1
p
1
x 2x log x
.
w.E
Example 1.54. If y =
3
3 √
x 4 x2 + 1
(3x
√ + 2) 5
, find
dy
dx
.
Solution. Given y =
asy
x 4 x2 + 1
(3x + 2)5
Taking log on both sides we get

En
p
log y = log x3/4 + log x2 + 1 − log(3x + 2)5
=
3
4
1
gin
log x + log(x2 + 1) − 5 log(3x + 2).
2
1 dy 3 1 1
= × + × 2
y dx 4 x 2 x + 1
1 ee
2x − 5
1
3x + 2√
×3=
3
+ 2
x
−
15
4x x + 1 3x + 2
rin
g.n
" # 3 " #
dy 3 x 15 2
x x +1 3
4 x 15
∴ =y + 2 − = + − .
dx 4x x + 1 3x + 2 (3x + 2)5 4x x2 + 1 3x + 2
Example 1.55. If y = x
Solution. Given y = x x .
√
√
√
x
find
dy
dx
.
et
log y = x log x.
Differentiating w.r.t x
1 dy √ 1 1
= x + log x √
y dx x 2 x
1 1
= √ + √ log x
x 2 x

!
1 1
= √ 1 + log x
x 2
1
= √ 2 + log x
2 x
√
dy 1 x x
=y √ = √ .
dx 2 x 2 + log x 2 x 2 + log x
d
Example 1.56. Find (sin x)cos x .

[A.U. Jan. 2015]
dx
Solution. Let y = (sin x)cos x .
ww Taking logarithms on both sides we get

log y = log (sin x)cos x = cos x log (sin x).
w.E Differentiating w.r.to x.
1 dy 1
asy
= cos x cos x + log(sin x)(− sin x)
y dx sin x
cos2 x
= − sin x log(sin x)
dy
=y
sin
" x2
cos x
En #
− sin x log(sin x) = (sin x)
" 2
cos x cos x
#
− sin x log(sin x) .
dx sin x
gin dy
sin x
Example 1.57. If y = (sin x) x , find

Solution. Let y = (sin x) x .
Taking log both sides we get
ee dx
.
rin
log y = log (sin x) x = x log sin x.
Differentiating w.r.t. x. g.n
1 dy
y dx
=x
1
sin x
cos x + log sin x.1 et
= x cot x + log sin x.
dy
= y x cot x + log sin x = (sin x) x x cot x + log sin x .

dx
∞
x··· dy
xx
Example 1.58. If y = x , find .
dx
···∞
xx
Solution. Let y = x x ⇒ y = xy .

Taking log both sides we get

log y = log xy = y log x.
Differentiating w.r.t. x.
1 dy 1 dy
= y + log x .
y dx x dx
1 dy dy y
− log x = .
y dx dx
! x
dy 1 y
− log x = .
dx y ! x
dy 1 − y log x y
= .
ww dx
dy
=
y
y2
dx x(1 − y log x)
x
.
w.E
Hyperbolic functions
e x − e−x
We define sinh x =
2
asy
e x + e−x
cosh x =
2
sinh x En
gin
tanh x =
cosh x
1
cosechx =
sechx =
coth x =
sinh x
1
cosh x
cosh x
ee rin
Hyperbolic identities
sinh x
g.n
1. sinh(−x) = − sinh x. et
2. cosh(−x) = cosh x.
3. cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1.
4. 1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x.
5. sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y.

6. cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y.
Derivatives of hyperbolic functions.

d
1. Prove that (sinh x) = cosh x.
dx
d e x − e−x e x + e−x
! !
d 1 x −x
Proof. (sinh x) = = (e − e (−1)) = = cosh x.
dx dx 2 2 2
In the same way we can establish the following.
d
2. (cosh x) = sinh x.
dx
ww 3.
d
dx
(tanh x) = sech2 x.
w.E 4.
d
dx
d
(cosechx) = −cosechx coth x.
asy
5. (sechx) = sechx tanh x.
dx
d
6. (coth x) = −cosech2 x.
dx
Inverse hyperbolic functions. En
−1
p
2

1. Prove that sinh x = log x + x + 1 . gin
Proof. Let y = sinh−1 x.
∴ x = sinh y =
i.e., ey − e−y = 2x.
2
ee
ey − e−y
.
rin
1
ey − y − 2x = 0.
e g.n
e2y − 2xey − 1 = 0.
This is a quadratic
ey =
√
2
=
in ey .√Solving for ey we get
2x ± 4x2 + 4 x ± x2 + 1
1
p
= (x ± x2 + 1).
et
We have ey > 0 always.
√
But x − x2 − 1 < 0.
√
∴ ey = x − x2 + 1 is not possible.
√ √
∴ ey = x + x2 + 1 y = log(x + x2 + 1).
In a similar way we can prove the following.

p
2. cosh−1 x) = log x + x2 − 1 .
!
−1 1 1+x
3. tanh x) = log .
2 1−x
Differentiation of Inverse hyperbolic functions.
d 1
1. Prove that (sinh−1 x) = √ .
dx x2 + 1
Proof. y = sinh−1 x.
∴ sinh y = x.
ww Differentiating w.r.t. x we get

cosh y
dy
= 1.
w.E dy
=
dx
dx cosh y
1
= q
1
cosh2 y
= q
1
1 + sinh2 y
= √
1
1 + x2
.
d 1 asy
In a similar way we can prove the following.
2.
dx
(cosh−1 x) = √
x2 − 1
.
En
3.
d
dx
(tanh−1 x) =
1
1 − x2
.
gin
4.
5.
d
dx
d
(cosech−1 x) = √
(sech−1 x) = √
−1
|x| 1 + x2
−1
.
.
ee rin
dx
d
(coth−1 x) =
x 1 − x2
1 g.n
6.
dx
Exercise 1 (E)
1 − x2
.
et
1. Find the derivatives of the following functions.
(i) x2 − 4xy + y2 = 4 (iv) y cos x = x2 + y2

√
(ii) x4 + x2 y2 + y3 = 5 (v) x + y = x4 + y4
x
x2
(iii) x+y = y2 + 1 (vi) e y = x − y

(ix) cos(xy) = 1 + sin y

(vii) tan−1 (x2 y) = x + xy2
(viii) sin(xy) = cos(x + y) (x) x sin y + y sin x = 1
dy
2. If (sin x)cos y = (sin y)cos x , find .
dx
∞
sin x··· dy
3. If y = (sin x)sin x , find .
dx
ww 4. If x1+y + y1+x = a, where a is a constant, find

dy
dx
.
w.E 5. Find the derivatives of the following using logarithmic differentiation.
(iv) xsin x
(i) (x2 + 2)2 (x4 + 4)4
(ii)
q
(x−1) asy (v) (cos x) x
En
(x4 +1)
1
(iii) x x (vi) (tan x) x
gin
6. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y sin 2x = x cos 2y at ( π2 , π4 ).
point (2, 1).

ee
7. Find the equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola x2 − xy − y2 = 1 at the
rin
8. Find the equation to the tangent line to the Cardioid x2 + y2 = (2x2 + 2y2 − x)2
g.n
at 0, 21 .
9. Find the derivative of the following functions.

√
et
√ (v) cosh−1 ( x).
(i) tanh x. √
(vi) x sinh−1 x
3 − 9 + x2 .
(ii) sinh(log(x)).
(iii) ecosh 3x . (vii) coth−1 (sec x).

√
(iv) x coth 1 + x2 . (viii) tanh−1 (sin x).

10. At what point of the curve y = cosh x does the tangent have slope 1.
Definition. Let c be a number in the domain D of a function f . Then f (c) is the

absolute maximum value of f on D if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in D. f (c) is the absolute
minimum value of f on D if f (c) ≤ x for all x in D.
Maximum and minimum values of f are called extreme values of f .
Definition. The number f (c) is a local maximum value of f if f (c) ≥ f (x) when x
is near c. f (c) is the local minimum value of f if f (c) ≤ f (x) when x is near c.
wwIncreasing and decreasing test
(i) If f ′ (x) > 0, on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.
w.E
(ii) If f ′ (x) < 0, on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.
asy
Fermat’s theorem. If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, and f ′ (c) exits,
then f ′ (c) = 0.
En
Critical number. A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain
gin
of f such that either f ′ (c) = 0 or f ′ (c) does not exist.
Result. If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, then c is a Critical number
of f .
First derivative test.

ee rin
Suppose that c is a critical number of a continuous
function f .
g.n
et
(i) If f ′ changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c.
(ii) If f ′ changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c.
(iii) If f ′ is positive to the left and right of c or negative to the left and right of c,
then f has no local maximum or minimum at c.
Second derivative test. Suppose f ′′ is continuous near c.
(i) If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at c.

(ii) If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c.
Concavity. If the graph of f lies above all of its tangents on an interval I, then it
is called concave upward on I. If the graph of f lies below all of its tangents on I,
it is called concave downward on I.
Concavity test
(i) If f ′′ (x) > 0, for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave upward on I.
ww(ii) If f ′′ (x) < 0, for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I.
w.E
Point of inflexion. A point P on a curve y = f (x) is called a point of inflexion
asy
if f is continuous there and the curve changes from concave upward to concave
downward or from concave downward to concave upward at P.
En
Note. Points of inflection occurs at points where f ′′ (x) = 0.
✎ ☞
gin Worked Examples

✍ ✌
increasing or decreasing.
downwards.
ee
Example 1.59. Find the intervals on which the function f (x) = sin x + cos x is
rin
Also find the curve is concave upwards or concave
[A.U.Jan.2015]
Solution. f (x) = sin x + cos x.
g.n
f ′ (x) = cos x − sin x.
f ′′ (x) = − sin x − cos x.
At critical points f ′ (x) = 0
et
i.e., cos x − sin x = 0.
i.e., sin x = cos x.
i.e., tan x = 1.
π 5π
∴x= , .
4 4
Let us evaluate the intervals at which f decrease or increases.

Interval f ′ (x) f
π π
0<x< + increases in (0, )
4 4
π 5π π 5π
<x< - decreases in ( , )
4 4 4 4
5π 5π
< x < 2π + increases in ( , 2π)
4 4
π
Since f ′ changes from positive to negative at x = ,
4
π
f has a maximum at x = .
4
π π π 1 1 √
Maximum value of f = f ( ) = sin + cos = √ + √ = 2.
4 4 4
ww
2 2
′ 5π
Also f changes from negative to positive at x = .
4
5π 5π 5π 1 1 √
w.E Minimum value of f = f ( ) = sin

4 4
+ cos
4
= − √ − √ = − 2.
2 2
Let us evaluate the intervals at which the curve is concave upwards or
concave downwards.
asy
Making f ′′ = 0 we get
En
− sin x − cos x = 0.
i.e., sin x + cos x = 0.
gin
π !
3π
cos x = − sin x = cos +x (or) cos x = cos −x
π2 2
Taking cos x = cos
π
2
i.e., = 0 which is absurd.
2
3π
ee !
π
+ x implies x = + x
2
3π rin
Taking cos x = cos
i.e., 2x =
3π
⇒x=
2
− x implies x =
3π
2
−x
g.n
2 4
The interval to be considered are 0,
3π
4
!
,
3π
4
, 2π
!
et
Interval f ′ (x) f
3π
0<x< - concave downwards
4
3π
< x < 2π + concave upwards
4
3π 3π
Since f ′′ changes sign from negative to positive at x = ,x= is a
4 4
point of inflexion.

Example 1.60. Find the intervals on which the function f (x) = x4 − 2x2 + 3 is
increasing or decreasing. Also find the local maximum and minimum values of f
by using first derivative test. [A.U.Nov.2016]
Solution. f (x) = x4 − 2x2 + 3.
f ′ (x) = 4x3 − 4x = 4x(x2 − 1) = 4x(x − 1)(x + 1).
Critical numbers occur at points where f ′ (x) = 0
i.e., 4x(x − 1)(x + 1) = 0.
x = −1, x = 0, x = 1.
ww The critical numbers are x = −1, x = 0, x = 1.

Let us evaluate the intervals at which f decreases or increases.
w.E Interval 4x
-
x−1
-
x+1
-
f ′ (x)
-
f
decreases in (−∞, −1)
asy
x < −1
−1 < x < 0 - - + + increases in (−1, 0)
En
0<x<1 + - + - decreases in (0, 1)
x>1 + + + + increases in (1, ∞)
gin
Since f ′ changes from negative to positive at x = −1,
ee
f has a local minimum at x = −1.
Minimum value of f = f (−1) = 1 − 2 + 3 = 1.
Also f ′ changes from positive to negative at x = 0.
rin
∴ f has a maximum at x = 0.
Maximum value of f = f (0) = 3. g.n
Again f ′ changes from negative to positive at x = 1.
∴ f has a local minimum at x = 1.
et
Minimum value of f = 1 − 2 + 3 = 2.
Example 1.61. Find the intervals on which the function f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 12x2 + 5
is increasing and decreasing. Also find the local maximum and minimum values
of f by using first derivative test. [A.U.Nov.2016]
Solution. f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 12x2 + 5.

f ′ (x) = 12x3 − 12x2 − 24x = 12x(x2 − x − 2) = 12x(x − 2)(x + 1).

Critical numbers occur at points where f ′ (x) = 0
i.e., 12x(x − 2)(x + 1) = 0.
x = −1, x = 0, x = 2.
The critical numbers are x = −1, x = 0, x = 2.
Interval 12x x−2 x+1 f ′ (x) f

- - - - decreases in (−∞, −1)
ww
x < −1
−1 < x < 0 - - + + increases in (−1, 0)
0<x<2 + - + - decreases in (0, 2)
w.E x>2 + + + + increases in (2, ∞)
Since f ′ changes from negative to positive at x = −1,
asy
f has a local minimum at x = −1.
En
Minimum value of f = f (−1) = 3 + 4 − 12 + 5 = 20.
Also f ′ changes from positive to negative at x = 0.
gin
∴ f has a local maximum at x = 0.
ee
Maximum value of f = f (0) = 5.
Again f ′ changes from negative to positive at x = 2.
∴ f has a minimum at x = 2.
rin
g.n
Minimum value of f = 3 × 16 − 4 × 8 − 12 × 4 + 5 = 48 − 32 − 48 + 5 = −27.
Example 1.62. Find the local maximum and minimum values of the function
f (x) = x + 2 sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
Solution. f (x) = x + 2 sin x.
et
f ′ (x) = 1 + 2 cos x.
f ′′ (x) = −2 sin x.
Local maximum and minimum occur at points where f ′ (x) = 0.
i.e., 1 + 2 cos x = 0.
2 cos x = −1.

−1
cos x = 2 .
cos x is negative in the II and III quadrants.
2π 4π
x= 3 and x = 3 .
First derivative test
2π 2π 4π 4π
The intervals to be considered are 0 < x < , <x< , < x < 2π.
3 3 3 3
Let us evaluate the intervals at which f decreases and increases.
Interval f ′ (x) = 1 + 2 cos x f

2π
ww
0<x< + increasing
3
2π 4π
<x< - decreasing
3 3
w.E
4π
< x < 2π + increasing
3
2π
Since f ′ changes from positive to negative at 3 ,
∴ Maximum value of f =
asy
f has a local maximum at x =
2π
2π
3 .
+ 2 sin 2π
3 =
2π
+2
√
3
= 2π
3 +
√
3.
En 3
Since f ′ changes from negative to positive at x =
3 2
4π
3 ,
f has a minimum at x =
∴ Minimum value of f = gin 4π
3 .
4π
3 + 2 sin 4π
3 =
4π
+2
√
− 3
= 4π
−
√
3.
ee
3 2 3
Second derivative test
rin
√ √
2π 3
When x = 3 , f ′′ (x) = −2 sin 2π
3 = −2 2 = − 3 < 0.
g.n
2π
∴ f has a maximum at x = 3 .
2π
√
Maximum value of f = 3 + 3.
et
√ √
4π − 3
When x = f ′′ (x) = −2 sin 4π
3 , 3 = −2 2 = 3 > 0.
4π
∴ f has a minimum at x = .
3
4π √
∴ Minimum value of f = − 3.
3
Example 1.63. Find the local maxima and minima and the points of inflexion for
the function f (x) = x4 − 4x3 .
Solution. f (x) = x4 − 4x3 .
f ′ (x) = 4x3 − 12x2 .

f ′′ (x) = 12x2 − 24x.

Local maximum and minimum occur at points where f ′ (x) = 0
i.e., 4x3 − 12x2 = 0.
4x2 (x − 3) = 0.
x = 0, x = 3.
When x = 0, f ′′ (x) = 0.
∴ f (x) does not have either mxaimum or minimum.
When x = 3, f ′′ (x) = 12 × 9 − 24 × 3 = 108 − 72 = 36 > 0
ww ∴ f has a local minimum at x = 3.

Minimum value of f = 81 − 4 × 27 = 81 − 108 = −27.
w.E At the points of inflexion, f ′′ (x) = 0

12x2 − 24x = 0 ⇒ 12x(x − 2) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, x = 2.
asy
When x = 0, f (0) = 0.
∴ (0, 0) is a point of inflexion.
En
When x = 2, f (2) = 24 − 4 × 23 = 16 − 32 = −16.
gin
Another point of inflexion is (2, −16).
1
ee
Example 1.64. Find the maxima and minima of the function f (x) = x2/3 (6 − x)1/3 .
Solution. f (x) = x2/3 (6 − x)1/3 .
2 rin
f ′ (x) = x2/3 (6 − x)−2/3 (−1) + (6 − x)1/3 x−1/3 .
=
1
"
3
−x 2/3
+
2(6 − x) 1/3
#
.
3
g.n
=
3 (6 − x)2/3
"
1 −x + 2(6 − x)
3 x1/3 (6 − x)2/3
"
#
#
x1/3
et
1 −x + 12 − 2x
=
3 x1/3 (6 − x)2/3
" # " #
1 12 − 3x 4−x
= = 1/3 .
3 x1/3 (6 − x)2/3 x (6 − x)2/3
Now, f ′ (x) = 0 when x = 4 and f ′ (x) does not exist when x = 0 and x = 6.
∴ The critical numbers are 0, 4, 6.

Let us evaluate the intervals at which f increases or decreases.
Interval 4−x x1/3 (6 − x)2/3 f ′ (x) f

−∞ < x < 0 + - + - decreases on (−∞, 0)
0<x<4 + + + + increases on (0, 4)
4<x<6 - + + - decreases on (4, 6)
x>6 - + + - decreases on (6, ∞)
Since f ′ changes from negative to positive at x = 0, f has a local minimum at x = 0.

∴ Minimum value of f = f (0) = 0.
ww Also f ′ changes from positive to negative at x = 4.

∴ f has a local maximum at x = 0.
w.E
∴ Maximum value of f = f (4) = 42/3 (6 − 4)1/3 = (22 )2/3 (21/3 ) = 24/3 21/3 = 25/3 .
Again f ′ does not changes sign at x = 6.
asy
∴ f has no maximum or minimum at x = 6.
En
Example 1.65. Using first derivative test, examine for maximum and minimum
of the function f (x) = x3 − 3x + 3, x ∈ R.
Solution. f (x) = x3 − 3x + 3.
gin
ee
f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3 = 3(x2 − 1) = 3(x − 1)(x + 1).
Critical numbers occur at points where f ′ (x) = 0.
i.e., 3(x − 1)(x + 1) = 0. rin
i.e., x = −1, x = 1.
g.n
et
The critical numbers are x = −1, 1.
Interval x−1 x+1 f ′ (x) f

x < −1 - - + increases in (−∞, −1)
−1 < x < 1 - + - decreases in (−1, 1)
x>1 + + - increases in (1, ∞)
Since f ′ changes from positive to negative at x = −1.

f has a local maximum at x = −1.

∴ Maximum value of f = f (−1) = (−1)3 − 3(−1) + 3 = −1 + 3 + 3 = 5.

Also f ′ changes from negative to positive at x = 1.
∴ f has a local minimum at x = 1.
∴ Minimum value of f = f (1) = 13 − 1 × 3 + 3 = 1 − 3 + 3 = 1.
Example 1.66. Using first derivative test examine the maximum and minimum
of f (x) = sin2 x, 0 < x < π.
Solution. f (x) = sin2 x.
f ′ (x) = 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x.
ww Critical numbers occur at points where f ′ (x) = 0.
w.E i.e., sin 2x = 0.

∴ 2x = 0, or 2x = π.
∴ x = 0, or x = π2 .
asy
The critical numbers are x = 0, x = π2 .
En
f ′ (x)
gin
Interval sin 2x f
π
0<x< 2 + + increases in (0, π2 )
ee
π
x> 2 - - decreases in ( π2 , π)
Since f ′ changes from positive to negative at x = π2 .

∴ f has a maximum at x = π2 .
rin
g.n

∴ Maximum value of f = f ( π2 ) = sin2 π2 = 1.
Example 1.67. Find

f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 36x + 10.
the
Solution. f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 36x + 10.

maximum and minimum of
et
the function
f ′ (x) = 6x2 − 6x − 36.

f ′′ (x) = 12x − 6.
Critical pints occur at f ′ (x) = 0.
i.e., 6x2 − 6x − 36 = 0.
∴ x2 − x − 6 = 0.

∴ (x − 3)(x + 2) = 0.
∴ x = −2, x = 3.
The critical points are at x = −2, x = 3.
At x = −2, f ′′ (x) = 12 × (−2) − 6 = −24 − 6 = −30 = −ve
∴ f is maximum at x = −2.
Maximum value of
f = 2(−2)3 − 3(−2)2 − 36(−2) + 10 = −16 − 12 + 72 + 10 = 54.
At x = 3, f ′′ (x) = 12 × 3 − 6 = 36 − 6 = 30 = +ve.
ww ∴ f has minimum at x = 3.
∴ Minimum value of
w.E f = f (3) = 2 × 33 − 3 × 32 − 36 × 3 + 10 = 54 − 27 − 108 + 10 = −71.
asy
Example 1.68. Find the maxima and minima of the function f (x) = sin x(1 + cos x),
0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
En
Solution. Given f (x) = sin x(1 + cos x)
f ′ (x) = sin x(0−sin x)+(1+cos x)(cos x) = − sin2 x+cos x+cos2 x = cos x+cos 2x.
gin
f ′′ (x) = − sin x − 2 sin 2x.
ee
At critical points f ′ (x) = 0.
cos x + cos 2x = 0
cos x + 2 cos2 x − 1 = 0 rin

i.e., 2 cos2 x + cos x − 1 = 0 g.n
cos x =
cos x =
√
2×2
−1 + 3 1
= or cos x =
=
√
−1 ± 1 − 4 × 2 × (−1) −1 ± 1 + 8 −1 ± 3
4
−1 − 3
= −1.
=
4 et
4 2 4
1 π 5π
cos x = gives x = and .
2 3 3
cos x = −1 gives x = π.
π √ √ √
When x = , f ′′ (x) = − sin π3 − 2 sin 2π
3 = − 23 − 2 23 = − 3 2 3 < 0.
3
π
∴ f has a maximum at x = .
3

√ √
3
Maximum value of f = f π π π
= sin 3 1 + cos 3 =
3 (1 + 21 ) = 3 4 3 .
5π ′′ √ √ √2 √ √
When x = , f (x) = − sin 3 − 2 sin 3 = − 2 − 2 − 23 = 23 + 2 23 = 3 2 3 > 0.
5π 10π − 3
3
5π
∴ f has a minimum at x = .
3 √
− 3 √ √
5π 5π
∴ Minimum value of f = f 3 = sin 3 1 + cos 5 3 = π
(1 + 21 ) = − 2 3 × 23 = −34 3 .
2
When x = π, f ′′ (x) = − sin π − 2 sin 2π = 0.
∴ f has neiher maximum nor minimum at x = π.
√
3 3
∴ Maximum value = 4√ .
ww ∴ Minimum value = −3 3
4 .
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

2 Function of Several Variables
2.1 Limits and Continuity
wwLimit. Let f (x, y) be a function of two independent variables x and y. f (x, y) is said
w.E
to have the limit ℓ as (x, y) tends to (x0 , y0 ), if corresponding to any positive number
ǫ, however small, there is a positive number η such that
asy| f (x, y) − ℓ| < ǫ where 0 < d < η,
En
where d is the distance between (x, y) and (x0 , y0 ) given by d2 = (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 .
gin
Note. If the limit exists, then it can be written as lim f (x, y) = ℓ.
x→x0
y→y0
ee
Continuity. f (x, y) is said to be continuous at (x0 , y0 ) if, to any positive number ǫ,
however small, there corresponds a positive number η such that
rin
| f (x, y) − f (x0 , y0 )| < ǫ where 0 < d < η,
g.n
where d is the distance between (x, y) and (x0 , y0 ) given above.
Result 1. The above definition is equivalent to lim f (x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ).

x→x0
y→y0
et
Result 2. Usually the limit is the same irrespective of the path along which
the point (x, y) approaches (x0 , y0 ).
( )
i.e., lim lim f (x, y) = lim lim f (x, y) .
x→x0 y→y0 y→y0 x→x0
But this is not true always.

2 Function of Several Variables
2.1 Limits and Continuity
wwLimit. Let f (x, y) be a function of two independent variables x and y. f (x, y) is said
w.E
to have the limit ℓ as (x, y) tends to (x0 , y0 ), if corresponding to any positive number
ǫ, however small, there is a positive number η such that
asy| f (x, y) − ℓ| < ǫ where 0 < d < η,
En
where d is the distance between (x, y) and (x0 , y0 ) given by d2 = (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 .
gin
Note. If the limit exists, then it can be written as lim f (x, y) = ℓ.
x→x0
y→y0
ee
Continuity. f (x, y) is said to be continuous at (x0 , y0 ) if, to any positive number ǫ,
however small, there corresponds a positive number η such that
rin
| f (x, y) − f (x0 , y0 )| < ǫ where 0 < d < η,
g.n
where d is the distance between (x, y) and (x0 , y0 ) given above.
Result 1. The above definition is equivalent to lim f (x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ).

x→x0
y→y0
et
Result 2. Usually the limit is the same irrespective of the path along which
the point (x, y) approaches (x0 , y0 ).
( )
i.e., lim lim f (x, y) = lim lim f (x, y) .
x→x0 y→y0 y→y0 x→x0
But this is not true always.

Consider the following example.

x − 2y
Let f (x, y) = .
x + 2y
As (x, y) → (0, 0) along the line y = mx, we have
x − 2y
lim f (x, y) = lim
(x,y)→(0,0) (x,y)→(0,0) x + 2y
x − 2mx
= lim
x→0 x + 2mx
x(1 − 2m)
= lim
x→0 x(1 + 2m)
ww =
1 − 2m
1 + 2m
,
w.E
which is (different for
Also lim lim
x − 2y
x→0 y→0 x + 2y
) lineswith
= lim
) x→0 x !
x
different slopes.
=1
asy
(
x − 2y −2y
and lim lim = lim = −1.
y→0 x→0 x + 2y y→0 2y
Hence, as (x, y) approaches (0, 0) along different paths, f (x, y) approaches different
limits.
En
Hence, the two repeated limits are not equal and hence f (x, y) is
discontinuous at the origin.
gin
ee
Note. If a function is continuous at every point of the domain a ≤ x ≤ a′ ,
b ≤ y ≤ b′ , it is said to be continuous in that domain.
✎ ☞
rin
2x2 y
✍
Worked Examples
✌
g.n
Example 2.1. Find lim
Solution.
x→1
y→2
x2 + y2 + 1
lim
.
2x2 y
=
2×1×2 4 2
= = .
et
x→1 x2 + y2 + 1 1 + 4 + 1 6 3
y→2
xy + 1
x→∞
y→2
x2 + 2y2
x y + 1x y + 1x

xy + 1 2
Solution. lim 2 2
= lim y 2
= lim y 2
= = 0.
x→∞ x + 2y
y→2
x→∞ 2
y→2 x 1 + 2 x
x→∞
y→2 x 1 + 2 x
∞

Function of Several Variables 69
( )
x−y
Example 2.3. If f (x, y) = , show that lim lim f (x, y) , lim lim f (x, y) .
2x + y x→0 y→0 y→0 x→0
Solution.
( ) ( )
x−y
lim lim f (x, y) = lim lim
x→0 y→0 x→0 y→0 2x + y
x 1
= lim = .
x→0 2x 2
( )
x−y
lim lim f (x, y) = lim lim
y→0 x→0 y→0 x→0 2x + y
!
−y
ww∴ The two limits are not equal.

= lim
y→0 y
= −1.
w.E
Example 2.4. If f (x, y) =
x3 y2 + x2 y3 − 3
2 − xy
, show that lim f (x, y) = lim f (x, y).
x→0
y→0
y→0
asy
! x→0
Solution. lim f (x, y) = lim lim f (x, y)

x→0 x→0 y→0
y→0
= lim lim
x→0 y→0 En
x3 y2 + x2 y3 − 3
2 − xy
!
= lim
−3
x→0 2
!
=
gin
−3
2
.
ee

lim f (x, y) = lim lim f (x, y)
y→0 y→0 x→0
x→0
= lim lim
x3 y2 + x2 y3 − 3
!
rin
y→0 x→0
= lim
−3
!
=
−3
2 − xy
. g.n
y→0 2
∴ lim f (x, y) = lim f (x, y) =

x→0
y→0
y→0
x→0
−3
2
.
2
et
2.2 Partial Derivatives
We know that, if y is a continuous function of the independent variable x, and

∆y
∆y the increment in y corresponding to an increment ∆x in x, then lim if
∆x→0 ∆x
exists, is called the differential coefficient or the derivative of y with respect to x.

Now let us consider a function of several independent variables.

Let u be a function of two independent variables x and y and let ∆u be the
increment in u corresponding to an increment in x, y remaining constant. If u is a
∆u
continuous function of x, the limit lim if exists is called the partial derivative
∆x→0 ∆x
∂u
of u with respect to x, and is represented by or u x .
∂x
∂u u(x + ∆x, y) − u(x, y)
Hence, = lim .
∂x ∆x→0 ∆x
In the same way, if u is a continuous function of y, the increment ∆u in u,
wwcorresponding to an increment ∆y in y, x remaining constant, then the limit

lim
∆y→0
u(x, y + ∆y) − u(x, y)
∆y
if exists is called the partial derivative of u with respect to
w.E
y and is represented by
∂u
∂y
or uy .
It can be easily seen that the change in the value of u corresponding to a
asy
change in the value of x will not in general be the same as the change in the value
of u corresponding to an equal change in the value of y. For example, the area A of
En
a rectangular box is a function of the length x and the breadth y, being given by
gin
the relation A = xy. When x alone changes,
ee
∆A = (x + ∆x)y − xy = y∆x.
When y alone changes, ∆A = x(y + ∆y) − xy = x∆y. rin

g.n
Though ∆x = ∆y, the values of ∆A will not be equal unless x = y. i.e., unless the
∂A ∂A
et
box is in the form of a square. Hence, we can see that, in general , .
∂x ∂y
Likewise, if u is a continuous function of several independent variables
x, y, z, . . . , we can define the partial derivatives of u with respect to each of these
independent variables. As an example, let us consider a function with three
independent variables x, y and z.
∂u ∂u ∂u
Let u = f (x, y, z). The first partial derivative of u denoted by , and
∂x ∂y ∂z
treating x, y and z respectively alone as variables can be obtained. We can also
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
find the higher order derivatives 2 , 2 , 2 , , , , . . ..
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x∂y ∂y∂x ∂x∂z

They are evaluated as follows.
∂2 u ∂ ∂u ∂2 u ∂ ∂u ∂2 u ∂ ∂u
= , = and = .
∂x2 ∂x ∂x ∂y2 ∂y ∂y ∂z2 ∂z ∂z
∂2 u ∂ ∂u
Also, =
∂x∂y ∂x ∂y
∂2 u ∂ ∂u
and = .
∂y∂x ∂y ∂x
wwGenerally,
∂2 u
=
∂2 u
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
.
w.E
The third and higher orders of the partial derivatives can be obtained similarly.
✎
Worked Examples
✍
☞
✌
asy
Example 2.5. If V = πr2 h where r and h are independent variables, find
∂V
∂r
and
∂V
∂h
.
En
Solution. Given: V = πr2 h.
gin
Differentiating partially w.r.t. r,
∂V
∂r
= πh × 2r = 2πrh.
ee
Differentiating partially w.r.t. h,
∂V
= πr2 × 1 = πr2 . rin
∂h
∂u ∂u g.n
Example 2.6. If u = log(e x + ey ), show that
Solution. Given: u = log(e x + ey ).
∂u
= x
ex
.
+
∂x ∂y
= 1.
et
∂x e +y ey
∂u e
= .
∂y e x + ey
∂u ∂u e + eyx
+ = = 1.
∂x ∂y e x + ey
x ∂z ∂z
Example 2.7. If z = tan−1 , prove that x + y = 0.
y ∂x ∂y

x
Solution. Given: z = tan−1 .
y
∂z 1 1 y2 1 y
= = = 2 .
∂x 1 + x2 y x + y y x + y2
2 2 2
y
∂z xy
x= 2 .
∂x x + y2
∂z 1 x xy2 x
= 2
− 2
= − 2 2 2
=− 2
∂y x y y (x + y ) x + y2
1+ 2
y
ww ∂z
∂z
y =− 2
∂y
∂z
xy
x + y2
xy xy
w.E x +y = 2
∂x ∂y x + y 2
− 2
x + y2
= 0.
∂u ∂u ∂u
asy
Example 2.8. If u = (x − y)4 + (y − z)4 + (z − x)4 , find the value of
Solution. u = (x − y)4 + (y − z)4 + (z − x)4 .
+ + .
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u
∂x En
= 4(x − y)3 + 4(z − x)3 (−1) = 4(x − y)3 − 4(z − x)3 .
∂u
gin
= 4(y − z)3 − 4(x − y)3 .
ee
∂y
∂u
∂z
= 4(z − x)3 − 4(y − z)3 .
∂u ∂u ∂u rin
+
∂x ∂y ∂z
+ = 0.
g.n
Example 2.9. If u = log(x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz), prove that
Solution. u = log(x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz).
∂u ∂u ∂u
+ +
∂x ∂y ∂z
=
3
et
x+y+z
.
∂u 3x2 − 3yz
= 3 .
∂x x + y3 + z3 − 3xyz
∂u 3y2 − 3xz
= 3 .
∂y x + y3 + z3 − 3xyz
∂u 3z2 − 3yx
= 3 .
∂z x + y3 + z3 − 3xyz

∂u ∂u ∂u 3x2 + 3y2 + 3z2 − 3xy − 3yz − 3zx

+ + =
∂x ∂y ∂z x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz
3(x2 + y2 + z2 − xy − yz − zx) 3
= 2 2 2
= .
(x + y + z)(x + y + z − xy − yz − zx) x + y + z
∂u ∂u ∂u
Example 2.10. If u = (x − y)(y − z)(z − x), show that + + = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution. Given, u = (x − y)(y − z)(z − x).
∂u
= (y − z){(x − y)(−1) + (z − x) · 1}
∂x
ww = (y − z)(−x + y + z − x)
= (y − z)(y + z − 2x) = y2 − z2 − 2x(y − z).
w.E ∂u
∂y
= (z − x){(x − y) · 1 + (y − z)(−1)}
asy
= (z − x){x − y − y + z}
= (z − x)(z + x − 2y)
En
= z2 − x2 − 2y(z − x).
∂u
∂z
gin
= (x − y){(y − z) · 1 + (z − x) · (−1)}
= (x − y)(y − z − z + x)
= (x − y)(x + y − 2z)
= x2 − y2 − 2z(x − y).
ee rin
∂u ∂u ∂u
+ +
∂x ∂y ∂z g.n
= y2 − z2 − 2x(y − z) + z2 − x2 − 2y(z − x) + x2 − y2 − 2z(x − y)
= −2{xy − xz + yz − xy + zx − yz} = −2 × 0 = 0.
p ∂2 u ∂2 u
et
Example 2.11. If u = log x2 + y2 , show that 2 + 2 = 0.
p ∂x ∂y
2 2 1 2 2
Solution. u = log x + y = 2 log(x + y ).
Differentiating partially w.r.t. x we get
∂u 1 1 x
= · 2 2
· 2x = 2 .
∂x 2 x + y x + y2

Again differentiating partially w.r.t. x we get
∂2 u (x2 + y2 ) · 1 − x · 2x y2 − x2
= = .
∂x2 (x2 + y2 )2 (x2 + y2 )2
Differentiating u partially w.r.t. y we get
∂u 1 1 y
= · 2 2
· 2y = 2 .
∂y 2 x + y x + y2
ww Again differentiating partially w.r.t. y we get
w.E ∂2 u (x2 + y2 ) · 1 − y · 2y
= =
x2 − y2
.
asy
∂y2 (x2 + y2 )2 (x2 + y2 )2
En
∂2 u ∂2 u y2 − x2 + x2 − y2
+
gin
∂x2 ∂y2
=
(x2 + y2 )2
= 0.
Example 2.12. If u = log(x2 ee

+ y2
Solution. Given, u = log(x2 + y2 + z2 )
+ z2 ), 2 2 2
prove that (x + y + z )
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
rin
+ +
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2
!
= 2.
∂u 2x g.n
= 2
∂x x + y2 + z2
.
∂2 u (x2 + y2 + z2 ) · 2 − 2x · 2x
∂x2
=
(x2 + y2 + z2 )2
et
2x + 2y2 + 2z2 − 4x2
2
=
(x2 + y2 + z2 )2
2y2 + 2z2 − 2x2
= 2
(x + y2 + z2 )2
2(y2 + z2 − x2 )
= 2 .
(x + y2 + z2 )2

Similarly, we have
∂2 u 2(x2 + z2 − y2 )
= 2
∂y2 (x + y2 + z2 )2
2
∂ u 2(x2 + y2 − z2 )
and 2 = 2 .
∂z (x + y2 + z2 )2
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u 2[y2 + z2 − x2 + x2 + z2 − y2 + x2 + y2 − z2 ]
Now, + + =
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 (x2 + y2 + z2 )2
2(x2 + y2 + z2 )
= 2
(x + y2 + z2 )2
ww 2 ∂ u
2 ∂2 u ∂2 u
!
= 2
2
x + y2 + z2
.
w.E 2 2
∴ (x + y + z ) +
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2
+ =2
∂ 2u ∂ 2u 1  ∂u 2
 !
∂u
!2 
asy

Example 2.13. If u = e xy , show that 2 + 2 =  + . [Jan 2013]
∂x ∂y u ∂x ∂y 
Solution. u = e xy
∂u
∂x
= e xy · y = uy.
En
∂2 u
∂x
∂u
2
=y·
∂u
∂x
= yuy = uy2 .
gin
∂y
∂2 u
∂y 2
= e xy · x = ux.
= x·
∂u
∂y
= x · ux = ux2 .
ee rin
g.n
!2 !2
∂u ∂u
+ = u2 y2 + u2 x2
∂x ∂y
= u[uy2 + ux2 ]
=u
∂ u ∂2 u
" 2
+
∂x2  ∂y2
# et
!2 !2 
1  ∂u ∂u  ∂2 u ∂2 u
+ = + .
∂y  ∂x2 ∂y2

u  ∂x
!
x y ∂u ∂u
Example 2.14. If u = y f +g find the value of x + y . [Dec 2012]
! y x ∂x ∂y
x y
Solution. u = y f +g
y x

!
∂u ′ x 1 y −y
= yf · + g′
∂x y y x x2
!
∂u x y y
x = xf′ − g′ . (1)
∂x y x x
! ! !
∂u ′ x −x x ′ y
1
= yf · 2 +f ·1+g · .
∂y y y y x x
ww y
∂u
∂y
= −x f ′ x
y
!
+ yf
x
y
!
y y
+ g′
x x
(2)
w.E ∂u
(1) + (2) ⇒ x + y
∂x
∂u
∂y
= yf
x
y
!
.
asy
Example 2.15. If r2 = x2 + y2 + z2 , prove that
∂2 r ∂2 r ∂2 r 2
+ + = .
En
Solution. Given: r2 = x2 + y2 + z2 .
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 r
gin
Differentiating w.r.t. x partially we get,
∂r
2r
∂x
2
∂ r
ee
= 2x ⇒
r − x
∂r
∂x r
∂r
= .
x
x 2
∂x = r − x r = r − x .
2
rin
∂x2
2
=
∂ r r −y
Similarly, 2 =
2
r2
2
r2 r3
g.n
∂y
∂ r r − z2
2
and 2 =
∂z
2
r3
r3
. et
∂2 r ∂2 r ∂2 r 3r2 − (x2 + y2 + z2 )
+ + =
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 r3
2
3r − r 2 2r2 2
= = = .
r3 r3 r
y x ∂2 u x2 − y2
Example 2.16. If u = x2 tan−1 − y2 tan−1 , prove that = 2 .
x y ∂x∂y x + y2

Solution. Differentiating u partially w.r.t. y, we get
∂u 1 1 h 2 1 −x y i
= x2 − y + tan−1 2y
∂y y2 x x2 y2 x
1+ 1+
x2 y2
x3 xy2 −1 y

= + − 2y tan
x2 + y2 x2 + y2 x
2 2
x(x + y ) −1 x −1 x

= 2 − 2y tan = x − 2y tan
x + y2 y y
wwDifferentiating this partially w.r.t. x, we get
∂2 u
= 1 − 2y
11
= 1 −
2y2
w.E ∂x∂y
1+ 2
x + y − 2y2
2 2
x2 y
y
x2 + y2
x2 − y2
asy =
x2 + y2
Example 2.17. If u = xy , show that u xxy = u xyx .

=
x2 + y2
.
Solution. Given: u = ey log x

En [Jan 2012, Jun 2008]
gin
uy = ey log x log x = xy log x
ee
u xy = yxy−1 log x + xy
1
x
= yxy−1 log x + xy−1 = xy−1 (y log x + 1)
rin
u xxy
y
= xy−1 + (y log x + 1)(y − 1)xy−2
x
g.n
= xy−2 y + xy−2 (y log x + 1)(y − 1)
= xy−2 (y − y log x − 1 + y2 log x + y)
= xy−2 (2y − 1 + y log x(y − 1))

et
= xy−2 (y(y − 1) log x + 2y − 1) (1)
u = xy
u x = yxy−1 = ye(y−1) log x
uyx = ye(y−1) log x log x + e(y−1) log x .1

= yxy−1 log x + xy−1 = xy−1 (y log x + 1)

y
u xyx = xy−1 + (y log x + 1)(y − 1)xy−2
x
= xy−2 y + xy−2 (y − 1)(y log x + 1)
= xy−2 (y + y2 log x + y − y log x − 1)
= xy−2 (2y − 1 + y log x(y − 1)) (2)
From (1) and (2) we have u xxy = u xyx .
ww y ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
w.E
Example 2.18. If u = (x − y) f
y
x
, find the value of x2 2 + 2xy
∂x ∂x∂y
+ y2 2 .
∂y
[May 2001]
Solution. u = (x − y) f
x
asy
∂u
∂x
= (x − y) f ′
En
y −y
x x2
+ f
y
x
.
∂2 u
∂x2
= −(x − y)
y
gin
x2
· f ′′ y
−y
x x2
− (x − y) f ′ y

x
· y(−2)x−3
y
− 2 · f′
x
y2 ′′ y
= (x − y) 4 f
x
ee
y
x
x
· 1 + f′
y
y −y
x x2
+ 2 3 (x − y) f
x
′ y
.
y y y y
x
− 2 f′
x rin
x
− 2 f′
x x
2
∂ u y 2
x2 2 = 2 (x − y) f ′′
∂x x
y
x
2y
+ (x − y) f ′
x
y
x

− 2y f ′
y
x

.
g.n (1)
∂u
∂y
= (x − y) f ′

= 1−
y ′ y
x
f
y 1

x x
x
· +f
−f
y
x
y
x
.

(−1)
et
∂2 u y ′′ y 1 ′ y
−1 ! 1
′ y
= 1 − f · + f − f · .
∂y2 x x x x x x x
(x − y) ′′ y 2 ′ y
= f − f
x2 x x x
2 2 2
2∂ u y ′′ y 2y ′ y

y = 2 (x − y) f − f . (2)
∂y2 x x x x

∂u
Differentiating w.r.t. x partially we get
∂y
∂2 u
!
y ′′ y −y ′ y
−1 ′ y
−y
= 1− f + f (−y) − f
∂x∂y x x x2 x x2 x x2
(x − y)y ′′ y y y y y
=− 3
f + 2 f′ + 2 f′
x x x x x x
(x − y) · y ′′ y 2y ′ y
=− f + 2f .
x3 x x x
∂2 u −2y2 4y2 y
′′ y
2xy = 2 (x − y) f + f′ . (3)
∂x∂y x x x x
ww ∂2 u
(1) + (2) + (3) ⇒ x2 2 + 2xy
∂x
∂2 u
∂x∂y
∂2 u
+ y2 2 = 0.
∂y
w.E
Homogeneous function. A function f (x, y) is said to be a homogeneous function
in x and y of degree n if f (tx, ty) = tn f (x, y) for any positive t.
Example
asy
(i) f (x, y) = x2 + y2 + 2xy is a homogeneous function of degree 3 in x and y.
En

(ii) If tan−1 yx = u then tan u is a homogeneous function of degree 0.
Note. If u = f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y, then u can
be written as u = xn F .
y
x gin
ee
3
x +y 3
Example. Let u = .
x+y
u(tx, ty) =
t3 x3 + t3 y3 t3 (x3 + y3 )
= = t2
x3 + y3
= t2 u. rin
tx + ty
u is a homogeneous function of degree 2.
t(x + y) x+y
g.n
Now u =

x3 1 + 3
x 1+
y3
x
y
x
et
y 3
1 + x
2
=x y
1+
x
y 3
y y 1+
= x2 F where F x
= y .
x x 1+
x

∴ u is a homogeneous function of degree 2 in x and y.
2.3 Euler’s Theorem
Statement. If f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y having

∂f ∂f
continuous partial derivatives, then x +y = nf.
∂x ∂y
Proof.
Given that f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y.
wwHence f (x, y) can be written as
w.E
y
f (x, y) = xn F .
x
∂f y y −y
= nxn−1 F + xn F ′
asy∂x
= nxn−1 F
x
y
x
x x2
− xn−2 yF ′ .
y
x
∂f
∂y En n ′ y 1
=x F

x x
=x Fn−1 ′ y

x
.
x
∂f
∂x
+y
∂f
∂y gin
= nxn F
y
x
− xn−1 yF ′
y
x
+ xn−1 yF ′
y
x
x
∂f
∂x
+y
∂f
∂y
ee
= nxn F
y
= n f (x, y).
x
rin
Extension.
g.n
If f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is a homogeneous function of degree n in
et
∂f ∂f ∂f
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , then x1 + x2 + · · · + xn = nf.
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn
Euler’s theorem on higher partial derivatives
Statement. If f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y then,
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
x2 2 + 2xy + y2 2 = n(n − 1) f .
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
Proof. Given, f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y.
∴ By Euler’s theorem we have
∂f ∂f
x +y = n f. (1)
∂x ∂y

Differentiating this partially w.r.t. x we obtain
∂2 f ∂ f ∂2 f ∂f
x + + y =n .
∂x2 ∂x ∂x∂y ∂x
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂f ∂f ∂f
=⇒ x + y =n − = (n − 1) .
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂x ∂x ∂x
Multiplying both sides by x we get
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂f
x2 + xy = (n − 1)x . (2)
ww ∂x 2
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. y we get

∂x∂y ∂x
w.E x
∂2 f
∂y∂x
∂2 f ∂ f
+y 2 +
∂y ∂y
=n
∂f
∂y
x
asy∂2 f ∂2 f
+y 2 =n
∂f ∂f
−
∂f
= (n − 1) .
En
∂y∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
∂2 f ∂2 f
gin
Since the partial derivatives of f are continuous we have =
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
.
Multiplying both sides by y we get

∴x
ee
∂2 f
∂x∂y
∂2 f
∂y
∂f
+ y 2 = (n − 1) .
∂y
rin
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂f
+ y2 2 = (n − 1)y .
g.n
et
xy (2)
∂x∂y ∂y ∂y
∂2 f ∂2 f 2
2∂ f
∂f ∂f
(1) + (2) =⇒ x2 + 2xy + y = (n − 1) x + y
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2 ∂x ∂y
= (n − 1)n f [By Euler’s theorem]
= n(n − 1) f.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌

∂u ∂u ∂u
Example 2.19. If u = (x − y)(y − z)(z − x) prove that + + = 0 and
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂u ∂u
x +y +z = 3u.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution. u = (x − y)(y − z)(z − x).
∂u
= (y − z) (x − y)(−1) + z − x
∂x
= (y − z)(−x + y + z − x)
= (y − z)(y + z − 2x).
ww ∂u
Similarly,
∂y
= (z − x)(z + x − 2y) and
∂u
∂z
= (x − y)(x + y − 2z).
w.E ∂u ∂u ∂u
+ +
∂x ∂y ∂z
= y2 − z2 − 2x(y − z) + z2 − x2 − 2y(z − x) + x2 − y2 − 2z(x − y).
asy
= −2xy + 2xz − 2yz + 2xy − 2xz + 2yz = 0
Also, u(tx, ty, tz) = (tx − ty)(ty − tz)(tz − tx)
En
= t (x − y)(y − z)(z − x) = t3 u.
3
gin
∴ u is a homogeneous function of degree 3 in x, y, z.
ee
∂u ∂u ∂u
∴ By Euler’s theorem, x + y + z = 3u.
∂x ∂y ∂z
x3 + y3 ∂u ∂u rin
Example 2.20. If u = log
x+y
x3 + y3
, prove that x + y
x3 + y3
∂x ∂y
= 2.
g.n
Solution. Given: u = log
x+y
⇒ eu =
eu(tx,ty) =
x+y
t3 x3 + t3 y3 t3 (x3 + y3 )
=
et
tx + ty t(x + y)
3
x +y 3
= t2 = t2 eu .
x+y
∴ eu is a homogeneous function of degree 2.

Here n = 2.

∴ By Euler’s theorem,
∂ u ∂
(e ) + y (eu ) = 2eu .
x
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
=⇒ xeu + yeu = 2eu
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
eu x + y = 2eu .
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
x +y = 2.
∂x ∂y
y z ∂u ∂u ∂u
wwExample 2.21. If u = + , find the value of x + y + z .

x x
y z
Solution. Given: u = + .
x x
∂x ∂y ∂z
w.E u(tx, ty, tz) =

ty tz
+
tx tx
y z
= t0 +
x x
= t0 u.
asy
=⇒ u is a homogeneous function in x, y, z of degree 0.
By Euler’s theorem,
∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x
x y z
x
En
+y +z
∂y ∂z
= nu = 0.u = 0.
∂u ∂u ∂u
y z x
x y z
Solution. u(x, y, z) = + + . gin
Example 2.22. If u = + + , then show that x + y + z
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 0. [Jun 2012]
y z x
ee
u(tx, ty, tz) =
tx ty tz
+ +
ty tz tx
tx y z rin
= + +
t y z x
= t0 u(x, y, z). g.n
u is a homogeneous function of degree 0 in x, y, z.
∂u ∂u
∴ By Euler’s theorem, x + y + z
∂x ∂y
∂u
∂z
= 0.u = 0.
et
x2 y2 ∂u ∂u
Example 2.23. If sin u = , show that x + y = 3 tan u.
x+y ∂x ∂y
x2 y2
Solution. sin u(x, y) = .
x+y
t2 x2 t2 y2 t4 (x2 y2 )
sin u(tx, ty) = = = t3 sin u.
tx + ty t(x + y)

sin u is a homogeneous function of degree 3 in x and y.

∂ ∂
x(sin u) + y (sin u) = 3 sin u.
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
x cos u + y cos u = 3 sin u
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
cos u x + y = 3 sin u
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u 3 sin u 3 sin u
x +y = = = 3 tan u.
ww
∂x ∂y cos u cos u
x y z ∂u ∂u ∂u
Example 2.24. If u = f , , , prove that x + y + z = 0.
y z x ∂x ∂y ∂z
w.E
Solution.
u(x, y, z) = f
x y z
, ,
asy
u(tx, ty, tz) = f
y z x
tx ty tz
, ,
ty tz tx
En x y z
= f , ,
y z x
gin = u(x, y, z) = t0 u(x, y, z)
∂u ∂u
∴ By Euler’s theorem, x + y + z
∂x ∂y
∂u
∂z
ee
u is a homogeneous function of degree 0 in x, y, z.
= 0.u = 0.
rin
Example 2.25. If u = tan−1
x−y
x3 + y3 ∂u
show that x + y
∂x
∂u
∂y
= sin 2u.
g.n
Solution. tan u =
x3 + y3
x−y
.
tan u is a homogeneous function of degree 2 in x and y.
By Euler’s theorem
et
∂ ∂
x (tan u) + y (tan u) = 2 tan u
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
sec2 ux + sec2 uy = 2 tan u
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u 2 tan u 2 sin u
x +y = = cos2 u
∂x ∂y sec2 u cos u

= sin 2u.
x+y ∂u ∂u 1
Example 2.26. If u = sin−1 √ √ prove that x + y = tan u. [Jun 2009]
x+ y ∂x ∂y 2
x+y x+y
Solution. u = sin−1 √ √ ⇒ sin u = √ √ .
x+ y x+ y
sin u is a homogeneous function of degree 21 in x and y.
∂ ∂ 1
x (sin u) + y (sin u) = sin u.
ww
∂x ∂y 2
∂u ∂u 1
cos ux + cos uy = sin u
∂x ∂y 2
w.E ∂u
x +y
∂x
∂u 1
∂y 2
= tan u.
asy
 
 x + y 
−1  ∂u ∂u −1
Example 2.27. If u = cos  √ √ , prove that x + y = cot u. [Dec 2011]
∂x ∂y 2
 x+ y
En
 x + y 
Solution. u = cos−1  √ √ .
x + y
gin

 x + y 
cos u =  √ √ .
x+ y
cos u is a homogeneous function of degree 21 in x and y.
∴ By Euler’s theorem
x
∂
ee∂
(cos u) + y (cos u) =
1
· cos u. rin
∂x
∂u
∂y
x(− sin u) + y(− sin u)
∂u
=
2
1
cos u. g.n
∂x
∂u
− sin u x + y
∂x
∂u
∂y
∂
∂y
∂
!
=
2
1
2
cos u.
−1 cos u −1
et
∴ x +y = = cot u.
∂x ∂y 2 sin u 2
x y
Example 2.28. Verify Euler’s theorem for the function u = sin−1 + tan−1 .
x y y x
Solution. Given: u = sin−1 + tan−1 .
y x
tx ty
u(tx, ty) = sin−1 + tan−1
ty tx

x y
= t0 sin−1 + tan−1
y x
= t0 u(x, y).
=⇒ u is a homogeneous function of degree 0 in x and y.
∂u ∂u
∴ By Euler’s theorem, x + y = 0.
∂x ∂y
Verification.
∂u 1 1 1 −y
= s +
∂x
x2
y y2 x2
1 +
ww 1− 2
= p
y
y 1
x2
− 2 2
x2 y
w.E = p
y2 − x2 y x (x + y )
1
− 2
y
x + y2
.
2
asy
2
y −x 2
∂u x xy
x = p − 2 (1)
∂x 2
y −x 2 x + y2
En ∂u
= s
1 −x
2
+
1 1
y2 x
gin
∂y
x2 y 1 +
1− 2 x2
y
ee= p
=− p
−xy
y2 y2 − x2 x + y
x
+ 2
+ 2
x
x
+
x
2
y2 rin
g.n
2
y y −x 2
∂u x xy
y =−p + 2 (2)
∂y x + y2
et
2
y −x 2
∂u ∂u
(1) + (2) =⇒ = x +y = 0.
∂x ∂y
Hence, Euler’s theorem is verified.
1 1
Example 2.29. Verify Euler’s theorem for the function u = x 2 + y 2 (xn + yn ).

Solution. It is easy to verify that u is a homogeneous function of degree n + 21 in
x and y.

Hence, by Euler’s theorem we have

∂u ∂u 1
x +y = n + u. (1)
∂x ∂y 2
Verification
∂u 1 1 1 1
= x 2 + y 2 nxn−1 + (xn + yn ) x− 2
∂x 2
∂u 1 1 1 1
x = n x 2 + y 2 xn + (xn + yn )x 2 .
∂x 2
wwSince the function is symmetric in x and y we have

∂u 1 1 1 1
= n x 2 + y 2 yn + (xn + yn )y 2 .
y
w.E ∂u
x +y
∂x
∂y
∂u
∂y
1 1
2
1
2
1 1
= n x 2 + y 2 (xn + yn ) + (xn + yn ) x 2 + y 2
= n+
asy1 1
2
1
x 2 + y 2 (xn + yn )
En
1
= n + u,
2
which verifies Euler’s theorem.
ygin x
Example 2.30. If u = x2 tan−1
∂2 u
x2
∂x2
+ 2xy
∂2 u
∂x∂y
+ y
2
2∂ u
∂y2
.
x
ee
− y2 tan−1
y
, find the value of
rin
g.n
Solution. u is a homogeneous function of degree 2 in x and y.
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
By Euler’s theorem, x2 2 + 2xy + y2 2 = 2(2 − 1)u = 2u [n = 2].
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
Example 2.31. If z = x f
Solution. Let u = x f
y
y
x
y
x
y
and v = g .
∂2 z
+ g , show that x2 2 + 2xy
∂x
∂2 z
∂x∂y
∂2 z
+ y2 2 = 0.
∂y
et
x x
∴ z = u + v.
u is a homogeneous function of degree 1 in x and y.
∴ By Euler’s theorem,
∂2 u ∂2 u 2
2∂ u
x2 + 2xy + y = n(n − 1)u = 1(1 − 1)u = 0. (1)
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2

v is a homogeneous function of degree 0 in x and y.

∂2 v ∂2 v 2
2∂ v
x2 + 2xy + y = 0(0 − 1)v = 0. (2)
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2
∂2 (u + v) ∂2 (u + v) 2
2 ∂ (u + v)
(1) + (2) ⇒ x2 + 2xy + y =0
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2
∂2 z ∂2 z 2
2∂ z
x2 + 2xy + y = 0.
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2
ww
3 3
!
−1 x + y
Example 2.32. If u = tan , prove that
x−y
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u
x2 2 + 2xy + y2 2 = 2 sin u cos 3u.
w.E ∂x
Solution. u = tan−1
∂x∂y
x 3 + y3
x−y
!∂y
.
tan u =
x3 + y3
x−y
!
asy
En
tan u is an homogeneous function of degree 2 in x and y.
∂ ∂
gin
x (tan u) + y (tan u) = 2 tan u.
∂x ∂y
ee
∂u ∂u
x · sec2 u + y · sec2 u = 2 tan u.
∂x ∂y
rin
!
2 ∂u ∂u
sec u x + y = 2 tan u.
∂x ∂y
∂u
x +y
∂x
∂u 2 tan u
∂y
= 2
sec u
=2·
sin u
cos u
· cos2 u
g.n
x
∂u
∂x
+y
∂u
∂y
= 2 sin u cos u
= sin 2u.
et (1)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. x we get

∂2 u ∂u ∂2 u ∂u
x· 2 + +y = 2 cos 2u .
∂x ∂x ∂x∂y ∂x
Multiplying by x we get
∂2 u ∂u ∂2 u ∂u
x2 2
+ x + xy = 2 cos 2u · x . (2)
∂x ∂x ∂x∂y ∂x

Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. y we get

∂2 u ∂2 u ∂u ∂u
x +y 2 + = 2 cos 2u .
∂y∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
Multiplying w.r.t. y we get
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂u ∂u
xy + y2 2 + y = 2 cos 2u · y . (3)
∂y∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
(2) + (3) ⇒
2 ∂2 u 2
!
2∂ u 2∂ u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
x + 2xy +y +x +y = 2 cos 2u x + y
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2 ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
ww 2
∂ u
x2 2 + 2xy
∂x
2
∂ u
∂x∂y
2
∂ u
∂y
∂u
+ y2 2 = (2 cos 2u − 1) x + y
∂x
∂u
∂y
!
w.E = (2 cos 2u − 1) sin 2u
= sin 2u{2(2 cos2 u − 1) − 1}
asy = sin 2u{4 cos2 u − 3}
En = 2 sin u cos u(4 cos2 u − 3)
= 2 sin u(4 cos3 u − 3 cos u)
gin = 2 sin u · cos 3u.
2.4 Total Derivative - Implicit functions

ee rin
We know that if y = f (u) and u = φ(x), then
dy dy du
=
dx du dx g.n
. We shall now extend this
result to function of several variables.
Let z = f (x, y) possess continuous partial derivatives and let x, y be differentiable
functions of an independent variable t. Let ∆x, ∆y and ∆z be increments in x, y and
et
z respectively, corresponding to an increment ∆t in t. Then the total increment in z
is given by
∆z = f (x + ∆x, y + ∆y) − f (x, y)
= f (x + ∆x, y + ∆y) − f (x, y + ∆y) + f (x, y + ∆y) − f (x, y).

By mean value theorem, f (x + ∆x, y + ∆y) − f (x, y + ∆y) = f x (x + θ1 x, y + ∆y)∆x and

f (x, y + ∆y) − f (x, y) = fy (x, y + θ2 ∆y)∆y, 0 < θ1 , θ2 < 1.
∆z = f x (x + θ1 x, y + ∆y)∆x + fy (x, y + θ2 ∆y)∆y (1)
where θ1 and θ2 are positive proper fractions.
∆z ∆x ∆y
∴ = f x (x + θ1 x, y + ∆y) + fy (x, y + θ2 ∆y) .
∆t ∆t ∆t
Taking limits as ∆t → 0, we get the total derivative
ww dz
dt
dx dy
= f x (x, y) + fy (x, y) .
dt dt
w.E i.e.,
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
= +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
. (2)
asy
In the same way if u = f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) possesses continuous partial derivatives
with respect to each of the independent variables and if x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are
En
differentiable functions of an independent variable t, then the total derivative of u
with respect to t is given by
du gin
∂u dx1 ∂u dx2 ∂u dxn
dt
=
∂x1 dt
+
ee
∂x2 dt
+ ··· +
∂xn dt
.
Note. (2) expresses the rate of change of z w.r.t. t along the curve rin
(3)
x = x(t), y = y(t).
g.n
Composite functions. Let z = f (u, v) and u and v are themselves functions of the
independent variables x, y so that u = φ(x, y) and v = ψ(x, y).
To find
∂z
, we consider y as a constant so that u and v may be supposed to be
et
∂x
functions of x only. Hence, by the above result we have
∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v ∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v
= + . Similarly = + .
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x ∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y
Now, in (2), if we replace t by x then y is a function of x we get
dz ∂z ∂z dy
= + .
dx ∂x ∂y dx

dz ∂z dx ∂z
Similarly = + .
dy ∂x dy ∂y
Implicit Functions. Let f (x, y) = c, where c is a constant, define y as an implicit

function of x.
If u = f (x, y), then we have
du ∂ f ∂ f dy
= + .
dx ∂x ∂y dx
du
But = 0, since u = f (x, y) = c
dx
ww i.e.,
∂ f ∂ f dy
+
∂x ∂y dx
=0
w.E ∴
dy
dx
∂f
fx
= − ∂x = − .
∂f fy
Similarly
dx fy
=− .
asy ∂y
dy fx
En
Total differential. The total differential dz of z is defined as the principal part of
the increment ∆z which is given by
gin ∂z ∂z
ee
✎
dz =
∂x
dx + dy.
Worked Examples
✍
∂y
☞
✌
dz rin
Example 2.33. If z = xn ym where x = cos at, y = sin bt, find .
Solution. We have
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
= + .
dt
g.n
Now
dx
∂z
∂x
= nxn−1 ym ,
= −a sin at,
dy
∂z
∂y
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
= mxn ym−1
= b cos bt.
et
dt dt
dz
∴ = −anxn−1 ym sin at + bmxn ym−1 cos bt
dt
an bm
= −xn ym sin at − cos bt
x y
= − cosn at sinm bt(an tan at − bm cot bt).

du
Example 2.34. If u = x2 y3 , x = log t, y = et , find . [Jan 2000]
dt
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
Solution. We have = + .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
∂u
= y3 2x = 2xy3
∂x
∂u
= x2 3y2 = 3x2 y2
∂y
dx 1 dy
= = et
dt t dt
ww du 1
= 2xy3 + 3x2 y2 et
w.E
dt t
2 log te3t
= + 3(log t)2 e2t et
t
asy
2
= e3t log t + 3 log t
t
e3t log t
En =
t
(2 + 3t log t).
Example 2.35. Find

Solution.
du
dt
gin
when u = x2 y, x = t2 , y = et .
ee
∂u
∂x
dx
= 2xy,
= 2t
∂u
∂y
dy
= x2
= et rin
dt
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
dt
g.n
we have
dt
= +
∂x dt ∂y dt
= 2xy.2t + x2 et
= 4t2 et t + t4 et = 4t3 et + t4 et = t3 et (4 + t).

et
1 du
Example 2.36. If u = xy + yz + zx where x = , y = et and z = e−t find . [Jun 2013]
t dt
Solution.
∂u ∂u ∂u
= y + z, = x + z, = x+y
∂x ∂y ∂z
dx −1 dy dz
= 2, = et , = −e−t
dt t dt dt

du ∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz
we have = + +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
−1
= (y + z) 2 + (x + z)et + (x + y)(−e−t )
t
et + e−t 1 1
=− 2
+ (e−t + )et − + et e−t
t t t
−2 et e−t
= 2 cos ht + 1 + − −1
t t t
−2 2 sin ht
= 2 cos ht +
t t
2
ww = 2 (2t sin ht − cos ht).

t
w.E
Example 2.37. Find
Solution.
du
dt

when u = sin yx , x = et , y = t2 .
asy
∂u
∂x
= cos
x1
y y
,
∂u
∂y
x
= − 2 cos
y
x
y
En
gindx
dt
= et
dy
dt
= 2t
du ∂u dx ∂u dy 1
dt
= +
∂x dt ∂y dt y
ee
= cos
x
y
et −
x
y2
cos
x
y
2t
rin
= cos
x et 2tet !
y t 2
− 4 = cos
t
x
y
et
1 2t
−
t2 t4
!
=
et (t − 2)
t3
cos
g.n
et
t2
.
Example 2.38. If u = sin−1 (x − y) where x = 3t, y = 4t3 , show that

du
dt
et
= √
3
1 − t2
.
Solution.
∂u 1 ∂u −1
= p , = p
∂x 1 − (x − y)2 ∂y 1 − (x − y)2
dx dy
=3 = 12t2
dt dt

du ∂u dx ∂u dy
= +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
1 1
= p 3− p 12t2
1 − (x − y) 2 1 − (x − y) 2
3 − 12t 2 3 − 12t2
= p = p
1 − (3t − 4t3 )2 1 − (9t2 + 16t6 − 24t4 )
3 − 12t 2 3 − 12t2
= √ = p
1 − 9t2 − 16t6 + 24t4 −(16t6 − 24t4 + 9t2 − 1)
3(1 − 4t2 ) 3(1 − 4t2 )
= p = p
ww =
−(t2 − 1)(16t4 − 8t2 + 1)
3(1 − 4t2 )
p = √
3
.
−(t2 − 1)(1 − 4t2 )2
w.E du
(1 − 4t2 ) (1 − t2 ) 1 − t2
Example 2.39. Find

dx
Solution. We have du =
∂u
∂x
asy
if u = cos(x2 + y2 ) and a2 x2 + b2 y2 = c2 .
∂u
dx + dy
∂y
[Jan 2001]
En
du ∂u ∂u dy
= +
dx ∂x ∂y dx
gin
= − sin(x2 + y2 )2x − sin(x2 + y2 )2y
dy
dx
Given that a2 x2 + b2 y2 = c2 .
Diff. w.r.t. x we get
ee rin
dy
2a2 x + 2b2 y
dx
= 0 ⇒ b2 y
dy
dx
= −a2 x ⇒
dy
dx
=− 2
a2 x
b y g.n
∴
du
dx

= −2 sin(x2 + y2 ) x + y
dy
dx

= −2 sin(x2 + y2 ) x + y 2
a2 − b2 2(a2 − b2 )x
et
−a2 x
b y
= 2 sin(x2 + y2 ) xy = sin(x2 + y2 ).
b2 y b2
dz
q
Example 2.40. If z = x2 + y2 and x3 + y3 + 3axy = 5a2 , find the value of when
dx
x = y = a.
p
Solution. Given z = x2 + y2 .

We have
∂z ∂z
dz =dx + dy
∂x ∂y
∂z 2x x
Now = p = p
∂x 2 x2 + y2 x2 + y2
∂z y
= p .
∂y x2 + y2
Also x3 + y3 + 3axy = 5a2
wwDiff.w.r.t. x we get
3x2 + 3y2
dy
dx
h dy i
+ 3a x + y = 0
dx
w.E x2 + y2
dy
dx
dy
+ ax + ay = 0
dx
asy dy 2
dx
(y + ax) = −ay − x2
En dy −(x2 + ay)
dx
= 2
y + ax
.
dz
= + gin
∂z ∂z dy
= p
x
+ p
y −(x2 + ay)
!
ee
∴ 2
dx ∂x ∂y dx x2 + y2 x2 + y2 y + ax
a −2a2
rin
dz a a a
= √ + √ = √ − √ = 0.
dx x=y=a a 2 a 2 2a2 a 2 a 2
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
−v
g.n
Example 2.41. If z is a function of x and y and x = e + e , y = e−u − ev , show that
u
−
∂u ∂v
= x −y .
∂x ∂y
Solution. z is a composite function of u and v.
We have
et
[Jun 2001]
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z u ∂z ∂z u ∂z −u
= + = e + (−e−u ) = e − (e ).
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
= + = (−e−v ) + (−ev ) = − e−v − (ev ).
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z ∂z u ∂z ∂z ∂z
− = (e + e−v ) − (e−u − ev ) = x − y .
∂u ∂v ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

Example 2.42. If z = f (x, y) where x = eu cos v, y = eu sin v, show that

∂z ∂z ∂z
y + x = e2u . [Jan 2000]
∂u ∂v ∂y
Solution. z is a composite function of u and v.
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z u ∂z
= + = e cos v + eu sin v.
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z
= + = (−eu sin v) + eu cos v.
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z u ∂z u ∂z ∂z
y = y e cos v + y e sin v = eu sin veu cos v + eu sin veu sin v
∂u ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
ww ∂z
∂z
= e2u sin v cos v + e2u sin2 v .
∂x
∂z
∂z
∂y
∂z
w.E x = −eu sin veu cos v + eu cos veu cos v

∂v
∂z
∂x
= −e2u sin v cos v + e2u cos2 v
∂z
∂y
Adding we get yasy∂z

∂x
∂z
+ x = e2u .
∂z
∂y
En
∂u
y − x z − x
∂v ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂u
Example 2.43. If u = f
Solution. Given: u = f
xy
,gin
,
zx
y − x z − x
prove that x2 + y2 + z2
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 0.
Let r =
y−x
xy
∴ u = f (r, s).
,s=
z−x
zx
xy
1 1
ee
zx
,r = − , s = − .
x y
1 1
x z
rin
∴ u is a function of r and s and r and s are functions of x, y and z.
Now g.n
∴ x2
∂u
∂x
∂u
=
∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u −1 ∂u −1
+ =
∂r ∂x ∂s ∂x ∂r x2
∂u ∂u
=− − .
+
∂s x2 et (1)
∂x ∂r ∂s
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u −1 ∂u
= + = + (0)
∂y ∂r ∂y ∂s ∂y ∂r y2 ∂s
∂u ∂u
y2 = . (2)
∂y ∂r
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u ∂u 1
= + = (0) +
∂z ∂r ∂z ∂s ∂z ∂r ∂s z2

∂u ∂u
z2 = . (3)
∂z ∂s
∂u ∂u ∂u
(1) + (2) + (3) =⇒ x2 + y2 + z2 = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂v
Example 2.44. If u2 + 2v2 = 1 − x2 + y2 and u2 + v2 = x2 + y2 − 2, find and .
∂x ∂x
Solution. Consider u and v as functions of x and y.
u2 + 2v2 = 1 − x2 + y2 .
wwDifferentiating partially w.r.t. x
w.E 2u
∂u
∂x
+ 4v
∂v
∂x
= −2x
asy
∂u ∂v
u + 2v = −x. (1)
∂x ∂x
u2 + v2 = x2 + y2 − 2
En
Differentiating partially w.r.t. x
gin ∂u ∂v
ee 2u
∂x
∂u
u +v
∂x
+ 2v
∂x
∂v
∂x
∂v
= 2x
= x.
rin (2)
(1) − (2) ⇒ v
∂x
∂v
= −2x
−2x g.n
et
⇒ =
∂x v
∂u (−2x)
(1) ⇒ u + 2v = −x.
∂x v
∂u
u = 3x
∂x
∂u 3x
⇒ = .
∂x u
Example 2.45. If z is a function of x and y and

∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 u
x = u cos α − v sin α, y = u sin α + v cos α, show that + = + . [Jun 2000]
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂u2 ∂v2

Solution.
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z
= + = cos α + sin α.
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂x ∂y
∂2 z ∂ ∂z ∂x ∂ ∂z ∂y
= +
∂u2 ∂x ∂u ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂u
∂ ∂z ∂z ∂ ∂z ∂z
= cos α + sin α cos α + cos α + sin α sin α
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
2
∂ z 2
∂ z 2
∂ z ∂2 z
= 2 cos2 α + sin α cos α + cos α sin α + 2 sin2 α. (1)
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y∂x ∂y
ww
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z
= + = (− sin α) + cos α.
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂x ∂y
∂2 z ∂ ∂z ∂x ∂ ∂z ∂y
w.E =
=
∂x
−
∂x
+
∂v2 ∂x ∂v ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂v
∂ ∂z
sin α +
∂z
∂y

cos α (− sin α) +
∂ ∂z
∂y
−
∂x
sin α +
∂z
∂y

cos α cos α.
2
∂ z
= 2 sin2 α −
∂x asy
2
∂ z
∂x∂y
sin α cos α −
2
∂ z
∂y∂x
2
∂ z
cos α sin α + 2 cos2 α.
∂y
(2)
(1) + (2) ⇒ + En
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
= (sin2
α + cos 2
α) +
∂2 z
(sin2 α + cos2 α)
gin
∂u2 ∂v2 ∂x2
=
∂2 z ∂2 z
+ .
∂y2
Example 2.46. If F is
2
∂ F ∂ F
that 2 + 2 = e−2u
2 ∂ F ∂ F
+ 2
ee
" 2a function2
∂x2 ∂y2
u
rin
u
# of x and y and if x = e sin v, y = e cos v, prove
[Jan 2013]
g.n
∂x ∂y ∂u2 ∂v
∂F ∂F ∂x ∂F ∂y
Solution. = · + ·
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u
∂2 F
∂u 2
=
∂ ∂F ∂x
=
!
∂F u
∂x
· e sin v +
+
∂x ∂u ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂u
∂ ∂F ∂y
!
∂F u
∂y
· e cos v.
et
" # " #
∂ ∂F u ∂F u ∂x ∂ ∂F u ∂F u ∂y
= · e sin v + · e cos v + · e sin v + · e cos v
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂u ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂u
" 2
∂2 F u
" 2
∂2 F u
# #
∂ F u u ∂ F u
= · e sin v + · e cos v · e sin v + · e cos v + · e sin v · eu cos v
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2 ∂y∂x
∂2 F ∂2 F 2u ∂2 F 2u ∂2 F
= 2 · e2u sin2 v + · e sin v cos v + · e sin v cos v + 2 · e2u cos2 v (1)

∂F ∂F ∂x ∂F ∂y
= · + · .
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
∂F u ∂F u
= · e cos v − · e sin v.
∂x ∂y
∂2 F
! !
∂ ∂F ∂x ∂ ∂F ∂y
= +
∂v2 ∂x ∂v ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂v
" # " #
∂ ∂F u ∂F u u ∂ ∂F u ∂F u
= · e cos v − · e sin v e cos v + · e cos v − · e sin v (−eu sin v)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂2 F ∂2 F 2u ∂2 F 2u ∂2 F
= 2 · e2u cos2 v − · e sin v cos v − · e sin v cos v + 2 · e2u sin2 v. (2)
ww ∂2 F ∂2 F ∂2 F 2u ∂2 F 2u
(1) + (2) ⇒ 2 + 2 = 2 e + 2 · e
∂u ∂v ∂x
" 2
∂y
∂2 F
#
w.E e−2u
" 2
∂ F ∂ F 2
#
=e
+ 2 = 2 + 2.
2u ∂ F
2
∂x2
∂ F ∂ F 2
+ 2
∂y
∂u 2 ∂v
asy ∂x ∂y
En
Example 2.47. Transform the equation z xx + 2z xy + zyy = 0 by changing the
gin
independent variables using u = x − y and v = x + y.
Solution. Consider z as a function of u and v and u and v are functions of x and y.
[Jun 2012]
∂z
=
∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v
·
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x
=
∂z
·1+
+
∂z
·1
·ee rin
=
∂u
∂z ∂z
+ .
∂v
g.n
∂2 z
=
∂u ∂v!
∂ ∂z ∂u
·
∂x2 ∂u ∂x ∂x ∂v ∂x ∂x
∂ ∂z ∂z
!
+
!
∂ ∂z ∂v
·
∂ ∂z ∂z
!
et
= + ·1+ + ·1
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u ∂v
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
= 2+ + + 2
∂u ∂u∂v ∂v∂u ∂v
i.e.,z xx = zuu + zuv + zvu + zvv (1)
∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v
= · + ·
∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y

∂z ∂z
= (−1) + ·1
∂u ∂v
∂z ∂z
=− + .
∂u !∂v
∂2 z
!
∂ ∂z ∂u ∂ ∂z ∂v
= +
∂y2 ∂u ∂y ∂y ∂v ∂y ∂y
! !
∂ ∂z ∂z ∂ ∂z ∂z
= − + (−1) + − + ·1
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u ∂v
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
= 2− − + 2.
∂u ∂u∂v ∂v∂u ∂v
ww i.e., zyy = zuu − zuv − zvu + zvv

∂2 z
=
∂ ∂z
!
(2)
w.E ∂x∂y ∂x ∂y
=
∂ ∂z ∂u
!
+
∂u ∂y ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂x
∂ ∂z ∂v
!
=
∂
asy
∂z ∂z
− +
∂u ∂u ∂v
!
·1+
∂
− +
∂z ∂z
∂v ∂u ∂v
!
·1
∂2 z
=− 2 +
∂u En∂2 z
−
∂2 z
∂u∂v ∂v∂u ∂v
∂2 z
+ 2.
gin
i.e., z xy = −zuu + zuv − zvu + zvv (3)
(1) + (2) + 2 × (3) ⇒
ee
z xx + 2z xy + zyy = 2zuv − 2zvu + 4zvv
0 = 2zuv − 2zvu + 4zvv . rin

∴ zuv − zvu + 2zvv = 0
g.n
which is the required equation.
Example 2.48. If z = f (x, y)! where x = u2 − v2 and y = 2uv, prove that

et
∂2 z ∂2 z 2
2
2 ∂ z ∂2 z
+ = 4(u + v ) + . [Jan 2012, Jan 2010]
∂u2 ∂v2 ∂x2 ∂y2
Solution. z is a function of x and y and x and y are functions of u and v.
∴ z is a composite function of u and v.
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= · + ·
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u

∂z ∂z
= · 2u + · 2v.
∂x ∂y
∂2 z
!
∂ ∂z
=
∂u2 ∂u ∂u
! !
∂ ∂z ∂x ∂ ∂z ∂y
= · + · .
∂x ∂u ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂u
" # " #
∂ ∂z ∂z ∂ ∂z ∂z
= · 2u + · 2v 2u + · 2u + · 2v 2v
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
= 2 · 4u2 + 4uv + 4uv + 2 · 4v2 .
ww ∂z
∂v
=
∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
·
∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
+ ·
w.E =
∂z
∂x
· (−2v) +
∂z
= −2v + 2u .
∂z
∂y
∂z
· 2u
∂2 z
= asy
∂ ∂z
∂x
!
∂y
∂v2
=
∂v ∂v
En
∂ ∂z ∂x
!
+
∂ ∂z ∂y
!
.
=
∂
"
gin
∂x ∂v ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂v
∂z
−2v + 2u
∂z
#
(−2v) +
∂
"
−2v ·
∂z
+ 2u ·
∂z
#
2u
∂2 z ∂2 z
∂x
∂2 z
= 4v2 2 − 4uv
2
∂x
ee
∂x
∂x∂y
∂y
∂2 z
− 4uv
2
∂2 z
∂y∂x
∂y
+ 4v2 2
∂y
∂x
∂2 z
rin
∂y
g.n
∂ z ∂ z
+ = 2 (4u2 + 4v2 ) + 2 (4u2 + 4v2 )
∂u2 ∂v2 ∂x ∂y
" 2
∂2 z
#
∂ z
Example 2.49. If g(x, y) = χ(u,

2
∂ g ∂ g2 2 2
∂ χ ∂ χ
2
= 4(u + v ) 2
+
∂x2 ∂y2
2 2
.
! v) where u = x − y , v = 2xy, prove that

et
2
+ 2 = 4(x2 + y2 ) + .
∂x ∂y ∂u2 ∂v2
Solution.
Similar to the previous problem.

du
Example 2.50. If u = x2 + y2 + z2 and x = e2t , y = e2t cos 3t, z = e2t sin 3t, find .
dt
[Dec 2011]
Solution.
du ∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz
= · + · + ·
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
h i
= 2x · 2e2t + 2y −3e2t sin 3t + 2e2t cos 3t
h i
+ 2z 3e2t cos 3t + 2e2t sin 3t
ww
h i
= 2e2t · 2e2t + 2e2t cos 3t −3e2t sin 3t + 2e2t cos 3t
h i
+ 2e2t sin 3t 3e2t cos 3t + 2e2t sin 3t
w.E = 4e4t − 6e4t cos 3t sin 3t + 4e4t cos2 3t + 6e4t sin 3t cos 3t + 4e4t sin2 3t
= 4e4t + 4e4t (cos2 3t + sin2 3t) = 4e4t + 4e4t = 8e4t .
Example 2.51. Find

dy
asy 2 2 2
if x and y are connected by the relation x 3 + y 3 = a 3 .
En
dx 2 2 2
Solution. Let f (x, y) = x 3 + y 3 − a 3
gin ∂f
fx =
∂x 3
2 1
= x− 3 .
Now
fy =
dy
dx
ee
∂f
∂y 3
fx
=− =−
fy
2 1
= y− 3 .
x − 13
y
=−
y 31
x
.
rin
Example 2.52. Find
dy
if f (x, y) = log(x2 + y2 ) + tan−1
y
. g.n
et
dx x
Solution.
∂f 2x 1 y 2x y 2x − y
fx = = 2 + − = 2 − 2 = 2 .
∂x x + y2 y2 x 2 x +y 2 x +y 2 x + y2
1+
x2
∂f 2y 1 1 2y x 2y + x
fy = = 2 + = + 2 = 2 .
∂y x + y2 y2 x x2 +y 2 x +y 2 x + y2
1+
x2
dy fx 2x − y y − 2x
Now =− =− = .
dx fy 2y + x x + 2y

2.5 Jacobian and its Properties
Definition. If u and v are continuous functions of two independent variables x

and y having first order partial derivatives, then the Jacobian determinant or
the Jacobian of u and v is defined by

∂(u, v) u, v ∂u ∂u
or J or J = ∂x ∂y
.
∂(x, y) x, y ∂v ∂v
∂x ∂y
wwIf u, v, w are continuous functions of three independent variables x, y, z having first

order partial derivatives, then the Jacobian of u, v, w w.r.t. x, y, z is defined as
w.E
∂u
∂(u, v, w) ∂v
∂x
∂u
∂y
∂v
∂u
∂z

∂v .

asy
=
∂(x, y, z) ∂x ∂y ∂z

∂w ∂w ∂w
∂x ∂y ∂z
Properties of Jacobians
En
gin
Property I. If u and v are functions of r and s where r and s are functions of x, y
then
ee
∂(u, v) ∂(u, v) ∂(r, s)
=
∂(x, y) ∂(r, s) ∂(x, y)
.
rin
g.n
Proof. Since u and v are functions of x and y, we have
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s
ux =
uy =
= +
∂x ∂r ∂x ∂s ∂x
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s
= +
= ur r x + u s s x .
= ur ry + u s sy .
et
∂y ∂r ∂y ∂s ∂y
∂v ∂v ∂r ∂v ∂s
vx = = + = vr r x + v s s x .
∂x ∂r ∂x ∂s ∂x
∂v ∂v ∂r ∂v ∂s
vy = = + = vr ry + v s sy .
∂y ∂r ∂y ∂s ∂y


∂(u, v) ∂(r, s) ur u s r x ry
Now =
∂(r, s) ∂(x, y) vr v s s x

sy

ur u s r x s x
=
v v r s
r s y y

ur r x + u s s x ur ry + u s sy
=
v r + v s v r + v s
r x s x r y s y

u x uy
=
ww

v v
x y
∂(u, v)
= .
w.E ∂(x, y)
Property II. If J1 is the Jacobian of u, v with respect to x, y and J2 is the Jacobian
asy
of x, y w.r.t. u, v then J1 J2 = 1. i.e.,
∂(u, v) ∂(x, y)
•
∂(x, y) ∂(u, v)
= 1.
En
Proof. u is a function of x and y.
Differentiating partially with respect to u and v we get
gin
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
1=
ee +
∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u
= u x xu + uy yu .
rin
0=
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
+
∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
= u x xv + uy yv .
g.n
v is a function of x and y.
Differentiating with respect to u and v partially we get
et
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y
0= + = v x xu + vy yv .
∂x ∂u ∂y ∂v
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y
1= + = v x xv + vy yv .
∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v


∂(u, v) ∂(x, y) u x uy xu xv
Now =
∂(x, y) ∂(u, v) v x vy yu

yv

u x uy xu yu
=
v v x y
x y v v

u x xu + uy yv u x xv + uy yv
=
v x + v y v x + v y
x u y u x v y v

1 0
=
ww

0 1
J1 J2 = 1.
w.E
Property III. If the functions u, v, w of three independent variables x, y, z are not
asy
independent, then the Jacobian of u, v, w with respect to x, y, z vanishes.
Solution. Given: u, v and w are not independent variables.
En
=⇒ There exists a relation F(u, v, w) = 0.
gin
Differentiating this w.r.t x, y and z we get
∂F ∂u ∂F ∂v ∂F ∂w
ee
+ + =0
∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x ∂w ∂x
∂F ∂u ∂F ∂v ∂F ∂w
+ +
∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y ∂w ∂y
=0
rin
∂F ∂u ∂F ∂v ∂F ∂w
+ + = 0. g.n
et
∂u ∂z ∂v ∂z ∂w ∂z
∂F ∂F ∂F
Eliminating , and from the above three equations we get
∂u ∂v ∂w

∂u ∂v ∂w
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂u ∂v ∂w = 0.
∂y ∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂w
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂(u, v, w)
=⇒ = 0.
∂(x, y, z)

Functional relationship. Let u1 , u2 , . . . , un be functions of x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn . Then,

a necessary and sufficient condition that u1 , u2 , . . . , un are not independent is that
∂(u1 , u2 , . . . , un )
the Jacobian = 0.
∂(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Example 2.53. If x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, find the Jacobian of x and y w.r.t r and θ.
[Jan 2001]
Solution.
ww x = r cos θ =⇒
∂x
∂r
∂u
= cos θ,
∂x
∂θ
∂u
= −r sin θ.
w.E
y = r sin θ =⇒ = sin θ, = r cos θ.
∂r ∂θ
∂(x, y) ∂x
∂r
∂x
∂θ
cos θ −r sin θ
= r cos2 θ + r sin2 θ = r.
Now, = =
asy
∂(r, θ) ∂y ∂y sin θ r cos θ
∂r ∂θ
En
Example 2.54. The transformation equations in spherical polar coordinates is
x = r sin θ cos ϕ, y = r sin θ sin ϕ, z = r cos θ. Compute the Jacobian of x, y, z w.r.t. r, θ, ϕ.
Solution. gin [May 2011, Jan 2009]

∂x
∂(x, y, z) ∂y
= ∂r
∂r
∂x
∂θ
∂y

∂x
∂ϕ
∂y
ee

= sin θ sin ϕ r sin ϕ cos θ r sin θ cos ϕ

rin
sin θ cos ϕ r cos θ cos ϕ −r sin θ sin ϕ

g.n
∂(r, θ, ϕ) ∂θ ∂ϕ
∂z ∂z ∂z
cos θ
∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ −r sin θ 0
et

sin θ cos ϕ cos θ cos ϕ − sin ϕ

= r2 sin θ sin θ sin ϕ sin ϕ cos θ cos ϕ

cos θ − sin θ 0
= r2 sin θ sin θ cos ϕ(0 + sin θ cos ϕ) − cos θ cos ϕ(0 − cos θ cos ϕ)
− sin ϕ(− sin2 θ sin ϕ − cos2 θ sin ϕ)

= r2 sin θ sin2 θ cos2 ϕ + cos2 θ cos2 ϕ + sin2 θ sin2 ϕ + cos2 θ sin2 ϕ

= r2 sin θ(cos2 ϕ + sin2 ϕ) = r2 sin θ.

Example 2.55. In cylindrical polar coordinates, x = ρ cos φ, y = ρ sin φ, z = z. Show

∂(x, y, z)
that = ρ.
∂(ρ, φ, z)
Solution.

∂x ∂x ∂x cos φ −ρ sin φ 0
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
∂(x, y, z) ∂y ∂y ∂y
= ∂ρ ∂φ ∂z = sin φ ρ cos φ 0
∂(ρ, φ, z)
∂z ∂z ∂z 0 0 1
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
= 1(ρ cos2 φ + ρ sin2 φ) = ρ.
wwExample 2.56. If u = 2xy, v = x2 − y2 , x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, evaluate

∂(u, v)
∂(r, θ)
without
w.E
actual substitution.
Solution. Given that u and v are functions of x and y. x and y are functions of r
[Jan 2009]
asy
and θ.
∴ By property (1) of the Jacobians we have
En
∂(u, v) ∂(u, v) ∂(x, y)
=
∂(r, θ) ∂(x, y) ∂(r, θ)
.
gin

∂u

∂u
∂(u, v) ∂x ∂y
=

=
2y 2x

ee
∂(x, y) ∂v ∂v 2x −2y

∂x ∂y
= −4y2 − 4x2 = −4(x2 + y2 ) = −4r2 .

∂x

∂x

∂(x, y) ∂r ∂θ cos θ −r sin θ rin
g.n

= =
∂(r, θ) ∂y ∂y sin θ r cos θ

∂r ∂θ
∂(u, v)
∂(r, θ)
= r cos2 θ + r sin2 θ = r
= −4(r2 )r = −4r3 .
et
u+v ∂(u, v)
Example 2.57. If x = uv, y = , find .
u−v ∂(x, y)
∂(u, v) ∂(x, y) ∂(u, v) 1
Solution. We know that =1⇒ = .
∂(x, y) ∂(u, v) ∂(x, y) ∂(x, y)
∂(u, v)
x = uv.

∂x ∂x
= v, = u.
∂u ∂v
u+v
y= .
u−v
∂y u − v − (u + v) u − v − u − v −2v
= 2
= 2
= .
∂u (u − v) (u − v) (u − v)2
∂y (u − v).1 − (u + v)(−1) 2u
= 2
= .
∂v (u − v) (u − v)2
ww

∂x ∂x v u
∂(x, y) ∂u ∂v
= = −2v 2u

∂(u, v) ∂y ∂y
∂u ∂v (u − v)2
(u − v)2
w.E =
2uv
(u − v)
∂(u, v) (u − v)2
2
+
2uv
(u − v) 2
=
4uv
(u − v)2
asy
∂(x, y)
=
4uv
.
En
Example 2.58. If x = u(1 − v), y = uv then compute J1 and J2 and prove that
J1 J2 = 1.
Solution. We have
gin ∂(x, y) ∂(u, v)
ee
J1 = , J2 =
∂(u, v) ∂(x, y)

∂x
∂x

x = u − uv, y = uv.
rin
g.n
1 − v −u
J1 = ∂u
∂v
= = u − uv + uv = u.
∂y
∂y v u
∂u ∂v
We shall express u and v interms of x and y.
x = u − uv = u − y ⇒ x + y = u.
et
y y
y = uv ⇒ v = = .
u x+y
1
we get J2 = .
u
1
Now J1 J2 = u = 1.
u

x2 x3 x3 x1 x1 x2 ∂(y1 , y2 , y3 )
Example 2.59. If y1 = , y2 = , y3 = , prove that = 4.
x1 x2 x3 ∂(x1 , x2 , x3 )
[Jan 2014]
∂y1 ∂y1 ∂y1
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂(y1 , y2 , y3 ) ∂y2 ∂y2 ∂y2
Solution. = ∂x ∂x ∂x
∂(x1 , x2 , x3 ) 1 2 3
∂y3 ∂y3 ∂y3
∂x1 ∂x2
∂x3
2 −x2 x3 x3 x2
x1 x1 x1
= xx32 −x3 x1 x1

x22 x2

x2 x1 −x1 x2
ww =
x3
 2
x3
−x2 x3  x1 x2 x3
 2 2 −
2
x3
x12  x3  x1 x2 x3 x1 x2 


 −

− −

 + x2

+ 2

 x1 x3 x1 x2 x3 
w.E
 
x12 x2 x3 x2 x3  x1  x2 x32 x2 x3  x1 x2 x3 x2 x3
= −1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4.
asy
Example 2.60. If u = x + y + z, uv = y + z, uvw = z, find
∂(x, y, z)
∂(u, v, w)
.
En
Solution. Given u = x + y + z ⇒ u = x + uv ⇒ x = u − uv = u(1 − v).
[Jan 2012, Jan 2010]
gin
uv = y + z ⇒ uv = y + uvw ⇒ y = uv − uvw = uv(1 − w), uvw = z.

∂x
∂(x, y, z) ∂y
= ∂u
∂(u, v, w)
∂u
ee∂x
∂v
∂y
∂v

∂x
∂w
∂y

1 − v

−u 0
= v(1 − w) u(1 − w) −uv
∂w

rin
g.n
∂z ∂z ∂z
vw
∂u ∂v ∂w uw uv

1 − v −1 0
et

= u(uv) v(1 − w) 1 − w −1

vw w 1
= u2 v {(1 − v)(1 − w + w) + 1(v(1 − w) + vw)}
= u2 v {(1 − v) + (v − vw + vw)}
= u2 v {1 − v + v} = u2 v.
∂(x, y, z)
Example 2.61. If u = xyz, v = x2 + y2 + z2 , w = x + y + z, find .
∂(u, v, w)

∂(x, y, z) ∂(u, v, w) ∂(x, y, z) 1

Solution. We have =1⇒ = .
∂(u, v, w) ∂(x, y, z) ∂(u, v, w) ∂(u, v, w)
∂(x, y, z)

∂u ∂u ∂u yz xz xy
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂(u, v, w) ∂v ∂v

∂v =

= ∂x ∂y ∂z 2x 2y 2z
∂(x, y, z)
∂w ∂w ∂w
1 1 1
∂x ∂y ∂z
= yz(2y − 2z) − xz(2x − 2z) + xy(2x − 2y)
= 2(yz(y − z) − xz(x − z) + xy(x − y))
ww = 2(y2 z − yz2 − x2 z + xz2 + xy(x − y))
w.E = 2(z2 (x − y) + xy(x − y) − z(x2 − y2 ))
= 2(z2 (x − y) + xy(x − y) − z(x − y)(x + y))
asy
= 2(x − y)(z2 + xy − xz − yz)
= 2(x − y)(z(z − x) − y(z − x))
En
= 2(x − y)(z − x)(z − y)
gin
= −2(x − y)(y − z)(z − x).
Now, ⇒
∂(x, y, z)
∂(u, v, w)
=
1
∂(u, v, w)
∂(x, y, z)
=
ee 1
−2(x − y)(y − z)(z − x)
.
rin
g.n
Example 2.62. If u = x + 2y + z, v = x − 2y + 3z and w = 2xy − xz + 4yz − 2z2 , show that
they are not independent. Find the relation between u, v and w.
Solution. Given: u = x + 2y + z.
∂u
= 1,
∂u
= 2,
∂u
= 1.
et
∂x ∂y ∂z
v = x − 2y + 3z.
∂v ∂v ∂v
= 1, = −2, = 3.
∂x ∂y ∂z
w = 2xy − xz + 4yz − 2z2 .

∂w ∂w ∂w
= 2y − z, = 2x + 4z, = −x + 4y − 4z.
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂u ∂u ∂u 1 2 1
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂(u, v, w) ∂v ∂v ∂v

= ∂x ∂y ∂z
= 1 −2 3
∂(x, y, z)
∂w ∂w ∂w 2y − z 2x + 4z −x + 4y − 4z
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 1(−2(−x + 4y − 4z) − 3(2x + 4z)) − 2(−x + 4y − 4z − 3(2y − z))
ww + 1(2x + 4z + 2(2y − z))
= 2x − 8y + 8z − 6x − 12z + 2x − 8y + 8z + 12y − 6z + 2x + 4z + 4y − 2z = 0.
w.E
asy
Hence, u, v, w are not independent.
Now u + v = 2x + 4z, u − v = 4y − 2z.
En
(u + v)(u − v) = 2(x + 2z).2(2y − z)
gin u2 − v2 = 4(2xy − xz + 4yz − 2z2 )
ee
u2 − v2 = 4w.
rin
2.6 Taylor’s expansion for functions of two variables g.n
is
We know that for a function f (x) of one single variable x, the Taylor’s expansion
et
h2 ′′ h3 ′′′
f (x + h) = f (x) + h f ′ (x) + f (x) + f (x) + · · ·
2! 3!
Now let f (x, y) be a function of two independent variables x, y defined in a region

R of the xy−plane and let (a, b) be a point in R. Suppose f (x, y) has all its partial

derivatives in a neighbourhood of (a, b) then
∂ ∂
f (a + h, b + k) = f (a, b) + h + k f (a, b)
∂x ∂y
1 ∂ ∂ 2 1 ∂ ∂ 3
+ h +k f (a, b) + h +k f (a, b) + · · · +
2! ∂x ∂y 3! ∂x ∂y

= f (a, b) + h f x (a, b) + k fy (a, b)
1 2
+ h f xx (a, b) + 2hk f xy (a, b) + k2 fyy (a, b)
2!
1 3
h f xxx (a, b) + 3h2 k f xxy (a, b) + 3hk2 f xyy (a, b)
ww
+
3!

+ k3 fyyy (a, b) + · · · .
w.E
Put x = a + h, y = b + k then h = x − a, k = y − b.
asy
∴ The Taylor’s series can be written as

f (x, y) = f (a, b) + (x − a) f x (a, b) + (y − b) fy (a, b)
+
1
En
(x − a)2 f xx (a, b) + 2(x − a)(y − b) f xy (a, b) + (y − b)2 fyy (a, b)

+
2!
1
3! gin
(x − a)3 f xxx (a, b) + 3(x − a)2 (y − b) f xxy (a, b)
ee
+ 3(x − a)(y − b)2 f xyy (a, b) + (y − b)3 fyyy (a, b) + · · · .
This is known as the Taylor’s expansion of f (x, y) in the neighbourhood of (a, b) or rin
about the point (a, b).
g.n
Put a = 0, b = 0. we get

f (x, y) = f (0, 0) + x f x (0, 0) + y fy (0, 0)
et
1 2
+ x f xx (0, 0) + 2xy f xy (0, 0) + y2 fyy (0, 0)
2!
1 3
+ x f xxx (0, 0) + 3x2 y f xxy (0, 0) + 3xy2 f xyy (0, 0) + y3 fyyy (0, 0) + · · · .
3!
This is called Maclaurin’s series for f (x, y) in powers of x and y.

✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌

Example 2.63. Expand e x sin y in powers of x and y as far as the terms of third
degree. [Jun 2013]
Solution. f (x, y) = e x sin y f (0, 0) = 0
f x (x, y) = e x sin y f x (0, 0) = 0
fy (x, y) = e x cos y fy (0, 0) = 1
f xx (x, y) = e x sin y f xx (0, 0) = 0
ww f xy (x, y) = e x cos y
fyy (x, y) = −e x sin y

f xy (0, 0) = 1
fyy (0, 0) = 0
w.E f xxx (x, y) = e x sin y f xxx (0, 0) = 0
asy
f xxy (x, y) = e x cos y
f xyy (x, y) = −e x sin y

f xxy (0, 0) = 1
f xyy (0, 0) = 0
fyyy (x, y) = −e x cos y En fyyy (0, 0) = −1.
gin
ee rin
Now f (x, y) = f (0, 0) + x f x (0, 0) + y fy (0, 0) +
1 2
2! g.n
x f xx (0, 0) + 2xy f xy (0, 0) + y2 fyy (0, 0)

1 3
et

+ x f xxx (0, 0) + 3x2 y f xxy (0, 0) + 3xy2 f xyy (0, 0) + y3 fyyy (0, 0) + · · ·
3!
1
= 0 + x.0 + y.1 + x2 .0 + 2xy.1 + y2 .0
2
1 3
x .0 + 3x y.1 + 3xy2 .0 + y3 (−1) + · · ·
2
6
x2 y y3
= y + xy + − + ··· .
2 6
Example 2.64. Expand e x loge (1 + y) in powers of x and y upto terms of third

degree. [Jan 2014, Dec 2011, Jan 2003]
Solution.

2e x
fyyy =
(1 + y)3
f (x, y) = e x loge (1 + y)
f (0, 0) = 0
f x (x, y) = e x loge (1 + y)
ex f x (0, 0) = 0
fy (x, y) =
1+y fy (0, 0) = 1
ww
x
f xx = e log(1 + y)
f xx (0, 0) = 0
ex
f xy = f xy (0, 0) = 1
w.E
1+y
−e x fyy (0, 0) = −1
fyy =
(1 + y)2
asy
f xxx (0, 0) = 0
f xxx = e x log(1 + y)
ex f xxy (0, 0) = 1
En
f xxy =
1+y f xyy (0, 0) = −1
−e x
gin
f xyy = fyyy (0, 0) = 2
(1 + y)2
By Maclaurin’s series we have,
+
2!
ee
f (x, y) = f (0, 0) + x f x (0, 0) + y fy (0, 0)
1 2
rin
x f xx (0, 0) + 2xy f xy (0, 0) + y2 fyy (0, 0)

+
1 3
3!
x f xxx (0, 0) + 3x2 y f xxy (0, 0)
g.n
et

+ 3xy2 f xyy (0, 0) + y3 fyyy (0, 0) + · · · .
1
e x loge (1 + y) = 0 + x.0 + y.1 + (x2 .0 + 2xy.1 + y2 (−1))+
2
1 3
[x · 0 + 3x2 y · 1 + 3xy2 (−1) + y3 (2)] + . . . .
6
y2 x2 y xy2 y3
= y + xy − + − + − ···
2 2 2 3
Example 2.65. Expand x2 y + 3y − 2 in powers of x − 1 and y + 2 upto third degree

terms. [Jun 2012]

Solution. f (x, y) = x2 y + 3y − 2. f (1, −2) = 1 × (−2) + 3(−2) − 2
= −2 − 6 − 2 = −10.
f x (x, y) = 2xy.
f x (1, −2) = −4.
2
fy (x, y) = x + 3.
fy (1, −2) = 4.
f xx (x, y) = 2y.
f xx (1, −2) = −4.
f xy (x, y) = 2x.
f xy (1, −2) = 2.
ww fyy (x, y) = 0.
f xxx (x, y) = 0.
fyy (1, −2) = 0.
w.E
f xxx (1, −2) = 0.
f xxy (x, y) = 2.
f xxy (1, −2) = 2.
f xyy (x, y) = 0.
fyyy (x, y) = 0.asy f xyy (1, −2) = 0.
fyyy (1, −2) = 0.
En
gin
By Taylor’s theorem we have,
ee
f (x, y) = f (a, b) + (x − a) f x (a, b) + (y − b) fy (a, b) rin
+
1 h
2! g.n
i
+
1 h
3!
+3(x − a)(y − b)2 f xyy (a, b) + (y − b)3 fyyy (a, b) + · · ·

i et
x2 y + 3y − 2 = f (1, −2) + (x − 1) f x (1, −2) + (y + 2) fy (1, −2)
1 h i
+ (x − 1)2 f xx (1, −2) + 2(x − 1)(y + 2) f xy (1, −2) + (y + 2)2 fyy (1, −2)
2!
1 h
+ (x − 1)3 f xxx (1, −2) + 3(x − 1)2 (y + 2) f xxy (1, −2)
3!
i
+3(x − 1)(y + 2)2 f xyy (1, −2) + (y + 2)3 fyyy (1, −2) + · · ·

1h i
= −10 − 4(x − 1) + 4(y + 2) + −4(x − 1)2 + 2(x − 1)(y + 2)
2
1h i
+ 6(x − 1)2 (y + 2) + · · ·
6
= −10 − 4(x − 1) + 4(y + 2) − 2(x − 1)2 + (x − 1)(y + 2) + (x − 1)2 (y + 2) + · · ·
Example 2.66. Find the Taylor’s series expansion of x2 y2 + 2x2 y + 3y2 in powers of
(x + 2) and y − 1 upto third degree terms. [Jan 2012, Jun 2010, Jan 2010]
Solution.
ww f (x, y) = x2 y2 + 2x2 y + 3y2 .
f x (x, y) = 2xy2 + 4xy.

f (−2, 1) = 4 + 8 + 3 = 15.
f x (−2, 1) = −4 − 8 = −12.
w.E fy (x, y) = 2x2 y + 2x2 + 6y. fy (−2, 1) = 8 + 8 + 6 = 22.
asy
f xx (x, y) = 2y2 + 4y.
f xy (x, y) = 4xy + 4x.

f xx (−2, 1) = 2 + 4 = 6.
f xy (−2, 1) = −8 − 8 = −16.
fyy (x, y) = 2x2 + 6.

En fyy (−2, 1) = 8 + 6 = 14.
f xxx (x, y) = 0.
f xxy (x, y) = 4y + 4. gin f xxx (−2, 1) = 0.
f xxy (−2, 1) = 4 + 4 = 8.
f xyy (x, y) = 4x.
fyyy (x, y) = 0.
ee f xyy (−2, 1) = −8.
fyyy (−2, 1) = 0.
rin
g.n
et
1 h i
+ (x − a)2 f xx (a, b) + 2(x − a)(y − b) f xy (a, b) + (y − b)2 fyy (a, b)
2!
1 h
+ (x − a)3 f xxx (a, b) + 3(x − a)2 (y − b) f xxy (a, b)
3!
i

x2 y2 + 2x2 y + 3y2 = 15 − 12(x + 2) + 22(y − 1)

1h i
+ 6(x + 2)2 − 2 × 16(x + 2)(y − 1) + 14(y − 1)2
2
1h i
+ 24(x + 2)2 (y − 1) − 24(x + 2)(y − 1)2 + · · ·
6
= 15 − 12(x + 2) + 22(y − 1) + 3(x + 2)2 − 16(x + 2)(y − 1) + 7(y − 1)2
+ 4(x + 2)2 (y − 1) − 4(x + 2)(y − 1)2 + · · ·
Example 2.67. Use Taylor’s formula to expand the function defined by f (x, y) =
ww x3 + y3 + xy2 in powers of (x − 1) and (y − 2).

Solution.
[May 2011]
w.E f (x, y) = x3 + y3 + xy2 . f (1, 2) = 1 + 8 + 4 = 13.
asy
f x (x, y) = 3x2 + y2 .
fy (x, y) = 3y2 + 2xy.

f x (1, 2) = 3 + 4 = 7.
fy (1, 2) = 12 + 4 = 16.
f xx (x, y) = 6x.
En f xx (1, 2) = 6.
f xy (x, y) = 2y.
gin f xy (1, 2) = 4.
ee
fyy (x, y) = 6y + 2x. fyy (1, 2) = 12 + 2 = 14.
rin
f xxx (x, y) = 6. f xxx (1, 2) = 6.
f xxy (x, y) = 0. f xxy (1, 2) = 0.
f xyy (x, y) = 2. f xyy (1, 2) = 2.

g.n
fyyy (x, y) = 6. fyyy (1, 2) = 6.
et

1 h i
2!

1 h
3!
i
1h i
x3 + y3 + xy2 = 13 + 7(x − 1) + 16(y − 2) + 6(x − 1)2 + 8(x − 1)(y − 2) + 14(y − 2)2
2
1h i
+ 6(x − 1)3 + 6(x − 1)(y − 2)2 + 6(y − 2)3 + · · ·
6
= 13 + 7(x − 1) + 16(y − 2) + 3(x − 1)2 + 4(x − 1)(y − 2) + 7(y − 2)2
+ (x − 1)3 + (x − 1)(y − 2)2 + (y − 2)3 + · · ·
wwExample 2.68. Expand e−x log y as a Taylor’s series in powers of x and y − 1 upto
w.E
third degree terms. [Jun 2011]
Solution.
f (x, y) = e−x log y.

asy f (0, 1) = 0.
f x (x, y) = −e−x log y.

e−x En f x (0, 1) = 0.
fy (x, y) =
y
.
f xx (x, y) = e−x log y. gin

fy (0, 1) = 1.
f xx (0, 1) = 0.
f xy (x, y) = −
e−x
y
. ee
f xy (0, 1) = −1.
rin
fyy (x, y) = −
e−x
y2
. fyy (0, 1) = −1.
g.n
f xxx (x, y) = −e−x log y.
f xxy (x, y) =
e−x
y
.
f xxx (0, 1) = 0.
f xxy (0, 1) = 1. et
e−x
f xyy (x, y) = . f xyy (0, 1) = 1.
y2
2e−x
fyyy (x, y) = . fyyy (0, 1) = 2.
y3


1 h i
2!
1 h
3!
i
1 1
e−x log y = y − 1 + [−2x(y − 1) − (y − 1)2 ] + [3x2 (y − 1) + 3x(y − 1)2 + 2(y − 1)3 ] + · · ·
2! 3!
wwExample 2.69. Expand f (x, y) = tan−1

Hence compute f (1.1, 0.9) approximately.
y
x
about (1, 1) upto the second degree terms.
[Jan 2005]
w.E
Solution. Given, f (x, y) = tan−1
(a, b) = (1, 1)
y
x
a = 1, b = 1
f (1, 1) = tan−1
asy
1 π
1
=
4
fx =
1 −y
y
1 + x2
2
x 2
= −
En
(x
x2 y
2 + y2 )x2
= 2
x
−y
+ y2
f x (1, 1) =
−1
2
fy =
1 1
2
= 2 gin
x2
2 )x
= 2
x
2
fy (1, 1) =
1
ee
y x (x + y x + y 2
1 + x2
2xy 2 1
f xx = −y(−1)(x2 + y2 )−2 2x = 2
2 2 2
(x + y )
2
2 2
rin
f xx (1, 1) = =
4 2
g.n
x + y − x2x y −x
f xy = 2 2 2
= 2 f xy (1, 1) = 0
(x + y ) (x + y2 )2
−2xy −1
fyy = x(−1)(x2 + y2 )−2 2y = 2
(x + y ) 2 2
fyy (1, 1) =
2
et
By Taylor’s theorem we have

1
+ (x − a)2 f xx (a, b) + 2(x − a)(y − b) f xy (a, b) + (y − b)2 fyy (a, b) + · · ·
2!

y
tan−1 = f (1, 1) + (x − 1) f x (1, 1) + (y − 1) fy (1, 1)
x
1
+ (x − 1)2 f xx (1, 1) + 2(x − 1)(y − 1) f xy (1, 1) + (y − 1)2 fyy (1, 1)
2!
π −1 1 1 1
= + (x − 1) + (y − 1) + (x − 1)2 + 2(x − 1)(y − 1)0
4 2 2 2 2
2 (−1)

+ (y − 1) + ···
2
π 1 11 1
= − (x − 1 − y + 1) + (x − 1)2 − (y − 1)2 + · · ·
4 2 2 2 2
π 1 1 2 2
= − (x − y) + (x − y − 2x + 2y) + · · ·
ww tan−1
x
4 2
y π 1
4
1 1 1
= − (x − 1) + (y − 1) + (x − 1)2 − (y − 1)2 + · · · .
4 2 2 4 4
w.E π 1 1 1 1
f (1.1, 0.9) = − (0.1) + (−0.1) + (0.1)2 − (−0.1)2 approximately
π
4 2 2 4 4
asy
= − 0.1 = 0.685 approximately.
4
π
Example 2.70. Find the Taylor’s series expansion of e x sin y at the point − 1,
upto third degree terms.
En 4
[Jan 2009]
Solution.
gin
ee
π 1
f (x, y) = e x sin y f − 1, = √
4 e 2
f x (x, y) = e x sin y f x − 1,
π
4
= √
1
e 2 rin
fy (x, y) = e x cos y fy − 1,
π
4
= √
1
e 2 g.n
f xx = e x sin y
f xy = e x cos y
f xx − 1,
f xy − 1,
π
4
π
= √
= √
1
e 2
1
et
4 e 2
π 1
fyx = e x cos y fyx − 1, = √
4 e 2
π −1
fyy = −e x sin y fyy − 1, = √
4 e 2
π 1
f xxx = e x sin y f xxx − 1, = √
4 e 2

π 1
f xxy = e x cos y f xxy − 1, = √
4 e 2
π −1
f xyy = −e x sin y f xyy − 1, = √
4 e 2
π −1
fyyx = −e x sin y fyyx − 1, = √
4 e 2
π −1
fyyy = −e x sin y

fyyy − 1, = √
4 e 2
ww
w.E
By Taylor’s theorem we have
asy
1
En

2!
1
+
3!
gin

+ 3(x − a)(y − b)2 f xyy (a, b) + (y − b)3 fyyy (a, b) + · · · .

+
1
π
2
ee π
π
e x sin y = f − 1, + (x + 1) f x − 1, + (y − ) fy − 1,
4 4
π
4
(x + 1) f xx − 1, + 2(x + 1)(y − ) f xy − 1,
π
π
4
rin
π
2!
π 2
+ (y − ) fyy − 1,
4
π
4
4 4 4
g.n
1
6
3
π 2
π
+ (x + 1) f xxx − 1, + 3(x + 1)2 (y − ) f xxy − 1,
4
π
+ 3(x + 1)(y − ) f xyy − 1, + (y − ) fyyy − 1,
4 4
π 3
4
π
4
π
4
π
4 et
+ ··· .
1 1 1 π 1
= √ + √ (x + 1) + √ y − + √ (x + 1)2
e 2 e 2 e 2 4 2 2e
1 π 1 π 1
+ √ (x + 1) y − − √ y − 2 + √ (x + 1)3
2e 4 2 2e 4 6 2e
√ √
2 π 2 π 1 π
+ (x + 1)2 y − − (x + 1) y − 2 − √ y − 3 + · · · .
e 4 e 4 6 2e 4

π
Example 2.71. Expand e x cos y near the point 1, by Taylor’s series as far as
4
quadratic terms. [Jan 1996]
Solution.
π e
f (x, y) = e x cos y f 1, = √
4 2
π π e
f x (x, y) = e x cos y f x 1, = e cos = √
4 4 2
π e
fy (x, y) = −e x sin y fy 1, =−√
4 2
ww f xx = e x cos y f xx 1,
π
4
= √
π −e
e
2
w.E f xy = −e x sin y
fyy = −e x cos y
f xy 1,
fyy 1,
4
= √
π −e
= √
2
asy 4 2
En
By Taylor’s theorem we have gin
+
1
ee
rin

x
2!
π π
e cos y = f 1, + (x − 1) f x 1, + (y − ) fy 1,
4 4
π
4
π
4 g.n
+
1
2!
π 2
+ (y − ) fyy 1,
4
π
4
π
4
+ ···
π
(x − 1)2 f xx 1, + 2(x − 1)(y − ) f xy 1,

4
π
4 et
e e π (−e)
= √ + (x − 1) √ + y − √
2 2 4 2
1 e π (−e) π 2 (−e)
+ (x − 1)2 √ + 2(x − 1) y − √ + y− √ + ···
2 2 4 2 4 2
!
e π 1 π 1 π
= √ 1 + (x − 1) − y − + (x − 1)2 − y − (x − 1) − y − 2 + · · · .
2 4 2 4 2 4

2.7 Maxima and Minima for functions of two variables

Definition. Let f (x, y) be a continuous function defined in a closed and bounded
domain D of the xy plane and let (a, b) be an interior point of D.
(i) f (a, b) is said to be a local maximum value of f (x, y) at the point (a, b) if there
exists a neighborhood N of (a, b) such that f (x, y) < f (a, b) for all points (x, y) in
N.
(ii) f (a, b) is said to be a local minimum if f (x, y) > f (a, b) for all points (x, y) in N
ww
other than (a, b).
f (x, y) f (x, y)
w.E f (a, b)
f (a, b)
asy (x, y) (a, b) (x, y)

X
(x, y) (a, b) (x, y)
X
Y En Y
gin
Local maximum or local minimum values are called extreme values.
Stationary point of f (x, y)
ee
A point (a, b) satisfying f x = 0 and fy = 0 is called a stationary point of f (x, y).
Necessary conditions for Maximum or minimum rin
If f (a, b) is an extreme value of f (x, y) at (a, b), then (a, b) is a stationary point of
g.n
f (x, y) if f x and fy exist at (a, b) and f x (a, b) = 0, fy (a, b) = 0.
Sufficient conditions for extreme values of f (x, y)
Let (a, b) be a stationary point of the differentiable function f (x, y).
et
i.e., f x (a, b) = 0, fy = (a, b) = 0.
Let us define f xx (a, b) = r, f xy (a, b) = s, fyy (a, b) = t.
(i) If rt − s2 > 0 and r < 0, then f (a, b) is a maximum value.
(ii) If rt − s2 > 0 and r > 0 then f (a, b) is a minimum value.
(iii) If rt − s2 < 0, then f (a, b) is not an extreme value but (a, b) is a saddle point of

f (x, y).
(iv) If rt − s2 = 0, then no conclusion is possible and further investigation is
required.
Working rule to find maxima and minima of f (x, y)
∂f ∂f
step (1). Find f x = and fy = and solve for f x = 0 and fy = 0 as simultaneous
∂x ∂y
equations in x and y.
Let (a, b), (a1 , b1 ), . . . be the solutions which are stationary points of f (x, y).
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
step (2). Find r = 2 , s = ,t = 2 .
ww ∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
step (3). Evaluate r, s, t at each stationary point.
At the point (a, b) if
w.E
(i) rt − s2 > 0 and r < 0 then f (a, b) is a maximum value of f (x, y).
(ii) rt − s2 > 0 and r > 0 then f (a, b) is a minimum value of f (x, y).
asy
(iii) rt − s2 < 0 then (a, b) is called a saddle point.
(iv) rt − s2 = 0, no conclusion can be made, further investigation is required.
Critical Point
En
gin
A point (a, b) is a critical point of f (x, y) if f x = 0 and fy = 0 at (a, b) or f x and fy do
not exist at (a, b).
✎ ee
Maxima or Minima occur at a critical point.
Worked Examples
✍
☞
✌
rin
3 3
Example 2.72. Examine f (x, y) = x + y − 12x − 3y + 20 for its extreme values.
g.n
Solution. Given f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 12x − 3y + 20.
f x = 3x2 − 12 fy = 3y2 − 3
et
[ Jun 2013, Jan 2012, May 2011, Jun 2010]
r = f xx = 6x s = f xy = 0 t = fyy = 6y
For stationary points, solve f x = 0 and fy = 0.

f x = 0 ⇒ 3x2 − 12 = 0 ⇒ x2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ x2 = 4 ⇒ x = ±2.
fy = 0 ⇒ 3y2 − 3 = 0 ⇒ y2 = 1 ⇒ y = ±1.

Stationary points are (2, 1), (2, −1), (−2, 1) and (−2, −1).
rt − s2 = 6x6y − 0 = 36xy.
At (2, 1), rt − s2 = 36 × 2 × 1 = 72 > 0.
At (2, 1), r = 6(2) = 12 > 0.
∴ (2, 1) is a minimum point.
Minimum value is f (2, 1) = 8 + 1 − 24 − 3 + 20 = 29 − 27 = 2.
At (2, −1), rt − s2 = 36 × 2 × −1 = −72 < 0.
∴ (2, −1) is a saddle point.
wwAt (−2, 1), rt − s2 = 36 × (−2) × 1 = −72 < 0.

∴ (−2, 1) is a saddle point.
w.E
At (−2, −1), rt − s2 = 36 × −2 × −1 = 72 > 0.
r = 6(−2) = −12 < 0.
asy
∴ (−2, −1) is a maximum point.
Maximum value f (−2, −1) = −8 − 1 + 24 + 3 + 20 = 47 − 9 = 38.
En
Example 2.73. Examine f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 3axy for maximum and minimum
values.
gin [Jan 1999]
Solution.
ee
Given f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 3axy.
f x = 3x2 − 3ay
rin
fy = 3y2 − 3ax
r = f xx = 6x g.n
s = f xy = −3a t = fyy = 6y.

et
x2
f x = 0 ⇒ 3x2 − 3ay = 0 ⇒ ay = x2 ⇒ y = .
a
2 x4
fy = 0 ⇒ 3y − 3ax = 0 ⇒ 2 − ax = 0.
a
x3
3 3
x 2 − a = 0 ⇒ x(x − a ) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or x = a.
a
x=0⇒y=0

a2
x=a⇒y= a = a.
Stationary points are (0, 0) and (a, a).
At (0, 0), rt − s2 = 6x6y − 9a2 = 36xy − 9a2 = −9a2 < 0.
r = 6x = 0.
∴ No maximum or minimum at (0, 0).
∴ (0, 0) is a saddle point.
At (a, a), rt − s2 = 36a2 − 9a2 = 27a2 > 0 if a , 0.
r = 6x = 6a.
wwIf a < 0, r < 0.

∴ (a, a) is a maximum point if a < 0.
w.E
If a > 0, r > 0.
∴ (a, a) is a minimum point if a > 0.
asy
Maximum value = a3 + a3 − 3a3 = −a3 if a < 0
Minimum value = −a3 if a > 0.
En
Example 2.74. Discuss the maxima and minima of f (x, y) = x3 y2 (1 − x − y).
gin [Jan 2014]
ee
Solution. Given: f (x, y) = x3 y2 (1 − x − y) = x3 y2 − x4 y2 − x3 y3 .
rin
f x = y2 [x3 (−1) + (1 − x − y)3x2 ] = x2 y2 [−x + 3 − 3x − 3y]
2 2
= x y [−4x − 3y + 3].
g.n
fy = 2x3 y − 2x4 y − 3x3 y2 .
r = f xx = y2 [−12x2 − 6xy + 6x].
s = f xy = 6x2 y − 8x3 y − 9x2 y2 .

et
t = fyy = 2x3 − 2x4 − 6x3 y.

f x = 0 ⇒ x2 y2 [−4x − 3y + 3] = 0.
⇒ x = 0, y = 0, 4x + 3y = 3.

fy = 0 ⇒ x3 y(2 − 2x − 3y) = 0.
x = 0, y = 0, 2x + 3y = 2.
Solving 4x + 3y = 3 (1)
2x + 3y = 2 (2)
1
we get 2x = 1 ⇒ x = .
2
1 1
When x = , (1) ⇒ 2 + 3y = 3 ⇒ 3y = 1 ⇒ y = .
2 3
ww
1 1
∴ The stationary points are (0, 0), , .
2 3
At (0, 0), rt − s2 = 0.0 − 0 = 0.
w.E
We can not say maximum or minimum. Further investigation is required.
1 1
At , ,
2 3
r=
1
9 asy 1 1 1
− 12 × − 6 × × + 6 ×
4 2 3
1
2
=
1
9 En 1
− 3 − 1 + 3 = (−1) − .
9
1
9
1
t =2 −2 −6
8
1
16 gin
11 1 1 1
= − − =− .
83 4 8 4
1
8
ee
11 11 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
2
s = 6 −8 −9 = − −
43 83 49 2 3 4
=
1 1 2 1 2
−
4 3
= −
12
=
1
144
.
rin
1 1
rt − s2 = −
1
9
−
1
8
−
1
144
2−1 g.n
1 1
∴ ,
2 3
= −
72 144
is a maximum point.
=
144
> 0 and r < 0.
et
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 − 3 − 2 1 1
Maximum value is f , = 1− − = = = .
2 3 89 2 3 72 6 72 × 6 432
Example 2.75. Find the extreme values of the function f (x, y) = x4 + y2 + x2 y.
Solution. Given: f (x, y) = x4 + y2 + x2 y.
f x = 4x3 + 2xy. r = f xx = 12x2 + 2y.

fy = 2y + x2 . s = f xy = 2x. t = fyy = 2.

f x = 0 ⇒ 4x3 + 2xy = 0 ⇒ 2x(y + 2x2 ) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, y + 2x2 = 0 ⇒ y = −2x2 .
fy = 0 ⇒ 2y + x2 = 0 ⇒ −4x2 + x2 = 0 ⇒ −3x2 = 0 ⇒ x = 0.
When x = 0, y = 0.
∴ The only stationary point is (0, 0).
ww rt − s2 = (12x2 + 2y)2 − 4x2 .
w.E
At (0, 0), rt − s2 = 0.
We can not say maximum or minimum.
asy
We shall investigate the nature of the function in a neighbourhood of (0, 0).
We have f (0, 0) = 0. In a neighbourhood of (0, 0) on the x−axis, take the point (h, 0),
f (h, 0) = h4 > 0.
En
gin
On the y−axis take the point (0, k), f (0, k) = k2 > 0.
On y = mx, for any m, take the point (h, mh).
ee
f (h, mh) = h4 + m2 h2 + mh3 = h2 [h2 + m2 + mh].
rin
For the quadratic in m, m2 + mh + h2
g.n
discriminant = B2 − 4AC = h2 − 4.1.h2 = −3h2 < 0 if m , 0.
∴ f (h, mh) > 0 for all m , 0.
∴ In a neigbourhood of (0, 0) for all points (x, y), f (x, y) > 0.
et
∴ f (0, 0) is minimum and the minimum value = 0.
Example 2.76. Find the maximum and minimum values of x2 − xy + y2 − 2x + y.

[ Jun 2012, Jun 2010]
Solution. f (x, y) = x2 − xy + y2 − 2x + y.

f x = 2x − y − 2.
fy = −x + 2y + 1.
r = f xx = 2.
s = f xy = −1.
t = fyy = 2.
For stationary points, solve f x = 0, fy = 0
2x − y − 2 = 0. (1)
ww −x + 2y + 1 = 0. (2)
w.E (1) ⇒ y = 2x − 2.
asy (2) ⇒ −x + 2(2x − 2) + 1 = 0
−x + 4x − 4 + 1 = 0
En 3x − 3 = 0
gin 3x = 3
ee x = 1.
∴ y = 2 − 2 = 0. rin
The stationary point is (1, 0). g.n
rt − s2 = 4 + 1 = 5 > 0 and r = 2 > 0. et
Minimum value of f = 1 − 2 = −1.
Example 2.77. Find the extreme values of the function f (x, y) = x3 +y3 −3x−12y+20.
[Jan 2012]
Solution. f (x, y) = x3 + y3 − 3x − 12y + 20.

f x = 3x2 − 3.
fy = 3y2 − 12.
r = f xx = 6x.
s = f xy = 0.
t = fyy = 6y.
For stationary points, solve f x = 0, fy = 0.
3x2 − 3 = 0. 3y2 − 12 = 0.
ww 3x2 = 3. 3y2 = 12.
w.E x2 = 1. y2 = 4.
asy x = ±1. y = ±2.
En
The stationary points are (1, 2), (−1, 2), (1, −2), (−1, −2).
gin
At (1, 2), rt − s2 = 36xy = 36 × 1 × 2 = 72 > 0.
r = 6 > 0.
ee
Minimum value of f = 1 + 8 − 3 − 24 + 20 = 2.
At (−1, 2), rt − s2 = 36xy = 36 × (−1) × 2 = −72 < 0. rin
∴ (−1, 2) is a saddle point.
g.n
At (1, −2), rt − s2 = 36xy = 36 × 1 × (−2) = −72 < 0.
∴ (1, −2) is a saddle point.
At (−1, −2), rt − s2 = 36xy = 72 > 0.
et
r = 6 × (−1) = −6 < 0.
∴ (−1, −1) is a maximum point.
Maximum value of f = −1 − 8 + 3 + 24 + 20 = 38.
Maxima = 38.
Minima = 2.

Example 2.78. Test for maxima and minima of the function f (x, y) = x3 y2 (6 − x − y).
[Jan 2013]
Solution. f (x, y) = x3 y2 (6 − x − y)
= 6x3 y2 − x4 y2 − x3 y3 .
f x = 18x2 y2 − 4x3 y2 − 3x2 y3 .
fy = 12x3 y − 2x4 y − 3x3 y2 .
r = f xx = 36xy2 − 12x2 y2 − 6xy3 .
s = f xy = 36x2 y − 8x3 y − 9x2 y2 .
ww t = fyy = 12x3 − 2x4 − 6x3 y.
w.E
For stationary points, f x = 0, fy = 0.
f x = 0 ⇒ 18x2 y2 − 4x3 y2 − 3x2 y3 = 0
asy x2 y2 (18 − 4x − 3y) = 0
En
gin i.e., 4x + 3y = 18. (1)
ee
fy = 0 ⇒ 12x3 y − 2x4 y − 3x3 y2 = 0
x3 y(12 − 2x − 3y) = 0
rin
2x + 3y = 12. g.n (2)
(1) − (2) ⇒ 2x = 6
x = 3.
et
(1) ⇒ 12 + 3y = 18
3y = 6
y = 2.
The stationary point is (3, 2)
At (3, 2),

r = 36 × 3 × 4 − 12 × 9 × 4 − 6 × 3 × 8
= 432 − 432 − 144
= −144 < 0.
t = 12 × 9 − 2 × 81 − 6 × 27 × 2
= 108 − 162 − 324
= −378.
s = 34 × 9 × 2 − 8 × 27 × 2 − 9 × 9 × 4
ww = 612 − 432 − 324
w.E = −144.
rt − s2 = (−144)(−378) − (−144)2
= 54432 − 20736
= 33696 > 0 asy

Since rt − s2
En
> 0 and r < 0, (3, 2) is a maximum point.
gin
∴ Maximum value of f = 27 × 4(6 − 3 − 2) = 108.
ee
Example 2.79. Examine for minimum and maximum values sin x + sin y + sin(x + y).
Solution. We have f (x, y) = sin x + sin y + sin(x + y).
rin
f x = cos x + cos(x + y) fy = cos y + cos(x + y).
r = f xx = − sin x − sin(x + y) g.n

s = f xy = − sin(x + y)
t = fyy = − sin y − sin(x + y).

et
i.e., cos x + cos(x + y) = 0. (1)
cos y + cos(x + y) = 0. (2)

(1) − (2) =⇒ cos x − cos y = 0.
i.e., cos x = cos y
=⇒x = y
Now (1) =⇒ cos x + cos 2x = 0
i.e., cos 2x = − cos x.
cos 2x = cos(π − x)
=⇒2x = π − x.
ww i.e., 3x = π
π
w.E π
When x = , y = .
π
x= .
3
π π 3
∴ ,
3 3
π π
3
is a stationary point.
asy
At ,
3 3
En √ √
π
gin
r = − sin − sin
3
2π − 3
√3
= −
2 √ 2√
3 √
= − 3 < 0.
ee
2π 3 3 3 √
s = − sin =− ,t = − − = − 3.
3 2 2 2
2 3 9
rt − s = 3 − = > 0.
4 4 rin
Since rt − s2 > 0 and r < 0, f (x, y) has a maximum value at , .
√
π π
3√ 3 √ √ g.n
∴ Maximum value = f ,
Example 2.80.
π π
3 3
Find
π
3
the
π
= sin + sin + sin
3
maximum
2π
3
=
2
3
+
2
and
3
+
2
3 3 3
=
2
minimum
.
et values of
sin x sin y sin(x + y), 0 < x, y < π. [Jan 1997]
Solution. Given f (x, y) = sin x sin y sin(x + y).
f x = sin y[sin x cos(x + y) + sin(x + y) cos x] = sin y sin(2x + y).
r = f xx = 2 sin y cos(2x + y).

fy = sin x[sin y cos(x + y) + sin(x + y) cos y] = sin x sin(x + 2y).
s = f xy = sin x cos(x + 2y) + sin(x + 2y) cos x = sin(2x + 2y).
t = fyy = 2 sin x cos(x + 2y).

f x = 0 ⇒ sin y sin(2x + y) = 0.
fy = 0 ⇒ sin x sin(x + 2y) = 0.
Since, x, y , 0& , π ⇒ sin x , 0, sin y , 0.
ww∴ sin(2x + y) = 0 and sin(x + 2y) = 0.

Since, 0 < x < π, 0 < 2x < 2π
w.E
0 < y < π ⇒ 0 < 2x + y < 3π.
Similarly 0 < x + 2y < 3π. Since, sin(2x + y) = 0 ⇒ 2x + y = π or 2π.
Similarly x + 2y = π or 2π.
asy
En If 2x + y = π (1)
gin and x + 2y = π (2)
ee
then x − y = 0 ⇒ x = y.
π
∴ (1) ⇒ 3x = π ⇒ x = .
∴y= .
π
3
3
rin
g.n
π π
∴ one stationary point is , .
3 3
If 2x + y = π and x + 2y = 2π then, x − y = −π ⇒ x = y − π.
∴ 2(y − π) + y = π ⇒ 3y − 2π = π ⇒ 3y = 3π ⇒ y = π,
which is not admissible since y , π.
et
Similarly, 2x + y = 2π and x + 2y = π is also not possible.
Now take 2x + y = 2π and x + 2y = 2π
⇒ x−y=0⇒ x=y
2π
⇒ 3x = 2π ⇒ x =
3
2π
∴y= .
3

2π 2π
∴ Another stationary point is , .
π π 3 3
At , .
3 3 √
π 3(−1)
r = 2 sin cos π = 2 < 0.
3 2
√
4π π π 3
s = sin = sin π + = − sin = − .
3 3 3 2
√
π 2 3(−1) √
t = 2 sin cos π = = − 3.
3 2
√
ww √ √ − 3 2 3 9
rt − s2 = (− 3)(− 3) − = 3 − = > 0.
2 4 4
π π
w.E
∴ ,
3 3
is a maximum point.
Maximum value = f ,
π π
√3 √
π π
= sin . sin sin
3 √ 3 √ 3
2π
3
=
√
2
3
√
2
3
sin π −
π
3
2π 2π
=
asy
3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2
=
8
.
At
3 3
,
2π 6π
√
3 En √
r = 2 sin
t = 2 sin
3
2π
cos
cos
3
6π √
=2
= 3.
2
gin
.1 = 3 > 0.
s = sin
8π
3
rt − s2 = 3 3 −
3
√ √

3
= sin 3π −
√
π
3
3 2
=
√
2
3
ee
.
3 9
= 3 − = > 0. rin
∴
2π 2π
3 3
,
2
is a minimum point.
4 4
√ √ √ g.n
√
Minimum value = f
2π 2π
,
3 3
= sin
2π
3
sin
2π
3
sin
4π
3
=
3 3
2 2
−
2
Example 2.81. In a plane triangle, find the maximum value of cos A cos B cos C.
3 −3 3
=
8 et
.
[Jan 2000]
Solution. The angles of the ∆le ABC satisfy 0 < A, B, C < π and A + B + C = π,
=⇒ C = π − (A + B). Replacing C, we get
f (A, B) = cos A cos B cos(π − (A + B)) = − cos A cos B cos(A + B), 0 < A, B < π.
fA = − cos B[cos A(− sin(A + B)) + cos(A + B)(− sin A)] = cos B sin(2A + B).

fB = − cos A[− sin(A + 2B)] = cos A sin(A + 2B).

r = fAA = 2 cos B cos(2A + B).
s = fAB = cos A cos(A + 2B) + sin(A + 2B)(− sin A) = cos(2A + 2B).
t = fBB = 2 cos A cos(A + 2B).
For stationary points, solve fA = 0, fB = 0.
i.e., cos B sin(2A + B) = 0 and cos A sin(A + 2B) = 0.
cos B = 0 or sin(2A + B) = 0 and cos A = 0 or sin(A + 2B) = 0
ww =⇒ B =
π
2
or 2A + B = π or 2π
w.E
and
A=
π
or A + 2B = π or 2π.
Different possibilities asy 2
π π
case (i) Let B = and A = .
2 2
En
⇒ A+B=π
=⇒ C = 0 not possible. gin
π
case (ii) If B = and A + 2B = π.
2
⇒ A + π = π ⇒ A = 0 not possible.
π
case (iii) If B = and A + 2B = 2π.
ee rin
2
⇒ A + π = 2π ⇒ A = π not possible.
π g.n
case (iv) A = , 2A + B = π.
2
⇒ π + B = π ⇒ B = 0 not possible.
π
case (v) A = , 2A + B = 2π ⇒ B = π not possible.
2
et
case (vi) If 2A + B = π, A + 2B = π.
Subtracting A − B = 0 ⇒ A = B.
π
∴ 3A = π ⇒ A = .
3
π π
=⇒ B = , C = .
3 3
case (vii) If 2A + B = π and A + 2B = 2π ⇒ A − B = −π not possible.

Finally 2A + B = 2π and A + 2B = 2π ⇒ A − B = 0 ⇒ A = B.
2π 2π
3A = 2π ⇒ A = ,B = .
3 3
2π 2π π
A+B= + = 4 > π not possible.
3 3 3 π π
∴ The only stationary point is , .
π π 3 3
At , ,
3 3
π 1
r = 2 cos cos π = 2 (−1) < 0.
3 2
π
t = 2 cos cos π = −1.
3
wws = cos
2
4π
3

= cos π +
π
3
−1 2
1
=− .
2
1 3
w.E
rt − s = (−1)(−1) − = 1 − = > 0.
π π 2 4 4
∴ , is a maximum point.
3 3
π π π π π 1
∴ Maximum value of f is f ,
asy 3 3
= cos cos cos = .
3 3 3 8
En
Example 2.82. A flat circular plate is heated so that the temperature at any
point (x, y) is U(x, y) = x2 + 2y2 − x. Find the coldest point on the plate. [Jan 2005]
Solution. Given U = x2 + 2y2 − x.
gin
ee
U x = 2x − 1 Uy = 4y.
rin
r = U xx = 2. s = U xy = 0. t = Uyy = 4.
g.n
rt − s2 = 8 > 0 and r = 2 > 0.
∴ All points are minimum points.
At minimum, U x = 0 and Uy = 0.
et
1
U x = 0 ⇒ 2x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = .
2
Uy = 0 ⇒ 4y = 0 ⇒ y = 0.
1
∴ The minimum point is , 0 .
2
1
∴ The coldest point on the plate is , 0 .
2

2.8 Constrained Maxima and Minima - Lagrange’s Method
Lagrange’s Method
Let f (x, y, z) be the function for which the extreme values are to be found subject to
the condition
φ(x, y, z) = 0. (1)
Construct the auxiliary function F(x, y, z) = f (x, y, z) + λφ(x, y, z), where λ is an

undetermined parameter independent of x, y, z which is called the Lagrange’s
wwmultiplier. Any relative extremum of f (x, y, z) subject to (1) must occur at a

stationary point of F(x, y, z).
w.E
The stationary points of F are given by
∂F
∂x
= 0,
∂F
∂y
⇒ f x + λφ x = 0, fy + λφy = 0, fz + λφz = 0, φ(x, y, z) = 0.
= 0,
∂F
∂z
= 0,
∂F
∂λ
= 0.
fx
=
fy
φ x φy φz
=
fz
asy
= −λ and φ(x, y, z) = 0.
Solving these equations we can find the values of x, y, z which are stationary
En
points of F and the values of f at these points give the maximum and minimum
values of f (x, y, z).
gin
✎
✍
Worked Examples
☞
✌
ee
Example 2.83. Find the maximum value of xm yn z p subject to x + y + z = a.
rin [Jan 2009]

Solution. Let f = xm ym z p .
φ = x + y + z − a = 0. g.n (1)
We have to maximise f subject to (1).

Let F = f + λφ where λ is the Lagrange’s multiplier.
et
F = xm yn z p + λ(x + y + z − a).
F x = mxm−1 yn z p + λ, Fy = nxm yn−1 z p + λ, Fz = pxm yn z p−1 + λ.
To find the stationary points, solve F x = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0, φ = 0.
F x = 0 ⇒ mxm−1 yn z p = −λ.

Fy = 0 ⇒ nxm yn−1 z p = −λ.
F x = 0 ⇒ pxm yn z p−1 = −λ.
From the above three equations we get
mxm−1 yn z p = nxm yn−1 z p = pxm yn z p−1 .

m n p m+n+ p m+n+ p
Dividing by xm yn z p we get, = = = = .
x y z x+y+z a
ma na pa
x= ,y = ,z = .
wwThe stationary point is

m+n+ p
ma
,
m+n+ p
na
,
pa
m+n+ p
!
.
w.E
∴ Max. value of f =
m+n+ p m+n+ p m+n+ p
am+n+p mm nn p p
(m + n + p)m+n+p
.
asy
Example 2.84. Find the minimum value of x2 yz3 subject to 2x + y + 3z = a.
[Jan 2007]
Solution. Given f = x2 yz3 .
En
gin
φ = 2x + y + 3z − a = 0. (1)
ee
F = x2 yz3 + λ(2x + y + 3z − a).

rin
F x = 2xyz3 + 2λ, Fy = x2 z3 + λ, Fz = 3x2 yz2 + 3λ.
g.n
F x = 0 ⇒ 2xyz3 + 2λ = 0 ⇒ xyz3 = −λ.

et
Fy = 0 ⇒ x2 z3 = −λ.
Fz = 0 ⇒ 3x2 yz2 + 3λ = 0 ⇒ x2 yz2 = −λ.
Therefore
xyz3 = x2 z3 = x2 yz2

xyz3 = x2 z3 ⇒ y = x.
x2 z3 = x2 yz2 ⇒ y = z.
x = y = z.
a
(1) ⇒ 2x + x + 3x = a ⇒ 6x = a ⇒ x = = y = z.
6
a a a
∴ The stationary point is , , .
6 6 6
a 2 a a 3 a6 a 6
Minimum value = = 6 = .
ww 6 6 6 6 6
Example 2.85. If u = x2 + y2 + z2 where ax + by + cz − p = 0, find the stationary value
w.E
of u.
Solution. Given f = x2 + y2 + z2 .
[Jan 2006]
asy φ = ax + by + cz − p = 0. (1)
En
gin
F = x2 + y2 + z2 + λ(ax + by + cz − p).
ee
F x = 2x + aλ, Fy = 2y + bλ, Fz = 2z + cλ.

rin
2x + λa = 0 ⇒ x =
−aλ
2
⇒ ax =
−a2 λ
2
. g.n
Similarly
by =
−b2 λ
2
, cz =
−c2 λ
2
.
et
−a2 λ b2 λ c2 λ
(1) ⇒ − − =p
2 2 2
a2 + b2 + c2 −2p
λ = −p ⇒ λ = 2 .
2 a + b2 + c2
ap bp cp
∴x= 2 2 2
,y = 2 2 2
,z = 2 .
a +b +c a +b +c a + b2 + c2

Stationary value of u is
a2 p2 b2 p2 c2 p2
u= + +
(a2 + b2 + c2 )2 (a2 + b2 + c2 )2 (a2 + b2 + c2 )2
p2 (a2 + b2 + c2 ) p2
= = .
(a2 + b2 + c2 )2 a2 + b2 + c2
Example 2.86. The temperature T at any point (x, y, z) in space is T = 400xyz2 .

Find the highest temperature on the surface of the unit sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 1.
[Jan 2005]
wwSolution. We have to maximize
w.E T = 400xyz2 (1)
asy
subject to φ = x2 + y2 + z2 − 1 = 0.
Consider F = T + λφ, where λ is the Lagrange multiplier.

(2)
En
F = 400xyz2 + λ(x2 + y2 + z2 − 1).
gin
F x = 400yz2 + 2λx, Fy = 400xz2 + 2λy, Fz = 400xyz + 2λz.
F x = 0 ⇒ 400yz2 + 2λx = 0 ⇒ −λ =
ee
200yz2
x
.
rin
g.n
200xz 2
Fy = 0 ⇒ 400xz2 + 2λy ⇒ −λ = .
y
Fz = 0 ⇒ 800xyz + 2λz = 0 ⇒ −λ = 400xy.
∴
200yz2 200xz2
Taking
x
=
x
y
= 400xy.
200yz2 200xz2
=
y
we get x2 = y2 ⇒ y = ±x.
et
200yz2 z2 √
Taking = 400xy we get = 2x ⇒ z2 = 2x2 ⇒ z = ± 2x.
x x
200xz2 z2 √
Taking = 400xy we get = 2y ⇒ z2 = 2y2 ⇒ z = ± 2y.
y y
Substituting in x2 + y2 + z2 = 1 we get
1 1
x2 + x2 + 2x2 = 1 ⇒ 4x2 = 1 ⇒ x2 = ⇒ x = ±
4 2

1 √ 1 1
∴ y = ± ,z = ± 2 = ± √ .
2 2 2
1 1 1
The stationary points are given by x = ± , y = ± , z = ± √ .
2 2 2
To have maximum value, we must have xy positive.
1 1 1 1 1 −1 −1 −1 1 −1 −1 −1
∴ The points are , , √ , , , √ , , , √ , , , √ .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
111 0
∴ Maximum T = 400 = 50 C.
222
Example 2.87. Find the shortest and longest distance from the point (1, 2, −1) to
wwthe sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 24 using Lagrange’s method of constrained maxima and

minima. [Jun 2011, Jan 2002]
w.E
Solution. Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the sphere.
Let A be the point (1, 2, −1).
asy
q
AP = (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 + (z + 1)2 .
En
Let f (x, y, z) = (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 + (z + 1)2 . (1)
gin
AP is minimum or maximum if f is minimum or maximum.
∴ The problem is now reduced to minimise or maximise f subject to
φ(x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 − 24 = 0.
Consider the auxiliary function ee
F = f + λφ = (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 + (z + 1)2 + λ(x2 + y2 + z2 − 24) rin
where λ is the
Lagrange’s multiplier.
g.n
F x = 2(x − 1) + 2λx, Fy = 2(y − 2) + 2λy, Fz = 2(z + 1) + 2λz.
To find the stationary points solve
F x = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0, φ = 0.
et
x−1 1
F x = 0 ⇒ 2(x − 1) + 2λx = 0 ⇒ x − 1 = −λx ⇒ −λ = =1− .
x x
y−2 2
Fy = 0 ⇒ 2(y − 2) + 2λy = 0 ⇒ y − 2 = −λy ⇒ −λ = =1− .
y y
z+1 1
Fz = 0 ⇒ 2(z + 1) + 2λz = 0 ⇒ z + 1 = −λz ⇒ −λ = =1+ .
z z
1 2 1
∴1− =1− =1+ .
x y z

1 2 1 2
Taking 1 − = 1 − we get = ⇒ y = 2x.
x y x y
1 1
Taking 1 − = 1 + we get z = −x.
x z
2 1 −y
Taking 1 − = 1 + we get z = = −x.
y z 2
We have x2 + y2 + z2 = 24 ⇒ x2 + 4x2 + x2 = 24 ⇒ 6x2 = 24 ⇒ x2 = 4 ⇒ x = ±2.
When x = 2, y = 4, z = −2, the first point is (2, 4, −2). Let this point be P1 .
When x = −2, y = −4, z = 2, the second point is (−2, −4, 2). Let this point be P2 .
√ √ √ √ √
P1 A = 1 + 4 + 1 = 6, P2 A = 9 + 36 + 9 = 54 = 3 6
ww∴ Shortest distance = 6

√
Longest distance = 3 6.
√
w.E
Example 2.88. A rectangular box open at the top is to have a volume of 32cc.
Find the dimensions of the box which requires least amount of material for its
construction.
asy [Jun 2012, Dec 2011, Jun 2010, Jan 2005]
En
Solution. Let the dimensions of the box be Length = x, Breadth = y, height = z.
Given: Volume = 32cc.
gin
=⇒ xyz = 32, x, y, z > 0. (1)
ee
We have to minimize the amount of material used for the construction of the box.
Let S be the surface area of the box whose top is open
rin
∴ S = xy + 2xz + 2yz
g.n (2)
et
By Lagrange’s method
Let F = s + λφ = xy + 2yz + 2xz + λ(xyz − 32) where λ is the Lagrange’s multiplier.
F x = y + 2z + λyz, Fy = x + 2z + λxz, Fz = 2y + 2x + λxy.
To find the stationary points, solve
F x = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0, φ = 0
F x = 0 ⇒ y + 2z + λyz = 0
=⇒ y + 2z = −λyz

y 2z
⇒ + = −λ
yz yz
1 2
⇒ + = −λ (3)
z y
Fy = 0 ⇒ x + 2z + λxz = 0
=⇒ x + 2z = −λxz
i.e., xy + 2yz = −λxyz.

xy 2yz
⇒ + = −λ
xyz xyz
ww ⇒
1 2
+ = −λ
z x
(4)
w.E
Fz = 0 ⇒ 2y + 2x + λxy = 0
=⇒ 2x + 2y = −λxy
asy 2xz + 2yz = −λxyz.

2xz 2yz
En⇒ +
xyz xyz
= −λ
gin
⇒
2 2
+ = −λ
y x
(5)
(3) − (4) ⇒
ee
2 2
− =0
y x
1 1 rin
=
y x
⇒x=y g.n (6)
(3) − (5) ⇒
1 2
− =0
z x
et
1 2
=
z x
⇒ x = 2z (7)
From (6)and(7) we obtain x = y = 2z.

(1)⇒ 2z.2z.z = 32 ⇒ 4z3 = 32 ⇒ z3 = 8 ⇒ z = 2.

∴ x = 4, y = 4.
The stationary point is (4, 4, 2).
The dimensions are 4cm, 4cm, 2cm.
Example 2.89. Find the dimensions of the rectangular box open at the top of
maximum capacity whose surface area is 432 sq.m. [Jun 2013]
Solution. Let the dimensions of the box be x, y, z.
Given, surface area= 432.
ww xy + 2xz + 2yz = 432 (1)
w.E
Let V be the volume of the box.
We have to maximize V.
By lagrange’s method
asy V = xyz (2)
En
F = V + λφ, where λ is the lagrange multiplier.
gin
F = xyz + λ(xy + 2xz + 2yz − 432).
ee
F x = yz + λ(y + 2z).
rin
Fy = xz + λ(x + 2z).
Fz = xy + λ(2x + 2y).
Fλ = xy + 2xz + 2yz − 432.

For stationary points, F x = 0, Fy = 0, Fz = 0, Fλ = 0. g.n
F x = 0 ⇒ yz + λ(y + 2z) = 0 et
⇒ xyz + λ(xy + 2xz) = 0. (1)
Fy = 0 ⇒ xz + λ(x + 2z) = 0
⇒ xyz + λ(xy + 2yz) = 0. (2)
Fz = 0 ⇒ xy + λ(2x + 2y) = 0

xyz + λ(2xz + 2yz) = 0. (3)
(1) + (2) + (3) ⇒

3xyz + λ(2xy + 4xz + 4yz) = 0
3xy + 2λ(xy + 2xz + 2yz) = 0
3xyz + 2λ × 432 = 0
3xyz = −864λ
3xyz xyz
λ=− =−
ww 864 288
Substituting the value of λ in F x = 0 we get
w.E yz −
xyz
288
(y + 2z) = 0
asy 1−
x
288
(y + 2z) = 0
En 1=
x
288
(y + 2z)
gin xy + 2xz = 288 (4)
ee
Fy = 0 ⇒ xz −
y
xyz
288
(x + 2z) = 0
rin
y
1−
288
(x + 2z) = 0
y g.n
1−
288
(x + 2z) = 0, 1 =
xy + 2yz = 288
288
(x + 2z)
et (5)
xyz
Fz = 0 ⇒ xy − (2x + 2y) = 0
288
z z
1− (2x + 2y) = 0, 1 = (2x + 2y)
288 288
2xz + 2yz = 288 (6)

(4) − (5) ⇒ 2z(x − y) = 0, z , 0
∴ x−y=0
⇒ x = y.
(5) − (6) ⇒ xy − 2xz = 0
x(y − 2z) = 0, x , 0
∴ y − 2z = 0
y = 2z.
ww ∴ x = y = 2z
w.E (4) ⇒ 2z × 2z + 2 · 2z · z = 288
4z2 + 4z2 = 288
asy z2 = 36.
z = ±6.
En z = −6 is not possible
gin ∴ z = 6.
ee
∴ y = 2z = 12
x = 2z = 12
rin
The dimensions of the box to have maximum capacity are
g.n
Length = 12m
Breadth = 12m
et
Height = 6m.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

3 Integral Calculus
ww3.1 The definite integral
w.E
Integration as the limit of a sum
asy y = f (x)
·········En
n rectangles
f (xk )
gin ∆x
x1 = a x2 x3
ee
xn+1 = b
rin
Consider the graph of the positive function y = f (x). Let us find the area
under the curve y = f (x),between the x−axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b. g.n
Divide this area into n rectangles of equal width ∆x =
b−a
n
. Let the x− co ordinates
at the left hand side of the rectangles be x1 = a, x2 , x3 , . . . xn+1 = b. Consider a typical
rectangle, the kth one with height f (xk ). The area of this rectangle is f (xk )∆x. The
et
sum of all the areas of the n rectangles is
f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + · · · + f (xn )∆x.

n
P
In summation convention form, this can be written as f (xk )∆x. This
k=1
gives an estimate of the area under the curve but it is not exact. To improve the

estimate we must take a large number of very thin rectangles. This can be
achieved by allowing n → ∞ and making ∆x → 0.
n
P
∴ Area under the curve = lim f (xk )∆x.
n=∞ k=1
The lower and upper limits on the sum correspond to the first and the
last rectangle where x = a and x = b respectively. Hence the above limit can be
b
P
written as lim f (x)∆x. Since the number of rectangles increase without bound,
∆x→0 x=a
we drop the subsript k from xk and write f (x) which is the value of f at a typical
value of x. If this can actually be found, it is called the definite integral of f (x)
ww Rb
from x = a and x = b and it is written as f (x)dx.
a
w.E
Rb n
P b
P
∴ f (x)dx = lim f (xk )∆x = lim f (x)∆x.
n=∞ k=1 ∆x→0 x=a
a
Note. If we approximate each strip by a rectangle that has the same base as the
asy
strip and whose height is the same as the right edge of the strip; (i.e., xk is taken
at the right end points of the kth rectangle and f (xk ) as the height ) then also the
above result will be achieved.
En
gin
Definition of a definite integral. If f is a function defined for a ≤ x ≤ b, we
divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal width ∆x =
b−a
. We let
ee
n
x0 (= a), x1 , x2 , · · · xn (= b) be the end points of these subintervals and if we choose
rin
x1∗ , x2∗ , · · · xn∗ as any sample ponits in these subintervals, so that xi∗ lies in the ith
subinterval [xi−1 , xi ]. Then the definite integral of f from a to b is defined as
Rb
f (x)dx = lim
n
P
g.n
f (xi∗ )∆x, provided that the limit exists and gives the same value
n=∞ i=1
et
a
for all possible choices of sample points. If it does exist, we say that f is
integrable on [a, b].
Rb n
f (xi∗ )∆x can also be written as, for ∈> 0, there is an
P
Result (1). f (x)dx = lim
n=∞ i=1
a
Rb n
f (xi∗ )∆x <∈ for every integer n > N and for
P
integer N such that f (x)dx −
a i=1
every choice of xi∗ in [xi−1 , xi ].

Integral Calculus 151
n
f (xi∗ )∆x is called the Reimann sum.
P
Result (2). The sum
i=1
Theorem 1. If f is continuos on [a, b], (or) if f has only a finite number of jump
Rb
discontinuities, then f is integrable on [a, b].[i.e., f (x)dx exists].
a
Rb n
P
Theorem 2.If f is integrable on [, b], then f (x)dx = lim f (xi )∆x where ∆x =
n=∞ i=1
a
b−a
and xi = a + i∆x.
n ✎ ☞
Worked Examples
ww ✍
R1
✌
w.E
Example 3.1. Using the area property evaluate
areas of the upper approximating rectangles approaches .

0
1
3
x2 dx. Show that the sum of the
asy
Solution. Consider the function y = f (x) = x2 . Divide the area under the curve
y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 1 into 4 rectangles of equal width ∆x =
1−0 1
= .
En
The width of each rectangle is .
1
# " 4# "
4 4
gin
" # " #
1 1 1 1 3 3
The subintervals are 0, , , , , and , 1 .
4 4 2 2 4 4
ordinates at x = 0, , & .
4 2 4 ee
The height of the rectangles is approximated to the value of the
1 1 3
rin
g.n
! ! !
1 1 3
∴ Area of the required portion = f (0)∆x + f ∆x + f ∆x + f ∆x.
4 2 4
et
!2 !2 !2
2 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
=0 . + . + . + .
4 4 4 2 4 4 4
" #
1 1 1 9
= 0+ + +
4 16 4 16
" #
1 1+4+9
=
4 16
1 14 7
= × = .
4 16 32
If the height of the rectangles is approximated to the value of the

ordinates at the right edge of each rectangle then,

! ! !
1 1 3
Area = f ∆x + f ∆x + f ∆x + f (1)∆x.
4 2 4
!2 !2 !2
1 1 1 1 3 1 1
= . + . + . + 12 ·
4 4 2 4 4 4 4
" # " #
1 1 1 9 1 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 1 30 15
= + + +1 = = × = .
4 16 4 16 4 16 4 16 32
Now, let us divide the area " into # "n rectangles
# " each of their
# with width
1−0 1 1 1 2 n−1 n
ww∆x =
n
= . The subintervals are 0, , , , · · · ,
n n n n
, =1 .
n n
The heights of the rectangle are the values of the function f (x) = x2 at
1 2 3 n
w.E
the points , , · · · .
n n n n
!2
1 1
!2
2 1
!2
3 1 n 2 1
∴ Area =
n n
. +
1 12 22 32
"
asyn n
. +
n n
. + ··· +
n2
#
n n
.
En
= + + + · · · +
n n2 n2 n2 n2
1 h i
= 3 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2
n "
= 3
1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)gin #
=
(n + 1)(2n + 1)
n
lim (Area) = lim
n=∞ n=∞
6
(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6n2
ee
n (1 + 1n )(2 + 1n ) 2 1
2
6n2
rin
= lim
n=∞ 6n2
= = .
6 3
g.n
Properties of definite integrals.
Ra
et
The following properties can be easily proved using Riemann sums.
Rb
(i) f (x)dx = − f (x)dx.
b a
Ra
(ii) f (x)dx = 0.
a
Rb
(iii) cdx = c(b − a),where c is any constant.
a

Rb Rb Rb
(iv) [ f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx.
a a a
Rb Rb
(v) c f (x)dx = c f (x)dx,where c is any constant.
a a
Rb Rb Rb
(vi) [ f (x) − g(x)]dx = f (x)dx − g(x)dx.
a a a
Rb Rc Rb
(vii) If a < c < b then f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
ww a
Comparison properties of the integral.

a c
w.E(i) If f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b, then

Rb
a
f (x)dx ≥ 0.
(ii) If f (x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b, then

asy Rb
a
f (x)dx ≥
Rb
a
g(x)dx.
En
(iii) If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for a ≤ x ≤ b, then m(b − a) ≤
Rb
f (x)dx ≤ M(b − a).
Proof. Given m ≤ f (x) ≤ M
gin a
Rb Rb
ee
Integrating between a and b we get
Rb
mdx ≤ f (x)dx ≤ Mdx
a a a
rin
g.n
Rb Rb Rb
m dx ≤ f (x)dx ≤ M dx
a a a
Rb
The first fundamental theorem of calculus

m(b − a) ≤
a
f (x)dx ≤ M(b − a).
et
Statement. If f is continuous on [a, b], then the function g defined by
Rx
g(x) = f (t)dt, a ≤ x ≤ b
a
is continuous on [a, b] and is differentiable on (a, b) and g′ (x) = f (x).

Proof.Choose x and x + b ∈ (a, b).

y
Zx+h Zx
Now, g(x + h) − g(x) = f (t)dt − f (t)dt
a a
Zx Zx+h Zx
= f (t)dt + f (t)dt − f (t)dt m M
a x a
Zx+h
= f (t)dt. 0 x u v x+h x
x
ww g(x + h) − g(x) 1 x+h

R
Hence, for h , 0, we have = f (t)dt. (1)
h h x
Let us assume that h > 0. Since f is continuous on [x, x + h], by the
w.E
extreme value theorem, there exists numbers u and v in [x, x + h] such that
f (u) = m and f (v) = M, where m and M are the absolute minimum and maximum
asy
values of f on [x, x + h]. By the comparison property of the definite integral we
have
En mh ≤
x+h
R
f (t)dt ≤ Mh.
gin
x
x+h
R
f (u)h ≤ f (t)dt ≤ f (v)h.
ee
x
Since h > 0, dividing throughout by h we get
x+h
rin
R
f (u) ≤ h1 f (t)dt ≤ f (v). (2)
x
g.n
(2) can be proved in a similar way for h < 0.
Now, allowing h → 0 and since u and v lie in [x, x + h], we have u → x
and v → x. Since f is continuous at x,we have
∴ lim f (u) = lim f (u) = f (x)

h→0 u→x
et
and lim f (v) = lim f (v) = f (x).
h→0 v→x
By (2) we have
Zx+h
1
lim f (u) ≤ lim f (t)dt ≤ lim f (v)
h→0 h→0 h h→0
x

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

g(x + h) − g(x)
f (x) ≤ lim ≤ f (x) [by (1)]
h→0 h
i.e., f (x) ≤ g′ (x) ≤ f (x).
By Squeeze Theorem we get
g′ (x) = f (x). (3)
Since every differentiable function is continuous,

we obtain g is also continuous on (a, b).
ww If x = a or x = b, from (3) we get the one sided limits at a and b.

This shows that g is continuous on [a, b].
w.E
Rx √
Example 3.2. Find the derivative of the function g(x) = 1 + t2 dt.
√ 0
Solution. Since f (t) = 1 + t2 is continuous on [0, x], by part 1 of the Fundamental
asy
theorem of calculus we get g′ (x) = 1 + x2
√
En
 4 
d Rx 
Example 3.3. Find  sec tdt.
dx 1
Solution. Let u = x 4
 x4 gin  u 
ee
Z  Z
d  d 


∴  sec tdt =  sec tdt
dx   dx 
rin

1 1
 u 
Z
d   du

=
1
du
 sec tdt ·
dx
g.n
[By Chain rule]
= sec u · 4x3
= sec x4 · 4x3 .
[by FTC 1]
et
Second Fundamental theorem of calculus
Rb
Statement.If f is continuous on [a, b], then f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a) where F is any
a
antiderivative of f . [i.e, a function such that F ′ = f ].
Rx
Proof. Let g(x) = f (t)dt.
a
By the First Fundamental theorem of calculus we have g′ (x) = f (x). i.e,

g is an antiderivative of f .
If F is any other antiderivative of f on [a, b], we know that F and g differ
by a constant.
∴ F(x) = g(x) + c for a < x < b.
Since both F and g are continuous on [a, b] the above relation holds when x = a and
x = b.
i.e lim F(x) = F(a) & lim F(x) = F(b).
x→a+ x→b−
Also lim g(x) = g(a) & lim g(x) = g(b).
ww
x→a+ x→b−
Hence we obtain F(x) = g(x) + c for all x in [a, b] (1)
Ra
When x = a, we have g(a) = f (t)dt = 0.
w.E Using (1) for x = b and x = a we get

a
asy
F(b) − F(a) = [g(b) + c] − [g(a) + c]
= g(b) − g(a)
En = g(b) =
Zb
f (t)dt.
gin a
Result. The First and Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus are combined
Statement of Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

ee
together is called the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
rin
Suppose f is continuous on [a, b]
Rx
(i) If g(x) = f (t)dt, then g′ (x) = f (x).
g.n
et
a
Rb
(ii) f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a), where F is any antiderivative of f . (i.e., F ′ = f .)
a
Note (1). The Fundamental theorem of calculus says that differentiation and
integration are inverse processors.
Note (2). By part(ii) of the Fundamental theorem of calculus we have
Rb
f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a) where F ′ = f .
a
Rb
i.e F ′ (x)dx = F(b) − F(a).
a

The above result is sometimes called as the Net Change Theorem.

Net Change Theorem
Statement. The integral of a rate of change is the net change.
Rb
i.e F ′ (x)dx = F(b) − F(a).
✎
a ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
R3
Example 3.4. Evaluate (x2 − 2x)dx by using Reimann sum by taking right end
0
points as the sample points. Hence verify it by using fundamental theorem of
wwcalculus.
Solution. Let f (x) = x2 − 2x.
w.E Divide the interval [0, 3] into n sub intevals with equal width
∆x =
3−0 3
= .
n n "
asy
3
n
# "
3 6
# "
The intervals are 0, , , , , , · · ·
n n
6 9
n n
# "
3n − 3 3n
n
,
n
#
.
En
The sample points xi∗ are the right end points of the sub intervals.
3 6 9
∴ xi∗ = , , , · · · .
3n
gin
n n n n
The corresponding f (xi∗ ) = xi∗ 2 − 2xi∗ are calculated and tabulated as
follows.
xi∗ 3
n
ee 6
n
9
n ··· 3n
n rin
f (xi∗ )
By Reimann’s sum we have,
9
n2
− 6
n
36
n2
− 12
n
81
n2
− 18
n ··· 9n2
n2
− 6n
n
g.n
Z3
0
(x2 − 2x)dx = lim
n=∞
n
X
i=1
f (xi∗ )∆x
et
9n2 6n 3
" ! ! ! ! #
9 6 3 36 12 3 81 18 3
= lim − + − + − + · · · + −
n=∞ n2 n n n2 n n n2 n n n2 n n
" 3 2
! 3 2
! 3 2
!
3 3 3 3 3 3
= lim 3
· 1 − 2 · 2 + 3 · 22 − 2 · 4 + 3 · 32 − 2 · 6
n=∞ n n n n n n
3 32
!#
3 2
+ · · · + 3 · n − 2 · 2n
n n

33 2 2 2 2
32
= lim 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n − lim (2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + 2n)
n=∞ n3 n=∞ n2
27 h n(n + 1)(2n + 1) i 9 h n(n + 1) i
= lim 3 − lim 2 · 2
n=∞ n 6 n=∞ n 2
3 1 1
h n (1 + n )(2 + n ) i h n (1 + 1n ) i 27
2
27
= lim − 9 lim = × 2 − 9 = 0.
6 n=∞ n3 n=∞ n2 6
By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus we have

Z3 !3
2 x3 x2 27
(x − 2x)dx = −2· = − 9 = 9 − 9 = 0.
3 2 0 3
ww 0
w.E
Example 3.5. Evaluate the integral
R1 √
R1 √
0
1 − x2 dx interms of areas.
√
Solution.
0
asy
1 − x2 dx represents the area under the curve y = 1 − x2 between
the x−axis and the lines x = 0 and x = 1.
p
En y
gin
Now, y = 1 − x2
y2 = 1 − x2
0 1x
2 2
x + y = 1.
ee
This is a circle with centre at the origin and radius = 1 unit. Since we rin
need the area between x = 0 and x = 1, the required area is the area of the portion
1 π g.n
of the circle that lies in the first quadrant = · π × 12 = .
∴
R1 √
0
π
1 − x2 dx = .
4
4 4
et
R3
Example 3.6. Evaluate the integral (x − 1)dx interms of areas.
0
R3
Solution. (x − 1)dx represents the area under the curve y = (x − 1) between the
0
x−axis and the lines x = 0 and x = 3.

3 Integral Calculus
ww3.1 The definite integral
w.E
Integration as the limit of a sum
asy y = f (x)
·········En
n rectangles
f (xk )
gin ∆x
x1 = a x2 x3
ee
xn+1 = b
rin
Consider the graph of the positive function y = f (x). Let us find the area
under the curve y = f (x),between the x−axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b. g.n
Divide this area into n rectangles of equal width ∆x =
b−a
n
. Let the x− co ordinates
at the left hand side of the rectangles be x1 = a, x2 , x3 , . . . xn+1 = b. Consider a typical
rectangle, the kth one with height f (xk ). The area of this rectangle is f (xk )∆x. The
et
sum of all the areas of the n rectangles is
f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + · · · + f (xn )∆x.

n
P
In summation convention form, this can be written as f (xk )∆x. This
k=1
gives an estimate of the area under the curve but it is not exact. To improve the

estimate we must take a large number of very thin rectangles. This can be
achieved by allowing n → ∞ and making ∆x → 0.
n
P
∴ Area under the curve = lim f (xk )∆x.
n=∞ k=1
The lower and upper limits on the sum correspond to the first and the
last rectangle where x = a and x = b respectively. Hence the above limit can be
b
P
written as lim f (x)∆x. Since the number of rectangles increase without bound,
∆x→0 x=a
we drop the subsript k from xk and write f (x) which is the value of f at a typical
value of x. If this can actually be found, it is called the definite integral of f (x)
ww Rb
from x = a and x = b and it is written as f (x)dx.
a
w.E
Rb n
P b
P
∴ f (x)dx = lim f (xk )∆x = lim f (x)∆x.
n=∞ k=1 ∆x→0 x=a
a
Note. If we approximate each strip by a rectangle that has the same base as the
asy
strip and whose height is the same as the right edge of the strip; (i.e., xk is taken
at the right end points of the kth rectangle and f (xk ) as the height ) then also the
above result will be achieved.
En
gin
Definition of a definite integral. If f is a function defined for a ≤ x ≤ b, we
divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal width ∆x =
b−a
. We let
ee
n
x0 (= a), x1 , x2 , · · · xn (= b) be the end points of these subintervals and if we choose
rin
x1∗ , x2∗ , · · · xn∗ as any sample ponits in these subintervals, so that xi∗ lies in the ith
subinterval [xi−1 , xi ]. Then the definite integral of f from a to b is defined as
Rb
f (x)dx = lim
n
P
g.n
f (xi∗ )∆x, provided that the limit exists and gives the same value
n=∞ i=1
et
a
for all possible choices of sample points. If it does exist, we say that f is
integrable on [a, b].
Rb n
f (xi∗ )∆x can also be written as, for ∈> 0, there is an
P
Result (1). f (x)dx = lim
n=∞ i=1
a
Rb n
f (xi∗ )∆x <∈ for every integer n > N and for
P
integer N such that f (x)dx −
a i=1
every choice of xi∗ in [xi−1 , xi ].

n
f (xi∗ )∆x is called the Reimann sum.
P
Result (2). The sum
i=1
Theorem 1. If f is continuos on [a, b], (or) if f has only a finite number of jump
Rb
discontinuities, then f is integrable on [a, b].[i.e., f (x)dx exists].
a
Rb n
P
Theorem 2.If f is integrable on [, b], then f (x)dx = lim f (xi )∆x where ∆x =
n=∞ i=1
a
b−a
and xi = a + i∆x.
n ✎ ☞
Worked Examples
ww ✍
R1
✌
w.E
Example 3.1. Using the area property evaluate
areas of the upper approximating rectangles approaches .

0
1
3
x2 dx. Show that the sum of the
asy
Solution. Consider the function y = f (x) = x2 . Divide the area under the curve
y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 1 into 4 rectangles of equal width ∆x =
1−0 1
= .
En
The width of each rectangle is .
1
# " 4# "
4 4
gin
" # " #
1 1 1 1 3 3
The subintervals are 0, , , , , and , 1 .
4 4 2 2 4 4
ordinates at x = 0, , & .
4 2 4 ee
The height of the rectangles is approximated to the value of the
1 1 3
rin
g.n
! ! !
1 1 3
∴ Area of the required portion = f (0)∆x + f ∆x + f ∆x + f ∆x.
4 2 4
et
!2 !2 !2
2 1 1 1 1 1 3 1
=0 . + . + . + .
4 4 4 2 4 4 4
" #
1 1 1 9
= 0+ + +
4 16 4 16
" #
1 1+4+9
=
4 16
1 14 7
= × = .
4 16 32
If the height of the rectangles is approximated to the value of the

ordinates at the right edge of each rectangle then,

! ! !
1 1 3
Area = f ∆x + f ∆x + f ∆x + f (1)∆x.
4 2 4
!2 !2 !2
1 1 1 1 3 1 1
= . + . + . + 12 ·
4 4 2 4 4 4 4
" # " #
1 1 1 9 1 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 1 30 15
= + + +1 = = × = .
4 16 4 16 4 16 4 16 32
Now, let us divide the area " into # "n rectangles
# " each of their
# with width
1−0 1 1 1 2 n−1 n
ww∆x =
n
= . The subintervals are 0, , , , · · · ,
n n n n
, =1 .
n n
The heights of the rectangle are the values of the function f (x) = x2 at
1 2 3 n
w.E
the points , , · · · .
n n n n
!2
1 1
!2
2 1
!2
3 1 n 2 1
∴ Area =
n n
. +
1 12 22 32
"
asyn n
. +
n n
. + ··· +
n2
#
n n
.
En
= + + + · · · +
n n2 n2 n2 n2
1 h i
= 3 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2
n "
= 3
1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)gin #
=
(n + 1)(2n + 1)
n
lim (Area) = lim
n=∞ n=∞
6
(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6n2
ee
n (1 + 1n )(2 + 1n ) 2 1
2
6n2
rin
= lim
n=∞ 6n2
= = .
6 3
g.n
Properties of definite integrals.
Ra
et
The following properties can be easily proved using Riemann sums.
Rb
(i) f (x)dx = − f (x)dx.
b a
Ra
(ii) f (x)dx = 0.
a
Rb
(iii) cdx = c(b − a),where c is any constant.
a

Rb Rb Rb
(iv) [ f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx.
a a a
Rb Rb
(v) c f (x)dx = c f (x)dx,where c is any constant.
a a
Rb Rb Rb
(vi) [ f (x) − g(x)]dx = f (x)dx − g(x)dx.
a a a
Rb Rc Rb
(vii) If a < c < b then f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
ww a
Comparison properties of the integral.

a c
w.E(i) If f (x) ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b, then

Rb
a
f (x)dx ≥ 0.
(ii) If f (x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b, then

asy Rb
a
f (x)dx ≥
Rb
a
g(x)dx.
En
(iii) If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for a ≤ x ≤ b, then m(b − a) ≤
Rb
f (x)dx ≤ M(b − a).
Proof. Given m ≤ f (x) ≤ M
gin a
Rb Rb
ee
Integrating between a and b we get
Rb
mdx ≤ f (x)dx ≤ Mdx
a a a
rin
g.n
Rb Rb Rb
m dx ≤ f (x)dx ≤ M dx
a a a
Rb
The first fundamental theorem of calculus

m(b − a) ≤
a
f (x)dx ≤ M(b − a).
et
Statement. If f is continuous on [a, b], then the function g defined by
Rx
g(x) = f (t)dt, a ≤ x ≤ b
a
is continuous on [a, b] and is differentiable on (a, b) and g′ (x) = f (x).

Proof.Choose x and x + b ∈ (a, b).

y
Zx+h Zx
Now, g(x + h) − g(x) = f (t)dt − f (t)dt
a a
Zx Zx+h Zx
= f (t)dt + f (t)dt − f (t)dt m M
a x a
Zx+h
= f (t)dt. 0 x u v x+h x
x
ww g(x + h) − g(x) 1 x+h

R
Hence, for h , 0, we have = f (t)dt. (1)
h h x
Let us assume that h > 0. Since f is continuous on [x, x + h], by the
w.E
extreme value theorem, there exists numbers u and v in [x, x + h] such that
f (u) = m and f (v) = M, where m and M are the absolute minimum and maximum
asy
values of f on [x, x + h]. By the comparison property of the definite integral we
have
En mh ≤
x+h
R
f (t)dt ≤ Mh.
gin
x
x+h
R
f (u)h ≤ f (t)dt ≤ f (v)h.
ee
x
Since h > 0, dividing throughout by h we get
x+h
rin
R
f (u) ≤ h1 f (t)dt ≤ f (v). (2)
x
g.n
(2) can be proved in a similar way for h < 0.
Now, allowing h → 0 and since u and v lie in [x, x + h], we have u → x
and v → x. Since f is continuous at x,we have
∴ lim f (u) = lim f (u) = f (x)

h→0 u→x
et
and lim f (v) = lim f (v) = f (x).
h→0 v→x
By (2) we have
Zx+h
1
lim f (u) ≤ lim f (t)dt ≤ lim f (v)
h→0 h→0 h h→0
x

g(x + h) − g(x)
f (x) ≤ lim ≤ f (x) [by (1)]
h→0 h
i.e., f (x) ≤ g′ (x) ≤ f (x).
By Squeeze Theorem we get
g′ (x) = f (x). (3)
Since every differentiable function is continuous,

we obtain g is also continuous on (a, b).
ww If x = a or x = b, from (3) we get the one sided limits at a and b.

This shows that g is continuous on [a, b].
w.E
Rx √
Example 3.2. Find the derivative of the function g(x) = 1 + t2 dt.
√ 0
Solution. Since f (t) = 1 + t2 is continuous on [0, x], by part 1 of the Fundamental
asy
theorem of calculus we get g′ (x) = 1 + x2
√
En
 4 
d Rx 
Example 3.3. Find  sec tdt.
dx 1
Solution. Let u = x 4
 x4 gin  u 
ee
Z  Z
d  d 


∴  sec tdt =  sec tdt
dx   dx 
rin

1 1
 u 
Z
d   du

=
1
du
 sec tdt ·
dx
g.n
[By Chain rule]
= sec u · 4x3
= sec x4 · 4x3 .
[by FTC 1]
et
Second Fundamental theorem of calculus
Rb
Statement.If f is continuous on [a, b], then f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a) where F is any
a
antiderivative of f . [i.e, a function such that F ′ = f ].
Rx
Proof. Let g(x) = f (t)dt.
a
By the First Fundamental theorem of calculus we have g′ (x) = f (x). i.e,

g is an antiderivative of f .
If F is any other antiderivative of f on [a, b], we know that F and g differ
by a constant.
∴ F(x) = g(x) + c for a < x < b.
Since both F and g are continuous on [a, b] the above relation holds when x = a and
x = b.
i.e lim F(x) = F(a) & lim F(x) = F(b).
x→a+ x→b−
Also lim g(x) = g(a) & lim g(x) = g(b).
ww
x→a+ x→b−
Hence we obtain F(x) = g(x) + c for all x in [a, b] (1)
Ra
When x = a, we have g(a) = f (t)dt = 0.
w.E Using (1) for x = b and x = a we get

a
asy
F(b) − F(a) = [g(b) + c] − [g(a) + c]
= g(b) − g(a)
En = g(b) =
Zb
f (t)dt.
gin a
Result. The First and Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus are combined
Statement of Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

ee
together is called the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
rin
Suppose f is continuous on [a, b]
Rx
(i) If g(x) = f (t)dt, then g′ (x) = f (x).
g.n
et
a
Rb
(ii) f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a), where F is any antiderivative of f . (i.e., F ′ = f .)
a
Note (1). The Fundamental theorem of calculus says that differentiation and
integration are inverse processors.
Note (2). By part(ii) of the Fundamental theorem of calculus we have
Rb
f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a) where F ′ = f .
a
Rb
i.e F ′ (x)dx = F(b) − F(a).
a

The above result is sometimes called as the Net Change Theorem.

Net Change Theorem
Statement. The integral of a rate of change is the net change.
Rb
i.e F ′ (x)dx = F(b) − F(a).
✎
a ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
R3
Example 3.4. Evaluate (x2 − 2x)dx by using Reimann sum by taking right end
0
points as the sample points. Hence verify it by using fundamental theorem of
wwcalculus.
Solution. Let f (x) = x2 − 2x.
w.E Divide the interval [0, 3] into n sub intevals with equal width
∆x =
3−0 3
= .
n n "
asy
3
n
# "
3 6
# "
The intervals are 0, , , , , , · · ·
n n
6 9
n n
# "
3n − 3 3n
n
,
n
#
.
En
The sample points xi∗ are the right end points of the sub intervals.
3 6 9
∴ xi∗ = , , , · · · .
3n
gin
n n n n
The corresponding f (xi∗ ) = xi∗ 2 − 2xi∗ are calculated and tabulated as
follows.
xi∗ 3
n
ee 6
n
9
n ··· 3n
n rin
f (xi∗ )
By Reimann’s sum we have,
9
n2
− 6
n
36
n2
− 12
n
81
n2
− 18
n ··· 9n2
n2
− 6n
n
g.n
Z3
0
(x2 − 2x)dx = lim
n=∞
n
X
i=1
f (xi∗ )∆x
et
9n2 6n 3
" ! ! ! ! #
9 6 3 36 12 3 81 18 3
= lim − + − + − + · · · + −
n=∞ n2 n n n2 n n n2 n n n2 n n
" 3 2
! 3 2
! 3 2
!
3 3 3 3 3 3
= lim 3
· 1 − 2 · 2 + 3 · 22 − 2 · 4 + 3 · 32 − 2 · 6
n=∞ n n n n n n
3 32
!#
3 2
+ · · · + 3 · n − 2 · 2n
n n

33 2 2 2 2
32
= lim 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n − lim (2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + 2n)
n=∞ n3 n=∞ n2
27 h n(n + 1)(2n + 1) i 9 h n(n + 1) i
= lim 3 − lim 2 · 2
n=∞ n 6 n=∞ n 2
3 1 1
h n (1 + n )(2 + n ) i h n (1 + 1n ) i 27
2
27
= lim − 9 lim = × 2 − 9 = 0.
6 n=∞ n3 n=∞ n2 6
By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus we have

Z3 !3
2 x3 x2 27
(x − 2x)dx = −2· = − 9 = 9 − 9 = 0.
3 2 0 3
ww 0
w.E
Example 3.5. Evaluate the integral
R1 √
R1 √
0
1 − x2 dx interms of areas.
√
Solution.
0
asy
1 − x2 dx represents the area under the curve y = 1 − x2 between
the x−axis and the lines x = 0 and x = 1.
p
En y
gin
Now, y = 1 − x2
y2 = 1 − x2
0 1x
2 2
x + y = 1.
ee
This is a circle with centre at the origin and radius = 1 unit. Since we rin
need the area between x = 0 and x = 1, the required area is the area of the portion
1 π g.n
of the circle that lies in the first quadrant = · π × 12 = .
∴
R1 √
0
π
1 − x2 dx = .
4
4 4
et
R3
Example 3.6. Evaluate the integral (x − 1)dx interms of areas.
0
R3
Solution. (x − 1)dx represents the area under the curve y = (x − 1) between the
0
x−axis and the lines x = 0 and x = 3.

y
The required area = A1 − A2 .
A1 is a triangle with base = 2units A1

x=3
and height = 2units. A2

x
x=0
Put x = 3 in y = x − 1.
1
∴ Area of A1 = × 2 × 2 = 2.
2
ww
A2 is a triangle with base = 1 unit and height = 1unit.
1 1
∴ Area of A2 = × 1 × 1 = .
2 2
w.E
R3 1 3
(x − 1)dx = 2 − = .
0 2 2
Example 3.7. Prove that

asy
Rb
a
xdx =
b2 − a2
2
by interpretting interms of areas.
Solution.
Rb
En [A.U Nov 2016]
xdx represents the area under the curve y = x between the x−axis
a
and the lines x = a and x = b.
gin
2
1
= b·b− a·a
1
1
2ee
Required area = Area of ∆OCD− Area of ∆OAB
1
= × OD × CD − × OB × AB
y
rin C
=
2 2
b2 a2 b2 − a2
− = g.n A
a
b
et
2 2 2 b−a
Zb 0 a B Db x
b2 − a2
∴ xdx = .
2
a
n
(xi3 + xi sin xi )∆x as an integral on the interval [0, π].
P
Example 3.8. Express lim
n→∞ i=1
Solution. According to Riemann sum,the limit
n Rπ
lim (xi3 + xi sin xi )∆x = (x3 + x sin x)dx.
P
n→∞ i=1
0
Example 3.9. Evaluate the Riemann sum for f (x) = x3 − 6x, taking the sample

R3
points to be the right end points and a = 0, b = 3, n = 6. Also Evaluate (x3 − 6x)dx.
0
3−0 1
Solution. Divide the interval [0, 3] into 6 subintervals with equal width = .
h i h i h i h i h i h i 6 2
Hence, the intervals are 0, 21 , 21 , 1 , 1, 23 , 23 , 2 , 2, 52 , 25 , 3
1 3 5
The right end points are , 1, , 2, , 3.
2 2 2
The value of f (x) at these points are as follows.
x(k) x3 −6x f (xk ) f (xk )∆x

1 1
-3 - 23 - 23
ww 2
1
3
1
8
27
−6 −5
8
- 45
16
- 52
- 45
w.E 2 8 −9 8 16
2 8 -12 -4 -2
5 125 5 5
asy 2 8 −15 8 16
9
3 27 −18 9 2
En
Reimann Sum =
n
X
f (xk )∆xk
gin =−
k=1
23 5 45
− − −2+
5
+
9
ee =
16 2 16
16
−140 + 77 −63
16 2
−23 − 40 − 45 − 32 + 5 + 72
rin
g.n
= = .
16 16
R3
Let us evaluate (x3 − 6x)dx.
∆x =
3−0 3
n
= .
n
0
Divide the interval [0, 3] into n subintervals with equal width et
h i h i h i h i
Hence the intervals are 0, 3n , n3 , n6 , 6n , n9 , · · · 3n−3 3n
n , n
The sample points xi∗ are the right end points of the sub intervals
∴ xi∗ = n3 , 6n , n9 , · · · 3n
n.
The corresponding f (xi∗ ) = xi3 − 6xi are calculated and tabulated as
follows.

3 6 9 3n
xi∗ n n n ··· n
33 3 63 6 93 9 33 n3 3n
f (xi∗ ) n3
−6· n n3
−6· n n3
−6· n ··· n3
−6· n
By Reimann sum
Z3 n
X
(x3 − 6x)dx = lim f (xi∗ )∆x
n=∞
0 i=1
33 63 33 n3
" ! ! ! #
3 3 6 3 3n 3
= lim −6· + 3 −6· + ··· + −6·
n=∞ n3 n n n n n n3 n n
" 4 2
#
3 3
ww

3 3 3 3
= lim 4 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n − 6 · 2 (1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n)
n=∞ n n
 34 n(n + 1) 2
 !
2
!
3 n(n + 1) 
w.E
= lim  4 −6· 2 
n=∞ n 2 n 2
" 4 2
3 n (n + 1)2 32 n(n + 1)
#
= lim 4 −6· 2
asy
n=∞ n 4 n 2
 !2 !
 4 1 2 1 
 4 n 1 + n 1 + 
n 32 n 
En
 3
= lim  4 · −6· 2 
n=∞  n
 4 n 2 
gin

 !2 !
 81 1 1 
= lim  · 1 + − 27 · 1 + 
=
n=∞ 4
81
4
− 27 =ee n
81 − 108
4
=− .
27
4
n
rin
g.n
Indefinite Integrals.
The Fundamental theorem of
calculus gives the relation between
et
R
antiderivatives and integrals. The notation f (x)dx is traditionally used for an
Rb
antiderivative of f and is called an indefinite integral. Thus f (x)dx = F(x)
a
means F ′ (x) = f (x).
d R
[F(x)] = f (x) then f (x)dx = F(x)
dx Z
d
In other words if [F(x)] = f (x), then f (x)dx = F(x).
dx
d
Also we have [F(x) + c] = f (x) then
R dx
f (x)dx = F(x) + c,where c is called the constant of integration.

With this notation, we can derive the basic results in integration, using the
basic results in differentiation.
Basic results.
d n
1. We have (x ) = nxn−1 .
dx
d xn+1
!
(or) = xn .
dx n + 1
R xn+1
∴ xn dx = + c.
n+1
ww 2.
d
dx
(log x) = ⇒
1
x
R 1
x
dx = log x + c.
w.E3.
d x
dx
R
(e ) = e x ⇒ e x dx = e x + c.
bx
asy
R
4. b x dx = + c.
log b
En
R
5. sin xdx = − cos x + c.
gin
R
6. cos xdx = sin x + c.
R
7.
8.
R
sec2 xdx = tan x + c.
cosec2 xdx = − cot x + c. ee rin

g.n
R
9. sec x tan xdx = sec x + c.
et
R
10. cosecx cot xdx = −cosecx + c.
R 1
11. √ dx = sin−1 x + c.
1 − x2
R 1
12. dx = tan−1 x + c.
1 + x2
R 1
13. √ dx = sec−1 x + c.
x x2 −1
R
14. sinh xdx = cos hx + c.

R
15. cosh xdx = sin hx + c.
R 1 √
16. √ dx = cos h−1 x + c or log(x + x2 − 1) + c.
x2 − 1
R 1 √
17. √ dx = sin h−1 x + c or log(x + x2 + 1) + c.
+1 x2
Basic properties of indefinite integrals.
If f (x) and g(x) are functions of x and k is a constant, then the following
properties are true.
ww
R R R
(i) [ f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx + c.
R R R
(ii) [ f (x) − g(x)]dx = f (x)dx − g(x)dx + c.
w.E
(iii)
R
k f (x)dx = k
R
f (x)dx + c.
✎ ☞
Example 3.10. Evaluate (10x4 − 2 sec2 x)dx. asy

Z
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Solution.
Z Z Z
En
(10x − 2 sec x)dx = 10 x dx − 2 sec2 xdx + c
4 2 4
Z2 gin
= 10√·
x5
−12!tan x + c = 2x5 − 2 tan x + c.
ee
Example 3.11. Evaluate 2 5
x − 3 x + 2 dx.
x
rin
1
Z2 ! Z2 Z2 Z2
2 √1 2 1
x−2 dx
Solution.
1
x − 3 x + 2 dx =
x
x dx − 3 x 2 dx +
1
 3 2
1 1
g.n
3 2
et
!2
x−1
!
x  x 2 
= − 3  3  +
 
3 1 2
−1 1
1
!2
1 3 3 2h 3 i 1
= [2 − 1 ] − 3 × 2 − 1 −
2
3 3 x 1
1 √ 1
= [8 − 1] − 2[2 2 − 1] − [ − 1]
3 2
7 √ 1
= −4 2+2+
3 2
21 + 12 + 3 √ 36 √ √
= −4 2= − 4 2 = 6 − 4 2.
6 6

Z3
Example 3.12. Evaluate (x3 − 6x)dx.
0
Z3 Z3 Z3 !3 !3
3 3 x4 x2
Solution. (x − 6x)dx = x dx − 6 xdx = −6
4 0 2 0
0 0 0
1
= [34 − 0] − 3[32 − 0]
4
1 81 81 − 108 27
= × 81 − 27 = − 27 = =− .
4 4 4 4
wwExample 3.13. Evaluate

Z2
3
2x − 6x + 2
3
x +1
!
dx.
w.E
Solution.
Z2
3
2x − 6x + 2
3
0
! Z2
3
Z2
dx = 2 x dx − 6 xdx + 3
Z2
2
1
dx
asy
x +1 x +1
0 0 0 0
!2 !2
x4 x2 2
+ 3 tan−1 x
En
=2· −6
4 0 2 0
0
1
= [24 − 0] − 3[22 − 0] + 3 tan−1 2 − tan−1 0
gin 2
= 8 − 12 + 3 tan−1 2 = 3 tan−1 2 − 4.
Example 3.14. Evaluate

Zπ/6
cos 2 x

2
ee
dx.
rin
0
g.n
Solution.
Zπ/6
0
cos2 x

2
dx =
1
2
Zπ/6
0
 π/6
Z
(1 + cos x)dx
Zπ/6


et
1  
=  dx + cos xdx
2 
0 0
1 π/6
π/6
= x dx + sin x
2 0 0
1 π π 1 "π 1# π 1
= − 0 + sin − sin 0 = + = + .
2 6 6 2 6 2 12 4

Z9 √
2x2 + x2 x − 1
Example 3.15. Evaluate dx.
x2
1
Z9 √ Z9 √
2x2 x2 x 2x2 x2 x
!
+ −1 1
Solution. dx = + − 2 dx
x2 x2 x2 x
1 1
Z9
1
= 2 + x 2 − x−2 dx
1
Z9 Z9 Z9
ww
1
=2 dx + x dx −
2 x−2 dx
1 1 1
9  x 23 9
w.E
  !9
x−1
= 2 x +  3  −

 

1
2 1
−1 1
!
2 3 1
asy = 2[9 − 1] + 9 2 − 1 +
2
3
8
9
−1
En
= 16 + × 26 −
3 9
52 8 144 + 156 − 8 292
= 16 + − = = .
Z
1 gin 3 9 9 9
ee
Example 3.16. Evaluate 2
dx
sin 2x
Z x cos2
sin x + cos2 x
Z
1
Solution.
sin2 x cos2 x
dx =
sin2 x cos2 x
sin2 x
dx
cos2 x rin
g.n
Z Z
= 2
dx + dx
Z sin x cos Z
2x sin2 x cos2 x
= sec2 xdx + cosec2 xdx
= tan x − cot x + c.
et
3.2 The Substitution Rule
R
Integrals of functions of the form f (ax + b)dx.
This type of integrals can be evaluated by making a substitution ax + b = t.
R
For example consider (2x + 3)2 dx.

Let t = 2x + 3
dt = 2dx
dt
∴ dx =
2Z
1 t3
Z Z
2 2 dt 1 1
Now, (2x + 3) dx = t · = t2 dt = · + c = · (2x + 3)3 + c.
2 2 2 3 6
Standard results.
Z
1. Evaluate (ax + b)n dx.
ww Solution. Let ax + b = t.
dt
adx = dt ⇒ dx = .
w.E Z
(ax + b)n dx =
Z
tn = ·
a
a
dt 1 tn+1
a n+1
+c=
(ax + b)n+1
a(n + 1)
+ c.
asy
In a similar way, the following results can be easily derived.
Z
En
1 log(ax + b)
2. dx = + c.
ax + b a
eax+b
gin
Z
3. eax+b dx = + c.
a
4.
Z
Z
sin(ax + b)dx = −
a
sin(ax + b)
ee
cos(ax + b)
+ c.
rin
5.
Z
cos(ax + b)dx =
a
tan(ax + b)
+ c.
g.n
6.
7.
Z
sec2 (ax + b)dx =
cosec2 (ax + b)dx = −

a
+ c.
cosec(ax + b)
a
+ c.
et
Z
sec(ax + b)
8. sec(ax + b) tan(ax + b)dx = + c.
a
Z
cos(ax + b)
9. cosec(ax + b) cot(ax + b)dx = − + c.
a
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌

Z
Example 3.17. Evaluate sin2 3xdx.
Z Z
2 1
Solution. sin 3xdx = (1 − cos 6x)dx
2
"Z Z #
1
= dx − cos 6xdx
2
" #
1 sin 6x
= x− +c
2 6
x sin 6x
= − + c.
2 12

Z
cos mx cos nxdx.
w.E
Solution. case(i) when m , n.
Z Z
1
asy
cos mx cos nxdx =
=
1
2
Z
(cos(m + n)x + cos(m − n)x) dx
Z
cos(m + n)xdx + cos(m − n)x dx
!
En 2
1 sin(m + n)x sin(m − n)x
!
gin
= + + c.
2 m+n m−n
case(ii) If m = n
Z
cos mx cos nxdx =
=
Z
Z
ee cos mx cos mxdx
cos2 mxdx rin

=
Z
1
(cos 2mx + 1)dx g.n
=
1
2
"Z
"
2
Z
cos 2mxdx + dx
1 sin 2mx
#
#
et
= +x +c
2 2m
sin 2mx x
= + + c.
4m 2
Z
Example 3.19. Evaluate cos3 2xdx.

Z Z !
3 1 3
Solution. cos 2xdx = cos 6x + cos 2x dx
4 4
Z Z cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ
1 3
= cos 6xdx + cos 2xdx 1 3
4 4 cos3 θ = cos 3θ + cos θ
1 sin 6x 3 sin 2x 4 4
= · + · +c 3 1 3
4 6 4 2 cos 2x = cos 6x + cos 2x.
sin 6x sin 2x 4 4
= +3 + c.
24 8
Z
Example 3.20. Evaluate sin4 xdx.
ww
Z Z 2
Solution. sin4 xdx = sin2 x dx
Z !2
1 − cos 2x
w.E =
=
1
4
Z
2
2
dx.
(1 + cos 2x − 2 cos 2x)dx

cos2 θ =
1 + cos 2θ
1 +
2
cos 4x
=
1
4asy
Z
1+
1 + cos 4x
2
!
− 2 cos 2x dx
cos2 2x =
2
.
En
Z
1 1 1
= (1 + + cos 4x − 2 cos 2x)dx
4 2 2
=
1
Z
gin
3 1
!
+ cos 4x − 2 cos 2x dx
ee
4 2 2
" Z Z Z #
1 3 1
=
4 2
"
dx +
2
1 3 1 sin 4x
cos 4xdx − 2 cos 2xdx
sin 2x
#
3 rin
sin 4x sin 2x
= +
4 2 2 4
−2
2
+c= x+
8 32
−
4
g.n
+ c.
et
Z
Example 3.21. Evaluate sin2 4xdx.
Z Z !
2 1 − cos 8x
Solution. sin 4xdx = dx.
2
2 sin2 x = 1 − cos 2x
Z !
1 1
= − cos 8x dx
2 2
"Z Z # 2 sin2 4x = 1 − cos 8x
1
= dx − cos 8xdx 1 − cos 8x
2 sin2 4x =
" # 2
1 sin 8x x sin 8x
= x− +c= − + c.
2 8 2 16

x2
Z
(ax + b)3
t−b
Solution. Let ax + b = t ⇒ ax = t − b ⇒ x =
a
dt
adx = dt ⇒ dx = .
a
Z t − b 2
x2
Z
a dt
dx =
(ax + b)3 t 3 a
2
Z t2 + b − 2b t
1 a2 a dt
ww =
=
a
1
Z
+
t3
1 b2 1 2b 1
· −
!
dt
w.E =
a
1
a
"Z
t a2 t3
1
t
dt + 2
b2
a
Z
a t2
t−3 dt −
2b
a
Z
t−2 dt
#
asy
=
1
a
"
b
log t + 2 ·
2
a (−2)
t −2
−
2b
a
×
t−1
(−1)
#
+c
=
1
aEn
"
b2 1 2b 1
log t − 2 · 2 +
2a t a t
#
+c
=
1
a
"
gin
log(ax + b) − 2 ·
b2 1
a (ax + b)2
+
2b 1
a (ax + b)
#
+c
1
ee
= log(ax + b) − 3 ·
a
b2 1
+
2b
2a (ax + b)2 a2 (ax + b)
1
rin
+c
g.n
R
′
3.3 Evaluation of integrals of the form f (g(x))g (x)dx.
= g(x) du = g′ (x)dx.
Method. Let u Z
Now,
Z
f (g(x))g′ (x)dx =
This can be evaluated by earlier methods.
f (u)du. et
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Z p
Example 3.23. Evaluate 2x 1 + x2 dx.
Solution. Let 1 + x2 = u.
2xdx = du.

3
√
Z Z Z
p 1 u2 2 3
∴ 2
2x 1 + x dx = udu = u 2 du = 3 + c = (1 + x2 ) 2 + c.
2
3
Z p
Example 3.24. Evaluate x2 1 − 4x3 dx.
Solution. Let u = 1 − 4x3 .
du = −4 × 3x2 dx.
du
x2 dx = −
ww ∴
Z
2
p
12
3
x 1 − 4x dx =
Z
√ −du
u
12
!
w.E
Z
1 1
=− u 2 du
12
3
1 u2
asy =−
12 32
1 2
+c
3 1 3
(1 − 4x3 ) 2 + c = − (1 − 4x2 ) 2 + c.
En=−
12 3 18
Z gin 1
Solution.
Z
x
1
−x
(1 + e ) (1 + e )
(1 +
dx =
e Z
ee
x )(1 + e−x )
dx.
1
1
(1 + e x )(1 + x )
dx
rin
=
Z
ex
e
(1 + e x )(1 + e x )
dx
g.n
ex
et
Z
= x )2
dx 1 + ex = t
Z (1 + e
dt
= e x dx = dt
t 2
t−1
Z
1 1
= t−2 dt = +c=− +c=− + c.
−1 t 1 + ex
Z
Example 3.26. Evaluate x3 cos(x4 + 2)dx.

Solution. Let x4 + 2 = t.
4x3 dx = dt
dt
x3 dx =
Z Z4
dt
∴ x3 cos(x4 + 2)dx = cos t
4
sin(x4 + 2)
Z
1 1
= cos tdt = sin t + c = + c.
4 4 4
ww
w.E
Z
√
x
1 − 4x2
dx.
asy
En
Solution. Let 1 − 4x2 = t.
−8xdx = dt gin
Z
x
xdx = −
dx =
dt
Z8
1
√ −
dt
ee
!
rin
g.n
∴ √
1 − 4x2 t 8
Z
1 1
=− t− 2 dt
8
1 t2 1
1
√
=− 1 +c=− ×2 t+c=−
8 2 8
1p
4
1 − 4x2 + c. et
x3
Z
Example 3.28. Evaluate √ dx. [A.U. Dec. 2015]
4 + x2

Solution. Let 4 + x2 = t.
2xdx = dt
dt
xdx =
2
x3 x2
Z Z
∴ √ dx = √ xdx
4 + x2 Z 4 + x2
t − 4 dt
= √
t 2
Z
1 1 1

= t 2 − 4t− 2 dt
ww 2
 3
1  t 2
=  3 − 4 1  + c
1 
t 2 
w.E
2 2 2
" 3 #
1 2 p
= 4 + x2 2 − 8 4 + x2 + c.
2 3
Example 3.29. Evaluate asy

Z p
1 + x2 x5 dx.
Solution. Let 1 + x2 = t.
En
2xdx = dt
dt gin
ee
xdx =
2
rin
Z p Z p
5
∴ 2
1 + x x dx = 1 + x2 x4 · xdx
g.n
Z p
= 1 + x2 (x2 )2 · xdx
√
et
Z
dt
= t(t − 1)2 ·
2
√ 2
Z
1
= t(t + 1 − 2t)dt
2
Z
1 5 1 3

= t 2 + t 2 − 2t 2 dt
2
Z Z Z !
1 5 1 3
= t 2 dt + t 2 dt − 2 t 2 dt
2
 7 3 5 
1  t 2 t 2 t 2 
=  7 + 3 − 2 5  + c.
2 2 2 2

" #
1 2 2 27 2 2 23 4 2 25
= (1 + x ) + (1 + x ) − (1 + x ) + c
2 7 3 5
1 7 1 3 2 5
= (1 + x2 ) 2 + (1 + x2 ) 2 − (1 + x2 ) 2 + c.
7 3 5
ex
Z
Example 3.30. Evaluate x dx.
e −1
2
x
Solution. Let e 2 = t.
dx
ww
x
e2 · = dt
2
x x
ex
Z Z
e2 e2
dx = dx
w.E
∴ x x
e2 − 1 e2 − 1
Z x
e2 x
= x · e 2 dx
Z e2 − 1
=
1+t
tasy 2dt
En
Z !
1
=2 + 1 dt
t
gin
"Z Z #
1
=2 dt + dt + c
t
x ee
= 2[log t + t] + c
x
= 2[log e 2 − 1) + e 2 − 1 ] + c.
rin
g.n
et
Z
1
Z Z 1 + tan x
1 1
Solution. dx = dx
1 + tan x sin x
1+
Z cos x Z
cos x 1 2 cos x
= dx = dx
sin x + cos x 2 sin x + cos x
Z
1 sin x + cos x + cos x − sin x
= dx
2 sin x + cos x
Z !
1 cos x − sin x
= 1+ dx
2 sin x + cos x

Z Z
1 1 cos x − sin x
= dx + dx
2 Z 2 sin x + cos x
1 1 dt
= x+ t = sin x + cos x
2 2 t
1 1 dt = (cos x − sin x)dx
= x + log(t) + c
2 2
x 1
= + log(sin x + cos x)) + c.
2 2
Z
tan x
sec x + cos x
sin x
ww
Z Z
tan x cos x
Solution. dx = dx
sec x + cos x 1
+ cos x
Z cos x
w.E =
sin x
Z 1 + cos x
−dt
2
dx
asy=
1 + t2
= − tan−1 (t) + c
t = cos x
dt = − sin xdx
En = − tan−1 (cos x) + c −dt = sin xdx

Z4 √
gin
2x + 1dx.
Solution. Let 2x + 1 = t.
0
2dx = dt ⇒ dx =
ee dt
. rin
When x = 0, t = 1.
2
g.n
When x = 4, t = 9.
∴
Z4 √
2x + 1dx =
Z9
√ dt
t
2
et
0 1
Z9
1 1
= t 2 dt
2
1
 3 9
1  t 2  1 2 3 1 1 26
=  3  = × [9 2 − 1] = [27 − 1] = × 26 = .
2 2 2 3 3 3 3
1

Z2
1
(3 − 5x)2
1
Solution. Let 3 − 5x = t.
dt
−5dx = dt ⇒ dx = − .
5
When x = 0, t = −2.
When x = 2, t = −7.
Z2 Z−7 !
1 1 dt
∴ = −
(3 − 5x)2 t2 5
ww 1
1
−2
Z−7
t−2 dt
w.E
=−
5
−2
!−7
1 t−1
asy
=−
5 −1 −2
!−7 ! " #
1 1 1 −1 1 1 −2 + 7 1 5 1
En
= = + = = · = .
5 t −2 5 7 2 5 14 5 14 14

Ze
ginlog x
x
dx.
Solution. Let t = log x.

1
dt = dx.
1
ee rin
g.n
x
When x = 1, t = log 1 = 0.
When x = e, t = log e = 1.
∴
Ze
1
log x
x
dx =
Z1
0
tdt =
t2
!1
2 0 2
1 1
= −0= .
2 et
Integrals of symmetric functions
Theorem. Suppose f is continuous on [−a, a]
Ra Ra
(i) If f is even, then f (x)dx = 2 f (x)dx.
−a 0
Ra
(ii) If f is odd, then f (x)dx = 0.
−a

Za Z0 Za
Proof. We have f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx
−a −a 0
Z−a Za
=− f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
0 0
In the first integral let us make the substitution
t = −x.
dt = −dx.
ww When x = 0, t = 0.
When x = −a, t = a.
w.E ∴
Za
−a
f (x)dx = −
Za
f (−t)(−dt) +
0
Za
f (x)dx.
0
= asy
Za
f (−t)dt +
Za
f (x)dx.
0
Za
En 0
Za
=
0
(i) If f is even, then f (−x) = f (x). ginf (−x)dx +
0
f (x)dx.
∴
Za
−a
f (x)dx =
Za
f (x)dx +
0
(ii) If f is odd then f (−x) = − f (x)
ee
Za
f (x)dx. = 2
0
Za
f (x)dx.
0
rin
∴
Za
f (x)dx =
Za
− f (x)dx +
Za
f (x)dx = 0. g.n
−a

0
Z2
(x6 + 1)dx.
0
et
−2
Solution. Let f (x) = x6 + 1.
f (−x) = (−x)6 + 1 = x6 + 1.
∴ f(x) is even.

By the properties of definite integrals

Z2 Z2
∴ f (x)dx = 2 f (x)dx
−2 0
Z2
=2 (x6 + 1)dx
0
 2
Z2 

Z
= 2  x6 dx + dx
 
 
ww
0 0
 x7 2
 !  " 7 #

2  2
= 2   + (x)0  = 2 −0+2−0
7 0 7
w.E =2
"
128
7
#
+2 =2
"
128 + 14
7
#
=
2 × 142 284
7
=
7
.

asy Z1
tan x
1 + x2 + x4
dx.
Solution. Let f (x) =

tan x
1 + x2 + x4
.
En
−1
f (−x) =
tan(−x)
1 + (−x)2 + (−x)4gin
=
− tan x
1 + x2 + x4
∴ f (x) is odd. ee
= − f (x).
By the properties of definite integrals rin

Z1
f (x)dx = 0 g.n
i.e,
Z1
−1
tan x
1 + x2 + x4
dx = 0.
et
−1
3.4 Integration of rational functions by Partial Fractions.
Techniques of resolving a given fraction into partial fractions.

p(x)
A rational function is generally of the form where p(x) and q(x) are
q(x)

algebraic expressions.
If the degree of p(x) is less than the degree of q(x) then the fraction
p(x)
is called a proper fraction.
q(x)
p(x)
If the degree of p(x) ≥ degree of q(x), then the given fraction is
q(x)
improper.
p(x)
While resolving a fraction into partial fractions, the following
q(x)
technique can be adopted.
wwCase (i) Let

p(x)
q(x)
be proper and if q(x) is expressed as linear factors.
1+x
w.E
For example, if the given fraction is , then we can express
(x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)
the fraction in the following way
1+x A B C
= + + .
p(x) asy
(x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 3) x − 1 x + 2 x − 3
Case (ii) Let

q(x)
En
be proper and q(x) contains repeated linear factors.
x2 + 2x − 3
x2 + 2x − 3 gin
Consider the following example
=
A
(x − 1)3 (2x + 3)
+
B
+
.This must be written as
C
+
D
.
Case (iii) Let

3
(x − 1) (2x + 3)
p(x)
q(x)
x
ee
− 1 (x − 1) 2 (x − 1) 3 2x +3
rin
be proper and q(x) contains nonfactorisable second degree
factors.
Consider the following example
(x −
x2
1)2 (x2
+ 3x + 2
+ 4)(x2 + 9) g.n
. This can be resolved
into partial fractions as follows.
x2 + 3x + 2
2 2 2
=
A
+
B
(x − 1) (x + 4)(x + 9) x − 1 (x − 1) 2
Cx + D Ex + F
+ 2
x +4
+ 2
x +9
. et
Methodology for improper fractions.
Case (i) If degree of p(x) = degree of q(x).
x2 + x + 1
Example 1. Consider .
(x − 1)(x − 2)
This must be resolved as
x2 + x + 1 B C
= A+ + .
(x − 1)(x − 2) x−1 x−2

"
p(x)
= A constant + the usual methods adopted for proper fractions. ]
q(x)
x3 + 2x + 4 B Cx + D
Example 2. 2
= A+ + 2 .
(x − 1)(x + 4) x − 1 x +9
Case (ii) If the degree of p(x) is one more than that of q(x), then
p(x)
= A First degree expression + usual method adopted in proper functions.
q(x)
x4 + x + 4 C Dx + E
Example 1. 2
= Ax + B + + 2 .
(x − 1)(x + 2) x−1 x +2
x3 + 2x + 3 C D
Example 2. 2
= Ax + B + + .
(x + 2) x + 2 (x + 2)2
wwCase (iii) If the degree of p(x) is 2 more than that of q(x), then
p(x)
q(x)
= A second degree expression + usual method adopted in proper functions.
w.E
Example 1.
x7 + 2x + 4
2 2
(x + 2)(x − 1) (x + 1)
= Ax2 + Bx + C +
D
+
E
+
F
x + 2 x − 1 (x − 1) 2
Gx + H
+ 2
This procedure can be extended for any improper fraction depending on the nature
x +1
.
of the fraction
p(x)
q(x)
Standard results.
.
asy
1. Evaluate
R 1
En
gin
dx.
x2
+ a2
Solution. Let x = a tan θ.
∴
Z
1
x2 + a2
dx = a sec2 θdθ.
dx =
Z
a
1 ee
2 tan2 θ + a2
· a sec2 θdθ
rin
g.n
Z
1
= · a sec2 θdθ
a2 (tan2 θ + 1)
et
Z
1 1
= 2
· sec2 dθ
a
Z sec θ
1
= dθ
a
1 1 −1 x
= θ + c = tan + c.
a a a
R 1
2. Evaluate dx.
x − a2
2
1 1 A B
Solution. Let = = +
x2 −a2 (x − a)(x + a) x − a x + a

A(x + a) + B(x − a)
=
(x − a)(x + a)
∴ 1 = A(x + a) + B(x − a).
Put x = a.
1
1 = A · 2a ⇒ A = .
2a
Put x = −a.
1
1 = B · (−2a) ⇒ B = − .
2a "
1 −1 #
ww
1 2a 2a 1 1 1
∴ 2 = + = −
x − a2 x − a x + a 2a x − a x + a
Z Z !
1 1 1 1
w.E ∴
x2 − a2
dx =
=
1
2a
1
x−a
−
2a x − a x + a
Z
dx −
Z
dx
x+a
1
dx
!
=
1
2a asy
log(x − a) − log(x + a) + c =
1
2a
log
x − a
x+a
+ c.
3. Evaluate
R 1
dx. En
a2
− x2
Solution. Let 2
1
a −x 2
=
gin
1
=
A
+
B
(a − x)(a + x) a − x a + x
=
A(a + x) + B(a − x)
(a − x)(a + x)
Put x = a.
1 = A · 2a ⇒ A = .
1
ee
∴ 1 = A(a + x) + B(a − x).
rin
Put x = −a.
2a
1 g.n
1 = B · (2a) ⇒ B = .
∴ 2
1
2a
=
1
2a
+
1
2a
=
1
"
a − x2 a − x a + x 2a a − x a + x
1
+
1
# et
Z Z !
1 1 1 1
∴ dx = + dx
a2 − x2 2a a − x a + x
Z Z !
1 1 1
= dx + dx
2a a−x a+x
" #
1 log(a − x)
= + log(a + x) + c
2a −1

1
log(a + x) − log(a − x) + c
=
2a
1 a + x
= log + c.
2a a−x
Z
1
Type 1. Evaluation of integrals of the form 2
dx
ax + bx + c
Method. Express the denominator to any one of the forms x2 − a2 , x2 + a2 or a2 − x2
and then apply the correct formula.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
ww
Z
1
dx.
Z xZ + 8x − 7
1 1
Solution. dx = dx
w.E 2
x + 8x − 7
=
Z
1
(x + 4)2 − 23
2
(x + 4) − 7 − 16
dx
asy
Z
1
= √ dx
(x + 4) − ( 23)2
2
√ 
En

1  x + 4 − 23 
= √ log  √  + c.
2 23 x + 4 + 23

Z
1
Z1 + x − xgin 2
dx.
ee
Z
1 1
Solution. 2
dx = dx
1+x−x 1 − (x2 − x)
=
Z

1
1 − (x − 21 )2 − 41
dx
rin
=
Z
1
1 − (x − 21 )2 + 14
dx g.n
=
Z
Z
5
1
4 − (x − 2 )
1
1 2
dx et
= √ dx
5 2
( 2 ) − (x − 21 )2
 √5 
1
1 
2 + x − 2 
= √ log  √  + c
2 25 2
5
− x + 1
2
√ 
1  5 + 2x − 1 
= √ log  √  + c.
5 5 − 2x + 1

Z
1
dx.
Z 2x
Z −x+5
1 1
Solution. dx = ! dx
2x2 − x + 5 x 5
2 x2 − +
2 2
Z
1 1
= 2
dx
2 1
!
5 1
x− + −
4 2 16
Z
1 1
= !2 dx
2 1 40 − 1
x− +
ww =
1
Z
4
1
!2
16
dx
w.E
2 1 39
x− +
4 16
Z
1 1
=  √ 2 dx
asy 2
x−
1
4
! 2
 39 
+ 
4

En
 
1 1  x − 1  2 4x − 1
!
−1  4 −1
= √ tan  √  + c = √ tan √ +c
2 39
gin
39 39 39
4 4
ee
Type 2. Evaluation of integrals using partial fractions.
rin
Z
x+5
x2 + x − 2
dx.
g.n
Solution. Let 2
x+5
x +x−2
=
=
(x +
x+5
2)(x − 1)
=
x
A(x − 1) + B(x + 2)
(x + 2)(x − 1)
A
+ 2
+
x
B
− 1
.
et
∴ x + 5 = A(x − 1) + B(x + 2).
Put x = 1.
6 = 3B ⇒ B = 2.
Put x = −2.
3 = −3A ⇒ A = −1.

x+5 1 2
∴ =− +
Z x2
+ x − 2 Zx + 2 x − 1 !
x+5 1 2
∴ dx = − + dx
x2 + x − 2 x+2 x−1
Z Z
1 1
=− dx + 2 dx = − log(x + 2) + 2 log(x − 1) + c.
x+2 x−1
x2 + 2x − 1
Z
2x3 + 3x2 − 2x
x2 + 2x − 1 x2 + 2x − 1 x2 + 2x − 1
Solution. = = .
ww Let
2x3 + 3x2 − 2x x(2x2 + 3x − 2) x(x + 2)(2x − 1)
x2 + 2x − 1 A
= +
B
+
C
w.E
x(x + 2)(2x − 1) x x + 2 2x − 1
A(x + 2)(2x − 1) + Bx(2x − 1) + Cx(x + 2)
=
x(x + 2)(2x − 1)
asy
∴ x2 + 2x − 1 = A(x + 2)(2x − 1) + Bx(2x − 1) + Cx(x + 2).
Put x = 0.
En
1
−2A = −1 ⇒ A = .
2
Put x = −2.
gin
B(−2)(−5) = 4 − 4 − 1 ⇒ 10B = −1 ⇒ B =
−1
10
.
Put x = .
1 5 1
1
2
C· · = +1−1⇒
2 2 4
1 1
ee
5C 1
4
= ⇒C= .
1
4
1
5
rin
∴ 3
x2 + 2x − 1
2x + 3x2 − 2x
= 2 − 10 + 5 .
x x + 2 2x − 1 g.n
2
et
Z Z Z Z
x + 2x − 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∴ dx = dx − dx + dx
2x3 + 3x2 − 2x 2 x 10 x+2 5 2x − 1
1 1 1 log(2x − 1)
= log x − log(x + 2) + · +c
2 10 5 2
1 1 1
= log x − log(x + 2) + · log(2x − 1) + c.
2 10 10
sec2 x
Z
Example 3.43. Evalutate dx. [A.U. Dec. 2015]
tan2 x + 3 tan x + 2
Solution. Let tan x = t.

sec2 xdx = dt.
sec2 x
Z Z
1
∴ 2
dx = 2
dt
tan x + 3 tan x + 2 Z t + 3t + 2
1
= dt
(t + 1)(t + 2)
Z
(t + 2) − (t + 1)
= dt
(t + 1)(t + 2)
Z !
1 1
ww =
=
Z
1
−
(t + 1) t + 2
dt −
Z
dt
1
dt + c
w.E (t + 1) t+2
= log(t + 1) − log(t + 2) + c
asy
!
t+1
= log +c
t+2
En
!
tan x + 1
= log + c.
tan x + 2
gin
3x + 1
Z
3x + 1
ee
(x − 1)2 (x + 3)
A
dx.
B C rin
g.n
Solution. Let 2
= + 2
+
(x − 1) (x + 3) x − 1 (x − 1) x+3
A(x − 1)(x + 3) + B(x + 3) + C(x − 1)2
et
=
(x − 1)2 (x + 3)
∴ 3x + 1 = A(x − 1)(x + 3) + B(x + 3) + C(x − 1)2 .
Put x = 1.
4B = 4 ⇒ B = 1.
Put x = −3.
−1
16C = −8 ⇒ C = .
2
Equating the coefficients of x2 on both sides we get,
1
A + C = 0 ⇒ A = −C = .
2

1 1
3x + 1 1
∴ = 2 + − 2
(x − 1)2 (x + 3) x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 3
Z Z Z Z
3x + 1 1 1 1 1 1
∴ dx = dx + dx − dx
(x − 1)2 (x + 3) 2 x−1 (x − 1)2 2 x+3
Z
1 1
= log(x − 1) + (x − 1)−2 dx − · log(x + 3) + c
2 2
1 (x − 1)−1
= log(x − 1) − log(x + 3) + +c
2 ! −1
1 x−1 1
= log − + c.
ww
2 x+3 x−1
w.E 2x2 − x + 4
Z
x3 + 4x
2
2x − x + 4 2x − x + 4 A Bx + C A(x2 + 4) + (Bx + C)x
2
Solution. Let 3 = = + 2 = .
x + 4x
asy
x(x2 + 4) x x +4 x(x2 + 4)
∴ 2x2 − x + 4 = A(x2 + 4) + (Bx + C)x.
Put x = 0.
4A = 4 ⇒ A = 1. En
gin
C = −1.
2x2 − x + 4 1
ee
A + B = 2 ⇒ 1 + B = 2 ⇒ B = 1.
Equating the coefficients of x on both sides we get,
rin
g.n
x−1 1 x 1
∴ 3
= + 2 = + 2 − 2 .
x + 4x x x + 4Z x x + 4 Z x + 4
2x2 − x + 4 In the second integral
Z Z
1 x 1
∴ 3
x + 4x
= dx +
x Z
= log x +
1
1 dt
t 2
2
x +Z4
−
1
dx −
1
x + 22
2
x
2
x +4
dx
dx
et
let x2 + 4 = t
2xdx = dt
= log x + log t − tan−1 +c dt
2 2 2 xdx = .
2
1 2 1 −1 x
= log x + log(x + 4) − tan + c.
2 2 2
Z
2
(1 − x)(1 + x2 )

2 A Bx + C
Solution. Let 2
= +
(1 − x)(1 + x ) 1 − x 1 + x2
A(1 + x2 ) + (Bx + C)(1 − x)
= .
(1 − x)(1 + x2 )
∴ 2 = A(1 + x2 ) + (Bx + C)(1 − x).
Put x = 1.
2A = 2 ⇒ A = 1.
A − B = 0 ⇒ A = B = 1.
ww Equating the coefficients of x on both sides we get,

B−C = 0
w.E
∴
2
B = C ⇒ C = 1.
=
1
+
x+1
=
1
+
x
+
1
∴
2
2
(1 − x)(1 + x )
dx =
asy
(1Z− x)(1 + x2 ) 1 − x Z1 + x2 1 −Zx 1 + x2 Z
1
1−x
dx +
Z x +1
2
x
dx +
1 + x2
2
1
x +1
dx In the second integral
=
En
log(1 − x)
−1
+
1 dt
t 2
+ tan−1 x + c let 1 + x2 = t
gin 1
= − log(1 − x) + log t + tan−1 x + c
2
1
2xdx = dt
dt
xdx = .
ee
= − log(1 − x) + log(1 + x2 ) + tan−1 x + c.
2
rin
2
g.n
Z
10
Example 3.47. Evaluate using partial fractions dx.
(x − 1)(x2 + 9)
Solution. Let
10
=
A
(x − 1)(x2 + 9) x − 1
+ 2
x +9
∴ 10 = A(x2 + 9) + (Bx + C)(x − 1).
=
(x − 1)(x2 + 9)
. et
[A.U. Dec. 2015]
Bx + C A(x2 + 9) + (Bx + C)(x − 1)
Put x = 1.
10A = 10 ⇒ A = 1.
A + B = 0 ⇒ B = −A = −1.
Equating the constants on both sides we get,

9A − C = 10 ⇒ C = 9A − 10 = 9 − 10 = −1.
10 1 −x − 1
∴ 2
= + 2
(x − 1)(x + 9) x − 1 x + 9
1 x 1
= − 2 − 2 .
Z Zx − 1 x + 9Z x + 9 Z
10 1 x 1
∴ 2
dx = dx − 2
dx − 2
dx
(x − 1)(x + 9) x−1 x +9 x +9
Z
1 2x 1 −1 x
= log(x − 1) − dx − tan +c
ww 2
1
x2 + 9
= log(x − 1) − log(x2 + 9) − tan−1
2
1
3
3
x
3
3
+c
w.E 1 x
p
= log(x − 1) − log( x2 + 9) − tan−1 +c
! 3 3
(x − 1) 1 x
− tan−1
asy = log √
x2 + 9 3 3
+ c.
En
4x2 − 3x + 2
Z
gin
4x2 − 4x + 3
4x2 − 3x + 2
dx.
Solution. The integrand 2

4x − 4x + 3
of the Nr and Dr same. ee
is an improper fraction with the degrees
∴By the method of partial fractions we have

rin
4x2 − 3x + 2
2
4x − 4x + 3
= A+ 2
Bx + C
4x − 4x + 3
A(4x2 − 4x + 3) + Bx + C g.n
[∵4x3 − 4x + 3 is a nonfactorizable
=
4x2 − 4x + 3
∴ 4x2 − 3x + 2 = A(4x2 − 4x + 3) + Bx + C.
Equating the coefficients of x2 .
second degree factor]
et
4A = 4 ⇒ A = 1.
Equating the coefficients of x
−4A + B = −3 ⇒ −4 + B = −3 ⇒ B = 4 − 3 = 1.
Equating the constants
3A + C = 2 ⇒ 3 + C = 2 ⇒ C = 2 − 3 = −1.

4x2 − 3x + 2 x−1
∴ 2
=1+ 2
4x − 4x + 3 4x − 4x + 3
x−1
=1+
4(x2 − x + 3/4)
x−1 x−1
=1+ =1+
1 2 3 1
4 (x − 2 ) + 4 − 4 4 (x − 21 )2 + 21
Z  
4x2 − 3x + 2
Z
 x−1 
∴ dx = 1 +  dx
4x2 − 4x + 3 4 (x − 21 )2 + 21
Z Z
1 x−1
ww = dx +
1
Z
4 (x − 12 )2 + 21
x − 12 − 21
dx
w.E = x+
= x+
4
1
Z
(x − 12 )2 + 21
x − 12
dx
dx −
1
Z
1
dx.
asy = x+
4
1
Z
1
(x − 2 )2 + 2
1 dt 1
−
1
Z
8
1
1
(x − 2 )2 + 12
dx
En
1
4 t+ 2 2 8 (x − 2 )2 + ( √1 )2
1
2
gin
In the second integral
1
!2
ee
Put x −
1
2
!
2 x − dx = dt
2
=t
rin
g.n
!
1 dt
x − dx = .
2 2
= x+
1
8
1 1 1

log(t + ) − 1 tan−1  1  + c
2 8 √
2
! √
√
2
2

 x − 1 
et
2 −1 2x − 1 √
!
1 1 2 1
= x+ log (x − ) + − tan × 2 +c
8 2 2 8 2
! !
1 2 1 1 1 −1 2x − 1
= x+ log x + − x + − √ tan √ +c
8 4 2 4 2 2
4x2 − 4x + 3
! !
1 1 2x − 1
= x+ log − √ tan−1 √ + c.
8 4 4 2 2

x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1
Z
Example 3.49. Evaluate dx. [A.U Nov 2016].
x3 − x2 − x + 1
Solution. The integrand is an improper fraction in which the degree of the Nr is
1 more than that of the Dr. Hence, by the method of partial fractions we have
x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1 x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1 x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1
= =
x3 − x2 − x + 1 x2 (x − 1) − (x − 1) (x − 1)(x2 − 1)
x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1 x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1
= = .
(x − 1)(x − 1)(x + 1) (x − 1)2 (x + 1)
x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1 C D E
Let 2
= Ax + B + + 2
+
(x − 1) (x + 1) x − 1 (x − 1) x+1
ww =
(Ax + B)(x − 1)2 (x + 1) + C(x − 1)(x + 1) + D(x + 1) + E(x − 1)2
(x − 1)2 (x + 1)
w.E
∴ x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1 = (Ax + B)(x − 1)2 (x + 1) + C(x − 1)(x + 1) + D(x + 1) + E(x − 1)2 .
Put x = 1 : 2D = 1 − 2 + 4 + 1 = 4 ⇒ D = 2.
Put x = −1 : 4E = 1 − 2 + 4 + 1 = 4 ⇒ 4E = −4 ⇒ E = −1.
asy
A = 1.
En
Put x = 0 : B − C + D + E = 1
B − C + 2 − 1 = 1.
B − C = 0. gin (1)
ee
Put x = 2 : (2A + B) · 3 + 3C + 3D + E = 16 − 8 + 8 + 1
6A + 3B + 3C + 3D + E = 17.
rin
6 + 3B + 3C + 6 − 1 = 17
3B + 3C = 17 − 11 = 6 g.n
B + C = 2.
(1) + (2) ⇒ 2B = 2
(1) ⇒ B = C = 1.
⇒ B = 1. et (2)

x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1 1 2 1
∴ 3 2
= x+1+ + 2
−
x −x −x+1 x − 1 (x − 1) x+1
Z 4
x − 2x2 + 4x + 1
Z Z Z Z Z
1 1 1
∴ 3 2
dx = xdx + dx + dx + 2 2
dx − dx
x −x −x+1 x−1 (x − 1) x+1
x2
Z
= + x + log(x − 1) + 2 (x − 1)−2 dx − log(x + 1) + c
2
x2 (x − 1)−1
= + x + log(x − 1) + 2 − log(x + 1) + c
2 −1
x2
!
x−1 2
= + x + log − + c.
2 x+1 x+1

Z
x3
(x − 1)(x − 2)
dx.
w.E
1 more than that of the Dr.
x3
(x − 1)(x − 2)
asy
∴ By the method of partial fractions we have
= Ax + B +
C
+
x−1 x−2
D
=
En
(Ax + B)(x − 1)(x − 2) + C(x − 2) + D(x − 1)
(x − 1)(x − 2)
gin
∴ x3 = (Ax + B)(x − 1)(x − 2) + C(x − 2) + D(x − 1).
Put x = 2 : D = 8.
ee
Put x = 1 : −C = 1 ⇒ C = −1.

rin
A = 1.
Put x = 0 : 2B − 2C − D = 0 g.n
2B + 2 − 8 = 0.
2B − 6 = 0
et
2B = 6 ⇒ B = 3.
x3 1 8
∴ = x+3− +
(x − 1)(x − 2) x−1 x−2
Z
x 3 Z Z Z
1
Z
1
∴ dx = xdx + 3 dx − dx + 8 dx
(x − 1)(x − 2) x−1 x−2
x2
= + 3x − log(x − 1) + 8 log(x − 2) + c.
2

x3 + x
Z
x−1
2 more than that of the Dr.
∴ By the method of partial fractions we have
x3 + x D (Ax2 + Bx + C)(x − 1) + D
= Ax2 + Bx + C + = .
x−1 x−1 x−1
∴ x3 + x = (Ax2 + Bx + C)(x − 1) + D.
Put x = 1 : D = 2.
ww Equating the coefficients of x3 on both sides we get,

A = 1.
w.E Equating the coefficients of x2 on both sides we get,

−A + B = 0.
B = A = 1.
asy
Put x = 0 : −C + D = 0
C = D = 2.
En
∴
x3 + x
x−1 gin
= x2 + x + 2 +
2
x−1
.
∴
Z 3
x +x
x−1
dx =
=
Z
x2 dx +
x3 x2
+
Z
ee Z
xdx + 2 dx + 2
Z
+ 2x + 2 log(x − 1) + c.
1
x−1
dx
rin
3 2
g.n
3.5 Integration of irrational functions et
Standard Results
Z
1
1. Evaluate √ dx.
a2 − x2
Solution. Let x = a sin θ ⇒ dx = a cos θdθ.

Z Z
1 1
∴ √ dx = p · a cos θdθ
a2 − x2 a 2 − a2 sin2 θ
Z
1
= q · a cos θdθ
2 2
a (1 − sin θ)
Z
1
= √ · a cos θdθ
a 2 cos2 θ
Z Z
1
= · a cos θdθ = dθ + c = θ + c
a cos θ
Z
1 x
√ dx = sin−1 + c.
ww a2 − x2 a
w.E2. Evaluate
Z
√ dx.
1
asy
+ x2 a2
Solution. Let x = a sin hθ
En
dx = a cos hθdθ.
Z
1 gin Z
1
∴ √
2
a +x 2
dx =
=
Z
ee
√
p
a + a2 sin h2 θ
2
1
a2 (1 + sin h2 θ)
· a cos hθ dθ
· a cos hθ dθ
rin
=
Z
√
a
1
2 cos h2 θ
· a cos hθ dθ
g.n
et
Z Z
1
= · a cos hθ dθ = dθ + c = θ + c
a cos hθ
Z
1 −1 x
p
√ dx = sin h + c = log(x + x2 + a2 ) + c.
a2 − x2 a
Z
1
3. Evaluate √ dx.
x2 − a2

Solution. Let x = a cos hθ
dx = a sin hθdθ.
Z Z
1 1
∴ √ dx = √ · a sin hθ dθ
2
x −a 2 a 2 cos h 2 θ − a2
Z
1
= p · a sin hθ dθ
a2 (cos h2 θ − 1)
Z
1
= √ · a sin hθ dθ
Z a2 sin h2 θ
1
= · a sin hθ dθ
ww =
Z
a sin hθ
dθ + c = θ + c
w.E Z
√
1
a2 − x2
dx = cos h −1 x

a
p
+ c = log(x + x2 − a2 ) + c.
4. Evaluate
Z p
asy
a2 − x2 dx.
En
Solution. Let x = a sin θ
gin
dx = a cos θdθ.
ee
Z p Z p
∴ 2 2
a − x dx = a2 − a2 sin2 θ · a cos θ dθ
=
Z q
a2 (1 − sin2 θ) · a cos θ dθ
rin
=
Z p
a2 cos2 θ · a cos θ dθ
g.n
et
Z
= a2 cos2 θ dθ
Z
1 + cos 2θ
= a2 dθ
2
a2
Z
= (1 + cos θ)dθ
2
a2
" Z Z #
= dθ + cos 2θdθ
2
a2
" #
sin 2θ
= θ+ +c
2 2

a2
" x #
−1 1
= sin + · 2 sin θ cos θ + c
2 a 2
a2 x a2 x p
= sin−1 + · · cos2 θ + c
2 a 2 a
a2 −1 x
ax p
= sin + 1 − sin2 θ + c
2 a 2
a2 ax r x2
−1 x
= sin + 1− 2 +c
2 a 2 a
a2 x ax √a2 − x2
= sin−1 + +c
2 a 2 a
ww Z p
a2 − x2 dx =
a2
2
sin−1
x x p
a
+
2
a2 − x2 + c.
w.E5. Evaluate
Z p
a2 + x2 dx.
Solution. Let x = a sin hθ
asy
dx = a cos hθdθ.
En
Z p Z p
∴ a2 + x2 dx = a2 + a2 sin h2 θ · a cos hθ dθ
gin
Z p
= a2 (1 + sin h2 θ) · a cos hθ dθ
ee
Z p
= a2 cos h2 θ · a cos hθ dθ
rin
Z
= a2 cos h2 θ dθ
g.n
Z
1 + cos h2θ
= a2 dθ
2
a2
et
Z
= (1 + cos h2θ)dθ
2
a2
" Z Z #
= dθ + cos h2θdθ
2
a2
" #
sin h2θ
= θ+ +c
2 2
a2
" #
−1 x
1
= sin h + · 2 sin hθ cos hθ + c
2 a 2
a 2 x a2 x p
= sin h−1 + · · cos h2 θ + c
2 a 2 a

a2 x ax p
= sin h−1 + 1 + sin h2 θ + c
2 a 2
a2 ax r x2
−1 x
= sin h + 1+ 2 +c
2 a 2 a
a2 x ax √a2 + x2
= sin h−1 + +c
2 a 2 a
a2 x x p
= sin h−1 + a2 + x2 + c.
2 a 2
a2
Z p p xp 2
a2 + x2 dx = log(x + x2 + a2 ) + a + x2 + c.
2 2
ww 6. Evaluate
Z p
x2 − a2 dx.
w.E Solution. Let x = a cos hθ

dx = a sin hθdθ.
∴
Z p
2
asy 2
x − a dx =
Z p
a2 cos h2 θ − a2 · a sin hθ dθ
En
Z p
= a2 (sin h2 θ − 1) · a sin hθ dθ
gin
Z p
= a2 sin h2 θ · a sin hθ dθ
ee
Z
2
=a sin h2 θ dθ
=a 2
Z
cos h2θ − 1
2
dθ
rin
=
a2
2
Z
(cos h2θ − 1)dθ
g.n
=
=
a2
2
"Z
cos h2θdθ − dθ
a2 sin h2θ
" #
−θ +c
Z #
et
2 2
a2 x
= sin hθ cos hθ − cos h−1 +c
2 a
a2 p 2
x −1 x

= sin h θ · − cos h +c
2 a a
ax p 2 a2 −1 x

= cosh θ − 1 − cosh c
2 2 a

r
ax x2 a2 −1 x

= 2
− 1 − cosh c
2 a 2 a
√
ax x2 − a2 a2 x
= − cosh−1 c
2 a 2 a
xp 2 a2 x
= x − a2 − cosh−1 c.
2 2 a
a2
Z p
xp 2 p
x2 − a2 dx = x − a2 − log(x + x2 − a2 ) + c.
2 2
Z
1
ww3.5.1 Type I. Evaluation of integrals of the form √

ax2 + bx + c
Evaluation procedure. By the method of completing the square technique,
dx
w.E √ √ √ √
express ax2 + bx + c in any one of the forms a2 − x2 , x2 − a2 or a2 + x2 and
apply the correct formula.
asy
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
En
Z
1
Example 3.52. Evaluate √ dx.
x2 + 16x + 100
Solution.
Z
√
2
1
dx = gin
Z
p
2
1
dx
ee
x + 16x + 100 (x + 8) + 100 − 64
Z
1
= dx
rin
p
(x + 8)2 + 36
Z
1
= p

(x + 8)2 + 62
p
dx
g.n
et
= log (x + 8) + (x + 8)2 + 62 + c
p
= log (x + 8) + x2 + 16x + 100 + c.
Z
1
9 + 8x − x2
Z Z
1 1
Solution. √ dx = p dx
9 + 8x − x 2 9 − (x2 − 8x)
Z
1
= p dx
9 − (x − 4)2 − 16


Z
1
= p dx
9 − (x − 4)2 + 16
Z
1
= p dx
25 − (x − 4)2
Z
1
= p dx
52 − (x − 4)2
!
−1 x − 4
= sin + c.
5
Z
1
Z
√
Z
2
9x + 24x
dx.
w.E
1 1
Solution. √ dx = q dx
9x2 + 24x 9 x2 + 24x 9
Z
1 1
=
asy
3
q
2
x + 3 8x
dx
En
Z
1 1
= q dx
3 4 2

16
x+ 3 − 9
=
1
3
Z
gin q
1
2 2 dx
1
3

ee
= log  x +
x + 43 − 34
4
3
!
+
s
x+
4
3
!2
16


rin
−  + c
9
1
= log 
3

 3x + 4

3
! r 
8 
+ x2 + x + c.
3 g.n
3.5.2 Type II. Evaluation of integrals of the form
Z
√
ℓx + m
et dx
ax2 + bx + c
d 2
Evaluation procedure. Assume express ℓx + m = A · ax + bx + c + B. Find
dx
the values of A and B and then substitute for ℓx + m in the integral which will be
evaluated easily.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌

Z
3x + 1
2x2 + x + 3
d
Solution. Let 3x + 1 = A (2x2 + x + 3) + B
dx
= A(4x + 1) + B.
3
4A = 3 ⇒ A = .
4
3
A+B=1⇒ +B=1
4
ww 3 1
B=1− = .
4 4
w.E 3
∴ 3x + 1 = (4x + 1) + .
4
1
4
∴
Z
3x + 1
dx =
3
4
√ asy
Z (4x + 1) + 1
4 dx.
En
2
2x + x + 3 2
Z 2x + x + 3 Z
3 4x + 1 1 1
= √ dx + √ dx.
=
4
3
Z 2x 2+x+3
gin−1
4
(2x2 + x + 3) 2 d(2x2 + x + 3) +
2x 2+x+3
1
Z
1
! dx
ee
s
4 4 x 3
2 x2 + +
2 2
=
1
3 (2x2 + x + 3) 2
+
1
√
Z
1
rin
dx
1
g.n
s
4 4 2 !2
2 1 3 1
x+ + −
4 2 16
3
4
p
2
= × 2 2x + x + 3 + √
1
4 2
Z
s
x+
1
4
1
!2
+
24 − 1
16
dx
et
Z
3 p 1 1
= 2x2 + x + 3 + √ dx
!2  √ 2
s
2 4 2 1  23 
 
x+ + 
4 4

 s 
!2
3p 2 1  1 1 23 
= 2x + x + 3 + √ log  x + + x+ +  + c
2 4 2 4 4 16

 r 
3p 2 1  4x + 1 2
x 3 
= 2x + x + 3 + √ log  + x + +  + c.
2 4 2 4 2 2
Z
1
Example 3.56. Evaluate √ dx by using trignometric substitution. Hence
a2 − x2
6x + 5
use it in evaluating dx. [A.U Nov 2016]
6 + x − 2x2
Solution. For the first part, refer Result(1). Let us evaluate the second part.
d
Let 6x + 5 = A (6 + x − 2x2 ) + B
dx
= A(1 − 4x) + B.
ww Equating the coefficients of x on both sides we get

6
−4A = 6 ⇒ A = − = − .
3
w.E 4 2
Equating the constants,we get
A+B=5⇒− +B=1
3
asy
2
3 13
B=5+ = .
2 2
3
En
∴ 6x + 5 = − (1 − 4x) + .
2
13
2
∴
Z
√
6x + 5
6 + x − 2x 2
dx =
Z −3
2
√
(1
6
−
+ gin
4x)
x −
+
2x
13
2
2
dx.
=−
=−
3
2
3
Z
Z
√
ee
1 − 4x
6 + x − 2x 2
−1
dx +
13
2
Z
√
(6 + x − 2x2 ) 2 d(6 + x − 2x2 ) +

1
6 + x −Z2x2
13
dx.
rin 1
dx
g.n
q
2 2 2(3 + 2x − x2 )
1
3 (6 + x − 2x2 ) 2
et
Z
13 1
=− 1
+ √ q dx
2 2 2 2 3 − (x2 − 2x )
Z
p 13 1
= −3 6 + x − 2x2 + √ q o dx
2 2
n
1 2 1
3 − (x − 4 ) − 16
Z
p 13 1
= −3 6 + x − 2x2 + √ q dx
2 2 3 − (x − 14 )2 + 16 1
Z
p
2
13 1
= −3 6 + x − 2x + √ q dx
2 2 ( 74 )2 − (x − 14 )2

 x − 14 
 
p
2
13 −1 
= −3 6 + x − 2x + √ sin  7  + c
2 2 4
!
p 13 −1 4x − 1
= −3 6 + x − 2x2 + √ sin + c.
2 2 7
Z
4x − 3
x2 + 2x − 1
d
Solution. Let 4x − 3 = A (x2 + 2x − 1) + B
dx
= A(2x + 2) + B.
ww Equating the coefficients of x on both sides we get,

2A = 4 ⇒ A = 2.
w.E Equating the constants

2A + B = −3 ⇒ 4 + B = −3 ⇒ B = −3 − 4 = −7.
∴
Z
√
4x − 3
dx =
Z
asy
∴ 4x − 3 = 2(2x + 2) − 7.
2(2x + 2) − 7
√ dx.
2
x + 2x − 1
=2 √
2
En
Z x + 2x − 1
2x + 2
dx − 7
Z
√
1
dx.
Z x
gin
2 + 2x − 1
−1
= 2 (x2 + 2x − 1) 2 d(x2 + 2x − 1) − 7
x 2 + 2x − 1
Z
1
dx
ee
p
(x + 1)2 − 1 − 1
1
(x2 + 2x − 1) 2
rin
Z
1
=2 1
−7 p dx
2 (x + 1)2 − 2
g.n
Z
p
2
1
= 4 x + 2x − 1 − 7 q √ 2 dx
2
(x + 1) − 2
p
p
2



p
r

2
= 4 x + 2x − 1 − 7 log  x + 1 + (x + 1) − 2  + c
 et

√ 2 
= 4 x2 + 2x − 1 − 7 log x + 1 + x2 + 2x − 1 + c.
Z
x
3 − 2x − x2
d
Solution. Let x = A (3 − 2x − x2 ) + B
dx
= A(−2 − 2x) + B.


1
−2A = 1 ⇒ A = − .
2
−2A + B = 0 ⇒ 1 + B = 0 ⇒ B = −1.
1
∴ x = − (−2 − 2x) − 1.
2
Z Z − 1 (−2 − 2x) − 1
x 2
∴ √ dx = √ dx.
ww 3 − 2x − x 2
=−
1
2
Z 3 − 2x − x
√
3
−2 − 2x
− 2x −
2
x 2
dx −
Z
√
3 −
1
2x − x 2
dx.
w.E =−
1
2
Z
−1
(3 − 2x − x2 ) 2 d(3 − 2x − x2 ) −
Z
p
1
3 − (x2 + 2x)
dx
asy
1 Z
2 2
1 3 − 2x − x 1
=−
2 1
− p dx
3 − (x + 1)2 − 1

En
2
Z
p
2
1
= − 3 − 2x − x − dx
3 − (x + 1)2 + 1
p
gin
= − 3 − 2x − x2 −
Z
p
1
4 − (x + 1)2
dx
p
= − 3 − 2x − x −
p
2
2
ee Z
p
1
22 − (x + 1)2
−1 x + 1
!
dx
rin
g.n
= − 3 − 2x − x − sin + c.
2
3.5.3 Type III. Evaluation of integrals of the form

Z √
ax2 + bx + c dx et
Evaluation procedure. By completing the square form, express ax2 + bx + c as
any of x2 − a2 , a2 + x2 , a2 − x2 and apply the appropriate formula.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
R √
Example 3.59. Evaluate x2 − 4x + 6 dx.

Z p Z p
Solution. x2 − 4x + 6 dx = (x − 2)2 + 6 − 4 dx
Z p
= (x − 2)2 + 2 dx
Z q √
= (x − 2)2 + ( 2)2 dx
√
!q
x−2
= (x − 2)2 + ( 2)2
2
√
( 2)2 √
q !
+ 2 2
log (x − 2) + (x − 2) + ( 2) + c
2
ww
!
x−2 p 2 p
2

= x − 4x + 6 + log (x − 2) + x − 4x + 6 + c.
2
w.E
3.5.4 Type IV.Integration by trigonometric substitution.
asy
Certain integrals can be easily evaluated by trigonometric substitution.
There are three cases.
En √
gin
(i) Any integral involving quantities of the form
the substitution x = a sin θ.
a2 − x2 can be evaluated by
ee
(ii) Integrals involving functions of the form
substitution x = a tan θ or x = a sin hθ.
√
rin
a2 + x2 can be evaluated by the
√ g.n
(iii) Integrals involving functions of the form
substitution x = a sec θ or x = a cos hθ.
✎ ☞
et
x2 − a2 can be evaluated by the
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Z √
9 − x2
√ x2 √
Solution. Since 9 − x2 is of the form a2 − x2 , we can evaluate this integral by
the substitution.

x = 3 sin θ. ⇒ dx = 3 cos θdθ.

Z √ Z p
9 − x2 9 − 9 sin2 θ
∴ dx = 3 cos θdθ
x2 9 sin2
θ
q
Z 9(1 − sin2 θ)
= 3 cos θdθ
√ 9 sin2 θ
cos2 θ
Z
= 2
cos θdθ
Z sin θ
cos θ
= cos θdθ
sin2 θ
ww =
Z
cos2 θ
2
Z sin θ
dθ
w.E =
Z
cot2 θdθ
= (cosec2 θ − 1)dθ
asy=
Z
cosec2 θdθ − dθ
Z
En
= − cot θ − θ + c = −
cos θ
−θ+c
=− gin
√
cos2 θ
− sin
sin θ
−1 x

+c
ee
sin θ 3
p
1 − sin2 θ −1 x

=−
r
sin θ
x2
− sin
3
+c
rin
=−
1−
x
9
− sin−1 x

3
+c
g.n
=−
x
s3
3 9 − x2
9
− sin−1
x
3
+c
et
1p x
=− 9 − x2 − sin−1 + c.
x 3
R 1
x2 x2 + 4 √
Solution. Since the integral involves one factor of the form x2 + 4,we can
evaluate this integral by the substitution

x = 2 tan θ ⇒ dx = 2 sec2 θdθ.

Z Z
1 1
∴ √ dx = √ · 2 sec2 θdθ
x2 x2 +4 4 tan2 θ 2
4 tan θ + 4
sec2 θ
Z
1
=
2
p dθ
tan2 θ 4 tan2 θ + 1
sec2 θ
Z
1
= √ dθ
4 tan2 θ sec2 θ
sec2 θ
Z
1
= dθ
4 tan2 θ sec θ
ww =
1
4
Z
sec θ
tan2 θ
dθ
w.E cos2 θ
Z
1 1
= · dθ
4 cos θ sin2 θ
Z
1 cos θ 1
asy
= · dθ
4 sin θ sin θ
Z
1
= cosecθ · cot θ dθ
En 4
1
= − cosecθ + c
gin
=−
4
1p
4
cosec2 θ + c
=−
=−
1
ee
1p
4r
1 + cot2 θ + c
4
1+ 2 +c
x
tan θ = , cot θ = 2/x rin
=−
4
s
1 x2 + 4
x
c −
√
x2 + 4
+ c.
2
g.n
et
+ =
4 x2 4x
R x
Example 3.62. Evaluate dx. √
+4 x2 √
Solution. Since the integrand involves one factor of the form x2 + 4, we can
evaluate this integral by the substitution
x = 2 tan θ ⇒ dx = 2 sec2 θdθ.
Z Z
x 2 tan θ
∴ √ dx = √ · 2 sec2 θdθ
x2 + 4 4 tan2 θ + 4

tan θ sec2 θ
Z
=4 p dθ
4(tan2 θ + 1)
tan θ sec2 θ
Z
=4 √ dθ
2 sec2 θ
tan θ sec2 θ
Z
=2 dθ
sec θ
Z
= 2 tan θ · sec θ dθ
= 2 sec θ + c
ww
p
= 2 sec2 θ + c
p
= 2 1 + tan2 θ + c
w.E r
=2 1+
√
x2
4
+c
asy =2
4 + x2
2
p
+ c = 4 + x2 + c.
En
Note. This, integral can be evaluated easily by the substitution 4 + x2 = t.
gin
x3 + 1
Z
1 − x2 √
make the substitution

x = sin θ [a = 1]
ee
Solution. Since the integrand contains one factor of the form a2 − x2 , let us
rin
dx = cos θdθ
g.n
x3 + 1 sin3 θ + 1
et
Z Z
√ dx = p cos θdθ
1 − x2 1 − sin2 θ
sin3 θ + 1
Z
= √ · cos θdθ
cos2 θ
sin3 θ + 1
Z
= · cos θdθ
cos θ
Z
= (sin3 θ + 1) dθ
Z Z
= sin3 θ dθ + dθ

Z !
3 1
= sin θ − sin 3θ dθ + θ
4 4
Z Z
3 1
= sin θdθ − sin 3θdθ + θ
4 4
!
3 1 − cos 3θ
= (− cos θ) − +θ+c
4 4 3
3p 2 1
=− cos θ + (4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ) + sin−1 x + c
4 12
3p 1 3 1p 2
=− 1 − sin2 θ + (cos2 θ) 2 − cos θ + sin−1 x + c
4 3 4
3p 1 1p
ww
3
=− 1 − x2 + (1 − sin2 θ) 2 − 1 − sin2 θ + sin−1 x + c
4 3 4
3p 1 3 1p
=− 1 − x2 + (1 − x2 ) 2 − 1 − x2 + sin x +c
w.E 1
4
3
p
3 4
= (1 − x2 ) 2 − 1 − x2 + sin−1 x + c.
3

Z
√
1
asy
x3 x2 − 9
dx.
En
√
Solution. Since the integrand contains one factor of the form a2 − x2 , we can
make the substitution
x = 3 sec θ [∴ a = 3]
gin
dx = 3 sec θ · tan θdθ
Z
√
1
dx =
Z ee √
1
rin
· 3 sec θ tan θdθ
g.n
x3 x2 −9 Z33 sec3 θ · 9 sec2θ−9
1 1
= p sec θ tan θdθ
9 sec3 θ · 9(sec2 θ − 1)
=
=
1
9
1
Z
3
1
√
Z sec θ × 3 tan θ
1
2
sec θ tan θdθ
sec θ tan θdθ

et
27 sec 3 θ tan θ
Z
1 1
= 2θ
dθ
27 sec
Z
1
= cos2 θdθ
27
Z
1 1 + cos 2θ
= dθ
27 2

"Z Z #
1
= dθ + cos 2θdθ
54
" #
1 sin 2θ
= θ+ +c
54 2
1 1
= θ+ sin θ cos θ + c
54 54
1 x 1 p 1
= sec−1 + sin2 θ · +c
54 3 54 sec θ
1 x 1 p 3
= sec−1 + 1 − cos2 θ · + c
54 3 54 x
r
ww 1 x 1 9 3

= sec−1 + 1− 2 · +c
54 3 54 x x
√
1 x 1 x −9 2
w.E =
Z
54
sec−1
3
+
18 x2
+ c.
asy
1
dx.
(a2 + x2 ) 2 √
Solution. Since the integrand contains a factor of the form a2 + x2 , we can make
the substitution
En
x = a tan θ
gin
⇒ dx = a sec2 θdθ.
ee
Z Z
1 1
∴ 3
dx = 3
· a sec2 θdθ
rin
(a2 + x2 ) 2 (a2 + a2 tan2 θ) 2
Z
1
= · a sec2 θdθ
g.n
3
(a2 (1 + tan2 θ)) 2
Z
1
= · a sec2 θdθ
et
3
(a2 sec2 θ) 2
Z
1
= · a sec2 θdθ
Za3 sec3 θ
1 1
= 2
dθ
a Z sec θ
1
= cos θ dθ
a2
1
= sin θ + c
a2
1 tan θ
= +c
a2 sec θ

1 x 1
= 2
· √ +c
a a sec2 θ
x 1
= 3 √ +c
a 1 + tan2 θ
x 1 x a x
= 3 q +c= 3 √ +c= √ + c.
a 2 a a2 + x2 a2 a2 + x2
1 + ax2
3.6 Integration by parts
ww Every differentiation rule has a corresponding integration rule. The rule

that correspond to the product for differentiation is called the integration by parts.
w.E From differential calculus we have

d
dx
dv
(uv) = u + v
dx
du
dx
Z
d
(uv)dx =
asy
Integrating both sides with respect to x
Z
dv
Z
du
u dx + v dx
dx
uv =
Z
En
dx
Z
udv + vdu
dx
Z Z
gin
udv = uv − vdu.
Priority rules for choosing u. ee rin

1. Inverse functions.
2. logarithmic functions. g.n

3. Polynomials in x. et
4. Any other function other than the above three.

✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Z R1
Example 3.66. Evaluate tan−1 xdx and hence deduce the value of tan−1 xdx
0
[A.U.Nov 2016]
Solution. Let u = tan−1 x Z dv = Z
dx
1
du = dx dv = dx ⇒ v = x.
1 + x2
Applying
Z integration
Z by parts
tan−1 dx = udv
ww Z
= uv − vdu
w.E
Z
−1 1
= (tan x) · x − x· dx In the second integral
Z 1 + x2
1 dt
= x · tan−1 x − put 1 + x2 = t
asy
1
t 2
= x · tan−1 x − log t + c 2xdx = dt
En
2 dt
−1 1 2 xdx = .
= x · tan x − log(1 + x ) + c. 2
2
Z1
gin
1 1 h i1
Now,
0
ee
tan−1 x dx = x tan−1 x − log(1 + x2 )
0 2
1
0
= tan−1 1 − 0 − (log 2 − log 1)

2 rin
π 1
= − log 2.
4 2 g.n
Solution. Let u = sin−1 x

Z
sin−1 xdx.
dv = dx
et
Z Z
1
du = √ dx dv = dx ⇒ v = x.
1 − x2
Applying
Z integration
Z by parts
−1
sin x dx = u dv
Z
= uv − v du

Z
1
= (x sin−1 x) − x· √ dx
Z 1 −!x2 In the second integral
1 −dt
= x · sin−1 x − √ put 1 − x2 = t
2
Z t
1 1
= x · sin−1 x + (t)− 2 + c − 2xdx = dt
2
 1 dt
−1 1  t 2  xdx = − .
= x · sin x +  1  + c 2
2 2
Z p
∴ sin−1 x dx = (x sin−1 x) + 1 − x2 + c.

Z
x sin xdx.
w.E
Solution. Let u = x
du = dx
Z
dv = sin xdx
dv =
Z
sin xdx ⇒ v = − cos x.
Applying
Z
x sin xdx =
Z
asy
integration by parts
Z
udv = uv − vdu
En Z
= −x · cos x − − cos xdx = −x cos x + sin x + c.

Z
gin
xe x dx.
Solution. Let u = x
du = dx
ee
Z
dv = e x dx
dv =
Z
e x dx ⇒ v = e x . rin
Applying
Z
x
integration
Z byZparts
g.n
et
xe dx = udv = uv − vdu
Z
= x · e − e x dx
x
= xe x − e x + c = e x (x − 1) + c.
Z
Example 3.70. Evaluate log xdx.
Solution. Let u = log x dv = dx

Z Z
1
du = dx dv = dx ⇒ v = x.
x

Applying
Z integration
Z by parts
Z
log xdx = udv = uv − vdu
Z
1
= x · log x − x · dx
x
Z
= x log x − dx + c = x log x − x + c = x(log x − 1) + c.
Z
log x 2 dx.

Example 3.71. Evaluate [A.U. Dec. 2015]
Solution. Let u = log x 2

dv = dx
ww Applying
1
du = 2(log x) dx
x
integration by parts
Z
dv =
Z
dx ⇒ v = x.
w.E Z
2
log x dx =
Z Z
udv = uv − vdu
Z
1
asy
2
= log x · x − x · 2 log x dx
x
Z
2
= x log x − log xdx
En
= x log x 2 − 2x(log x − 1) + c. [From the provious problem]


Z
gin
xn log xdx.
Solution. Let u = log x

1
du = dx
ee
Z
dv = xn dx
dv =
Z
xn dx ⇒ v =
xn+1
. rin
x
Applying integration by parts
n+1
g.n
et
Z Z Z
n
x log xdx = udv = uv − vdu
xn+1
Z n+1
x 1
= · log x − · dx
n+1 n+1 x
xn+1
Z
1
= log x − xn dx + c
n+1 n+1
xn+1 1 xn+1
= log x − · +c
n+1 n + 1 !n + 1
xn+1 1
= log x − + c.
n+1 n+1

Z
Example 3.73. Evaluate x2 e x dx.
Solution. Let u = x2 dv = e x dx
Z Z
du = 2xdx dv = e x dx ⇒ v = e x .
Applying
Z integration
Z by Zparts
2 x
x e dx = udv = uv − vdu
Z
= x2 · e x − e x · 2x dx
Z
ww = x2 e x − 2 xe x dx
= x2 e x − 2 xe x − e x + c

[Refer Example 3.79]
w.E = x2 e x − 2xe x + 2e x + c = e x (x2 − 2x + 2) + c

Z
Solution. Let u = tan−1 x asy

x2 tan−1 xdx.
dv = x2 dx
du =
1
dx EnZ
dv =
Z
x 2
dx ⇒ v =
x3
.
Z
1 + x2
Applying
Z integration
x2 tan−1 xdx =
gin
Z by parts
3
ee
udv = uv − vdu
x3
Z 3
rin
−1 x 1
= tan x − · dx
3 3 1 + x2
x3 x3
Z
1
=
3
x3
tan−1 x −
3
1
Z
1 + x2
x2
dx Let 1 + x2 = t
g.n
=
=
3
x3
3
tan−1 x −
−1
tan x −
3
1
3
Z
1 + x2
t − 1 dt
t
·
· xdx
2
2xdx = dt
dt
xdx = .
2
et
x3
Z !
−1 1 1
= tan x − 1 − dt
3 6 t
x 3 1
Z
1
Z
1
−1
= tan x − dt + dt
3 6 6 t
x3 1 1 x3 1 + x2 1
= tan−1 x − · t + · log t + c = tan−1 x − + log(1 + x2 ) + c.
3 6 6 3 6 6

+ x + x2
Z
−1 x1
Example 3.75. Evaluate etan dx. [A.U. Dec. 2015]
1 + x2
Solution. Let u = tan−1 x or x = tan udx
1
du = dx dx = sec2 u du.
1 + x2
+ x + x2 1 + x2
Z Z !
tan−1 x 1 tan−1 x x
e dx = e + dx
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
Z
−1
x
= etan x 1 + dx
ww =
Z
−1
1Z+ x2
etan x dx + etan x
−1
x
1 + x 2
dx
w.E
Z Z
= eu sec2 u du + eu tan u du
Z Z
eu sec2 u du + tan u d eu
asy

=
Z Z
= eu sec2 u du + eu tan u − eu sec2 u du
En = eu tan u + c = xetan
−1 x
+ c.
gin
3.7 Trigonometric Integrals
Theorem 1.Prove the reduction formula

ee rin
R
π
1
sinn xdx = − cos x sinn−1 x +
n π
n−1R
n
sinn−2 xdx and deduce that
π g.n
et
R2 n n − 1 R2 n−2 R2 n
sin dx = sin xdx. Find also the general value of sin xdx. Hence
0 n 0 0
π π
R2 R2
evaluate sin xdx and sin8 xdx.
7
[A.U.Dec 2016]
0 Z 0 Z
n
Proof. Write sin xdx = sinn−1 x sin xdx.
Choose u = sinn−1 x dv = sin xdx

Z Z
du = (n − 1) sinn−2 x · cos xdx dv = sin xdx ⇒ v = − cos x.

Z Z Z
sinn xdx = udv = uv − vdu
Z
= − sinn−1 x · cos x − − cos x · (n − 1) sinn−2 x cos xdx
Z
= − sinn−1 x · cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x cos2 xdx
Z
= − sinn−1 x · cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x(1 − sin2 x)dx
Z Z
= − sinn−1 x · cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 xdx − (n − 1) sinn xdx
ww
Z Z Z
sinn xdx + (n − 1) sinn xdx = − sinn−1 x cos x + (n − 1) sinn−2 xdx
Z Z
sinn xdx = − sinn−1 x cos x + (n − 1)
sinn−2 xdx
w.E Z
sinn xdx =
n
−1 n−1
n
sin x cos x +
(n − 1)
n
Z
sinn−2 xdx
π
asy
Taking limits from 0 to everywhere we get
2
Z
π
2
sinn xdx =
−1 n−1
En
sin x cos x
! π2
n−1
Z2
π
sinn−2 xdx.
gin
+
n 0 n
0 0
π π
ee
Z 2 Z2
n−1 n−1
=0+ sinn−2 xdx = sinn−2 xdx.
rin
n n
0 0
Applying the same procedure again for the integral on the RHS we get
Z2
π
n−3
Z2
π
g.n
0
∴
Z
sinn−2 xdx =
π
2
sinn xdx =
n−2
n−1 n−3
·
0
sinn−4 xdx
Z2
π
sinn−4 xdx
et
n n−2
0 0
Repeating this process n times we get

π
Z 2
n−1 n−3 n−5
sinn xdx = · · · · · · · · (ultimate integral).
n n−2 n−4
0

π π
R2 R2 π
If n is even, the ultimate integral is sinn−n xdx = dx = [x]02 = π2 .
0 0
π
2
R π
If n is odd, the ultimate integral is sin xdx = − cos x 2 = −[cos π2 − cos 0]
0
0
= −[0 − 1] = 1.
π
R2
∴ The general value of sinn xdx is
π 0 n − 1 n − 3 n − 5 2
Z2 

 · · , · · · · 1, if n is odd
sinn xdx =  n n−2 n−4 3


 n−1 n−3 n−5 1 π
if n is even.
ww
· · ,··· · ,



0 n n−2 n−4 2 2
π
w.E
Z2
7−1 7−3 7−5 6 4 2 16
Now, sin7 xdx = · · ·1= · · ·1= .
7 7−2 7−4 7 5 3 35
0
asy
π
Z2
7 5 3 1 π 35π
Also, sin8 xdx = · · · · = .
8 6 4 2 2 256
0
En
Theorem 2.Prove the reduction formula
R
n 1 n−1
cos xdx = cos x sin x +
n
n−1R
n
n−2
gin π
R2
cos xdx. Hence reduce the value of cosn dx.
Proof. Write
Z
n
cos xdx =
Z
n−1
cos x cos xdx.
Choose u = cosn−1 x
ee 0
dv = cos xdx
rin
du = (n − 1) cosn−2 x · (− sin x)dx
Z
dv =
Z
g.n
cos xdx ⇒ v = sin x.
Applying
Z
n
integration
cos xdx =
Z by parts
udv = uv − vdu
Z
Z
= cos x · sin x − sin x · (n − 1) cosn−2 x(− sin x)dx
n−1
et
Z
= cosn−1 x · sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 x sin2 xdx
Z
= cosn−1 x · sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 x(1 − cos2 x)dx
Z Z
= cosn−1 x · sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 xdx − (n − 1) cosn xdx

Z Z Z
cosn xdx + (n − 1) cosn xdx = cosn−1 x sin x + (n − 1) cosn−2 xdx
Z Z
n cosn xdx = cosn−1 x sin x + (n − 1)
cosn−2 xdx
Z Z
1 (n − 1)
cosn xdx = cosn−1 x sin x + cosn−2 xdx.
R n R n
If n is odd, the ultimate integral is cosn−(n−1) xdx = cos xdx = sin x.
R R
If n is even, the ultimate integral is cosn−n xdx = dx = x.
π
Now,applying limit from 0 to we obtain
π
2 π π
ww
Z2 ! π2 Z2 Z2
1 n − 1 n − 1
cosn xdx = · cosn−1 x sin x + cosn−2 xdx = cosn−2 xdx.
n 0 n n
0 0 0
w.E By repeatedly applying this process we obtain

π
R2
cosn xdx =
n−1 n−3 n−5
n
· ·
n−2 n−4
· · · · · · (ultimate integral)
asy
0
π π π
If n is even, the ultimate integral is x 2 = − 0 = .
π
0 2 2
En
R2 π
If n is odd, the ultimate integral is cos xdx = sin x 2 = 1.
0
 n − 1 0n − 3 n − 5
gin
π
Z2 2
· · , · · · · 1, if n is odd



cosn xdx =  n n−2 n−4 3


∴ n−1 n−3 n−5 1 π
ee

· · , · · · · , if n is even.



0 n n−2 n−4 2 2
Result. By looking at the above two theorems, we obtain the following result
If n is odd (say n = 2k + 1),then
π π
rin
g.n
R2 2k+1 R2 2.4.6....2k
sin xdx = cos2k+1 xdx = .
0 0 3.5.7...(2k + 1)
et
If n is even (say n = 2k),then
π π
R2 2k R2 1.3.5....(2k − 1) π
sin xdx = cos2k xdx = · .
0 0 2.4.6.....(2k) 2
For example.
π π π
R2 7 R2 R2
sin xdx = cos dx = cos2.3+1 xdx
7 [n = 3]
0 0 0
2.4.6 16
= .
=
π π
3.5.7
π
35
R2 8 R2 R2
sin xdx = cos8 dx = cos2.4 xdx [n = 4]
0 0 0

1.3.5.7 π 35π
= × = .
2.4.6.8 Z 2 256
Evaluation of integrals of the form sinm x · cosn xdx
Evaluation procedure
(i) If the power of cosine is odd (say n = 2k + 1)then write

Z Z
m n
sin x cos xdx = sinm x · cos2k+1 xdx
Z
= sinm x · cos2k x cos xdx
ww =
Z
sinm x · (cos2 x)k cos xdx
w.E
Z
= sinm x · (1 − sin2 x)k cos xdx
Now make the substitution t = sin x, and hence the integral is evaluated
easily.
asy
(ii) If
En
Z the power of sineZis odd (say n = 2k + 1)then write
sinm x cosn xdx = sin2k+1 x · cosn x cos xdx
=
Z
gin
sin2k x · sin x cosn xdx
Z
ee
= (1 − cos2 x)k · cosn x sin xdx.
rin
Now make the substitution t = cos x, and hence the integral is evaluated
easily.
g.n
sin2 x =
cos2 x =
(1 − cos 2x)
(1 +
2
cos 2x)
et
(iii) If the powers of both sine and cosine are even, then use the relations
2
so that the resulting integrals can be evaluated easily.
(iv) If the powers of both sine and cosine are odd, then apply either case(i) or
case(ii).
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌

Z
Example 3.76. Evaluate sin5 x cos2 xdx.
Solution. Here the power of sine is odd.
R R
∴ We write sin5 x cos2 xdx = sin4 x · sin x cos2 xdx
R
= Z (sin2 x)2 · cos2 x sin xdx
= (1 − cos2 x)2 · cos2 x sin xdx
put cos x = t
Z
= (1 − t2 )2 · t2 (−dt) − sin xdx = dt
Z
= − (1 + t4 − 2t2 )t2 dt sin xdx = −dt.
ww Z
= − (t2 + t6 − 2t4 )dt
w.E
" 3
t7 t5 cos3 x cos7 x 2
#
t
=− + −2· +c=− − + cos5 x + c.
3 7 5 3 7 5
Example 3.77. Evaluate asyZ

sin6 x cos3 xdx.
En
Solution. Here the power of cosine is odd.
gin
R R
∴ we write sin6 x cos3 xdx = sin6 x · cos2 x · cos xdx
R
= Z sin6 x(1 − sin2 x) · cos xdx
=
Z
= (t6 − t8 )dt
ee
t6 (1 − t2 )dt put sin x = t
rin
cos xdx = −dt.
t7 t9
= − +c=
7 9
sin7 x sin9 x
7
−
9
+ c.
g.n
Z
sin9 x cos5 xdx.
Solution. Here, the powers of both sine and cosine are odd.
et
R R
∴ we write sin9 x cos5 xdx = sin9 x · cos4 x · cos xdx
R
= Z sin9 x(1 − sin2 x)2 · cos xdx
= t9 (1 − t2 )2 dt put sin x = t
Z
= t9 (1 + t4 − 2t2 )dt cos xdx = dt.

Z
= (t9 + t13 − 2t11 )dt
t10 t14 t12 sin10 x sin14 x sin12 x

= + −2 +c= + − + c.
10 14 12 10 14 6
Z
Evaluation of integrals of the form tanm x · secn xdx
Evaluation procedure.
(i) If
Z the power of secant
Z is even (say n = 2k) then write the given integral as
ww m n
tan x sec xdx =
=
Z
tanm x · sec2k xdx
tanm x · sec2k−2 x sec2 xdx
w.E =
Z
tanm x · sec2(k−1) x sec2 xdx
asy
Z
= tanm x · (sec2 x)k−1 sec2 xdx put tan x = t
Z
=
Z
En
tanm x · (1 + tan2 x)k−1 sec2 xdx sec2 xdx = dt.
gin
tm (1 + t2 )k−1 dt, which can be evaluated easily.
(ii) If
Z the power of tangent
tanm x secn xdx =
Z
Z
ee
is odd (say m = 2k + 1)then write the given integral as
tan2k+1 x · secn xdx
tan2k x · tan x secn−1 x sec xdx rin

g.n
=
Z
= (tan2 x)k · secn−1 x sec x tan xdx put sec x = t
Z
= (sec2 x − 1)k secn−1 x sec x tan xdx
Z et
sec x tan xdx = dt.
= (t2 − 1)k · tn−1 dt, which can be evaluated easily.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Z
Example 3.79. Evaluate tan6 x sec4 xdx.
Solution. Here, the power of secant is even. Hence we write the given integral as

Z Z
tan6 x sec4 xdx = tan6 x sec2 x sec2 xdx
Z put tan x = t
= tan6 x(1 + tan2 x) sec2 xdx
Z sec2 xdx = dt.
= t6 (1 + t2 )dt
t7 t9
+ +c =
7 9
7
tan x tan9 x
= + + c.
7 9
Z
wwExample 3.80. Evaluate tan5 x sec7 xdx.

Solution. Here, the power of tangent is odd. Hence we write the given integral
w.E
as Z
5 7
tan x sec xdx =
Z
tan4 x sec6 x sec x tan xdx
asy put sec x = t

Z
= (sec2 x − 1)2 sec6 x sec x tan xdx
Z sec x tan xdx = dt.
En
2 2 6
= (t − 1) t dt
Z
=
=
Z
gin
(t4 + 1 − 2t2 )t6 dt
(t10 + t6 − 2t8 )dt
=
t11 t7
11 7
ee
t9
+ −2 +c=
9
sec11 x sec7 x 2
11
+
7
− sec9 x + c.
9
rin
Some standard results.
1. Find
R
tan xdxZ g.n
Solution. tan xdx =
=
Z
Z
sin x
cos
1
x
dx
(−dt)
cos x = t
− sin xdx = dt
et
t
= − log t + c sin xdx = −dt.
= − log(cos x) + c (or)
!
−1 1
= log(cos x) + c = log + c = log(sec x) + c.
cos x

R
2. Find sec xdxZ Z
sec x + tan x
Solution. sec xdx = sec x · dx
sec x + tan x
Z
1 sec x + tan x = t
= (dt)
t (sec x tan x + sec2 x)dx = dt
= log t + c
sec x(sec x + tan x)dx = dt.
= log(sec x + tan x) + c.
R
3. Find cosecxdx
Z Z
cosecx + cot x
ww Solution. cosecxdx =
=
Z
cosecx ·
1
(−dt)
cosecx + cot x
dx
cosecx + cot x = t
w.E (−cosecx cot x − cosec2 x)dx = dt

t
= − log t + c
−cosecx(cosecx + cot x)dx = dt.
asy
= − log(cosecx + cot x) + c
Z
4. Find cot x dx.
Solution.
Z
cot x dx =
Z
En
cos x
dx =
Z
d(sin x)
= log(sin x) + c.
sin x
gin
✎
sin x
Worked Examples
☞

Z Z
Z
✍
ee
tan3 xdx.
✌
rin
g.n
3
Solution. tan xdx = tan2 x tan xdx
Z
(sec2 x − 1) tan xdx
et
=
Z Z
2
= sec x tan xdx − tan xdx
Z
= tan xd(tan x) − log sec x
tan2 x
− log(sec x) + c.
=
2
Z
Example 3.82. Evaluate sec3 xdx.
R R
Solution. sec3 xdx = sec x · sec2 xdx

Let us apply integration by parts

Choose, u = sec x dv = sec2 xdx
Z Z
du = sec x tan xdx dv = sec2 xdx ⇒ v = tan x
Z Z Z
3
sec xdx = udv = uv − vdu
Z
= sec x · tan x − tan x · sec x · tan xdx
Z
= sec x tan x − sec x tan2 xdx
ww
Z
= sec x tan x − sec x(sec2 x − 1)dx
Z Z Z
w.E
3 3
sec xdx = sec x tan x − sec xdx + sec xdx
Z Z
sec3 xdx + sec3 xdx = sec x tan x + log(sec x + tan x) + c
Z
asy
2 sec3 xdx = sec x tan x + log(sec x + tan x) + c
En
Z
1
sec3 xdx = sec x tan x + log(sec x + tan x) + c.

2
3.8 Improper integrals gin

Definition of an improper integral Type-I
Rt
ee rin
(i) If
a
f (x)dx exists for every number t ≥ a, then
R∞ Rt g.n
a
f (x)dx = lim
t→∞
a
f (x)dx
provided this limit exists (as a finite number).
Rb
et
(ii) If f (x)dx exists for every number t ≤ b, then
t
Rb Rb
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx
t→−∞
−∞ t
provided this limit exists (as a finite number).
R∞ Rb
The improper integrals f (x)dx and f (x)dx are called convergent if the
a −∞

corresponding limit exists and divergent if the limit does not exist.
R∞ Ra
(iii) If both f (x)dx and f (x)dx are convergent then we define
a −∞
R∞ Ra R∞
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
−∞ −∞ a
Here a is any real number.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
R∞
wwExample 3.83. Discuss the convergence of

0
e−x dx.
w.E
Solution.
Z∞
−x
e dx = lim
t→∞
Zt
e−x dx
asy
0 0
!t
e−x
!

−t 0
1
= lim = − lim e − e = − lim t − 1 = −(−1) = 1
t→∞ −1 t→∞ t→∞ e
En
0
Z∞
∴ e−x dx is convergent.
0
gin
Example 3.84. Determine whether the integral
Solution.
Z∞
1
dx = lim
Zt
ee
1
dx
R∞ 1
1 x
2
dx is convergent or divergent.
rin
1
x2 t→∞
Zt
1
x2
g.n
= lim
t→∞
= lim
1
x−1
x−2 dx
!t
= − lim
1
!t
= − lim
1
!
− 1 = −(−1) = 1.
et
t→∞ −1 t→∞ x t→∞ t
1 1
Z∞
1
∴ dx is convergent.
x2
1
R∞ 1
Example 3.85. Determine the convergence of dx.
1 x

Z∞ Zt
1 1
Solution. dx = lim dx
x t→∞ x
1 1
= lim (log x)t1 = lim (log t − log 1) = lim log t = ∞

t→∞ t→∞ t→∞
i.e the limit does not exist, as a finite number.
R∞ 1
∴ dx is divergent.
1 x
R∞ 1
wwExample 3.86. Discuss the convergence of

Z∞
1
Zt
1
0 a2 + x2
dx.
w.E
Solution.
0
a2 + x2
dx = lim
t→∞
0
1 −1
a2 + x2
dx
x t
asy
= lim tan
t→∞ a a 0
1 −1 t
= lim tan − tan−1 0
En
t→∞ a a
1 −1
= (tan ∞ − 0)
a
=
R∞ 1
1 π
a 2
−0 =
π
2a ginwhich is a finite number.
∴ 2
0 a +x
2
dx is convergent.
ee rin
R∞ dx
Example 3.87. Determine whether the integral √ convergent or divergent
x g.n
et
1
Z∞ Zt  1 t
dx 1  x 2  √
Solution. √ = lim x− 2 dx = lim  1  = 2 lim ( t − 1) = 2 · ∞ = ∞.
x t→∞ t→∞
2 0
t→∞
1 1
Here the limit does not exist as a finite number.
R∞ 1
∴ √ dx is divergent.
1 x
R∞
Example 3.88. Discuss the convergence of the integral log xdx.
1

Z∞ Zt
Solution. log x dx = lim log xdx
t→∞
1 1
Zt
 
1
 
= lim  log x · x t0 −

x · dx [using integration by parts]
 
t→∞  x 
1
h i
= 2 lim t log t − (x)t1 = 2 lim t log t − t + 1 = ∞

t→∞ t→∞
R∞
∴ log xdx is divergent.
1
wwExample 3.89. Determine whether the integral

Z∞
log x
x
dx is convergent or
w.E
1
divergent. Evaluate if the integral is convergent. [A.U. Dec. 2015]
Z∞ Zt Zt
log x log x
Solution.
1
x
asy
dx = lim
t→∞
1
x
dx = lim
t→∞
1
log xd(log x)
En
!t
(log x)2
= lim
t→∞ 2 1
1
gin
= lim (log t)2 − (log 1)2
2 t→∞

ee
1
= lim (log t)2 = ∞, [which is not a finite number.]
2 t→∞
∴
Z∞
log x
x
dx is divergent.
rin
1
R∞ 1 g.n
Example 3.90. For what values of p is the integral
Solution.
Z∞
1
xp
dx = lim
t→∞
Zt
x−p dx
1 x
p
dx convergent?
et
1 1
!t
x−p+1
= lim
t→∞ −p + 1
1
!
1 1−p 1 1
= lim (t − 1) = · −1 .
1 − p t→∞ 1 − p t p−1
1
If p > 1, then p − 1 > 0 and hence t p−1 → ∞ as t → ∞ and hence → 0.
t p−1

R∞ 1 1 1
∴ p
dx = (0 − 1) = , which is a finite number.
1 x 1− p p−1
R∞ 1
∴ p
dx is convergent if p > 1.
1 x
If p < 1, then p − 1 < 0 or 1 − p > 0.
1
Hence p−1 = t1−p → ∞ as t → ∞.
t
R∞ 1 1
∴ p
dx = (∞ − 1) = ∞.
1 x 1 − p
R∞ 1
∴ p
dx diverges, if p < 1.
ww 1 x
Also, when p = 1,
R∞ 1
1 x
dx = ∞ [Example 3.96]
w.E ∴
R∞ 1
1 x
p
dx is divergent if p = 1.
R∞ 1
Hence,
1 x
p
asy
dx is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p ≤ 1.
Example 3.91. Discuss the convergence ofEn Z0

e x dx
R0 R0 gin −∞
Solution.
−∞
=
e x dx = lim
t→−∞
lim [e x ]0t
t→−∞
t
ee
e x dx
= lim [e0 − et ] = 1 − 0 = 1, which is a finite number

∴ The given integral is convergent.
t→−∞
rin
R0 g.n
et
1
−∞ (1 − 3x)2
Z0 Z0
1
Solution. 2
dx = lim (1 − 3x)−2 dx
(1 − 3x) t→−∞
−∞ t
#0 #0
(1 − 3x)−1
" "
1 1 1 1
= lim = lim = lim [1 − 0] = .
t→−∞ (−1)(−3) t
t→−∞ 3 1 − 3x
t 3 t→−∞ 3
R0
Example 3.93. Evaluate xe x dx.
−∞

Z0 Z0
x
Solution. xe dx = lim xd(e x )
t→−∞
−∞ t
Z0
 
 
x 0 x 
= lim  x · e t − e dx

t→−∞  
t
h i
= lim 0 − et − (e x )0t
t→−∞
h i h i
= lim −et − (1 − et ) = lim −et − 1 + et = lim (−1) = −1.
t→−∞ t→−∞ t→−∞

Z∞
1
dx.
w.E
Solution.
Z∞
1
dx =
−∞
Z0
4 + x2
1
dx +
Z∞
1
dx
−∞
4 + x2
asy
−∞
4 + x2
Z0
0
4 + x2
Zt
En
1 1
= lim 2
dx + lim dx
t→−∞ 4+x t→−∞ 4 + x2
t 0
= lim
t→−∞ 2 gin
1 −1 x
tan
!0
+ lim
2 t t→∞ 2
1 −1 x
tan
!t
2 0
=
1
2 t→−∞
1 −1

ee
lim tan−1 (0) − tan−1
t 0 1

2 t 2 t→∞
1

tan 0 − tan−1 (−∞) + tan−1 (∞) − tan−1 0

t
+ lim tan−1 − tan−1 (0)
2

t
rin0
g.n
2 2
1 π 1 π 1 π π π
= 0− − + −0 = + = .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Example 3.95. If a > 0, discuss the convergency or divergency of

Z∞ et sin xdx.
a
Z∞ Zt h it
Solution. sin xdx = lim sin xdx = lim − cos x = − lim [cos t − cos a].
t→∞ t→∞ a t→∞
a a
We know that cost is bounded and it lies between −1 and 1.
R∞
Hence the integral sin xdx oscillates finitely[It neither converges nor diverges].
a

Z0
Example 3.96. Discuss the convergence of x sin xdx.
−∞
Z0 Z0
Solution. x sin xdx = lim xd(− cos x)
t→−∞
−∞ t
Z0
 
 
0
= lim [−x cos x]t − − cos xdx
 
t→−∞  
t
= lim [0 − t cos t + (sin x)0t ]
ww
t→−∞
= lim (−t cos t + 0 − sin t)

t→−∞
w.E
R0
Since cos x and sin x oscillates between −1 and 1, x sin xdx oscillates finitely.
−∞
asy
Definition of an improper integral type II
Zb
En
(i) If f is continuous on [a, b) and is discontinuous at b, then
Zt
a
t→b
gin
f (x)dx = lim− f (x)dx
a
= lim
∈→0 ee b−∈
Z
a
if the limit exists (as a finite number).
f (x)dx
rin
(ii) If f is continuous on (a, b] and is discontinuous at a, then g.n
Zb
a
f (x)dx = lim+
t→a
Zb
f (x)dx
t
et
Zb
= lim f (x)dx
∈→0
a+∈
if the limit exists (as a finite number).
Rb
The improper integral f (x)dx is called convergent if the corresponding limit
a
exists and divergent if the limit does not exist.

Rc Rb
(iii) If f hss a discontinuity at c where a < c < b, and both f (x)dx and f (x)dx
a c
are convergent, then we define
Rb Rc Rb
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
a a c
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Z1
1
Example 3.97. Evaluate √ dx if possible.
x
ww
0
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at the lower limit 0.
Z1 Z1  1 1
1 − 12  x 2  √
w.E
∴ √ dx = lim x dx = lim  1  = 2 lim (1 − ∈) = 2.
x ∈→0 ∈→0
2 ∈
∈→0
0 0+∈
Z3
asy
Example 3.98. Determine whether the integral
0
dx
√ is convergent or
x
divergent. Evaluate if it is convergent.
En
[A.U. Dec. 2015]
∴
Z3
1
√ dx = lim
x ∈→0
Z3
1
∈→0 gin 1 3
 x 2  √ √ √
x− 2 dx = lim  1  = 2 lim ( 3 − ∈) = 2 3,
∈→0
0
ee
0+∈ 2 ∈
[which is a finite number.]

√
Hence, the given integral is convergent and its values is 2 3.
rin
Example 3.99. Find the value of the improper integral
Z5
√
1
g.n
dx if possible.
Z5 Z5 5
 (x − 2) 21 

2
√
x−2
√ √
et
1 − 21
∴ √ dx = lim (x − 2) dx = lim  1
 = 2 lim ( 3 − ∈) = 2 3.
x−2 ∈→0 ∈→0 ∈→0
2 2+∈ 2 2+∈
Z1
1
Example 3.100. Evaluate √ dx if possible.
1 − x2
0
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at the upper limit 1.

Z1 Z1−∈
1 1
∴ √ dx = lim √ dx
1− x2 ∈→0 1 − x2
0 0
= lim (sin−1 x)1−∈

0
∈→0
π
= lim sin−1 (1− ∈) − sin−1 0 = sin−1 1 − 0 = .
∈→0 2
π
Z2
Example 3.101. Discuss the convergence of sec xdx if possible.
0
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at the upper limit π2 .
ww ∴
π
Z2
sec xdx = lim
π
Z2 −∈
sec xdx
w.E 0
∈→0
0
= lim (log(sec x + tan x))02

∈→0
π
−∈
asy
π π
= lim log(sec( − ∈) + tan( − ∈)) − log(sec 0 + tan 0)
∈→0 2 2

En
π π
= log(sec( ) + tan( )) − log 1 = log ∞ = ∞.
π
2 2
gin
R2
∴ sec xdx diverges.
0
Example 3.102. Evaluate the improper integral

ee Z3
2
√
1
3−x
dx if possible.
rin [A.U.Nov 2016]

Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at the upper limit 3.
Z3 Z3−∈ g.n
et
3−∈
 (3 − x) 21 

1 − 21
∴ √ dx = lim (3 − x) dx = lim   
3−x ∈→0 ∈→0 − 12 2
2 2
p √
= lim (−2) 3 − (3− ∈) − 3 − 2
∈→0
√
= −2 lim 3 − 3+ ∈ − 1 = −2(0 − 1) = 2.
∈→0
Z1
1
dx if possible.
x3
−1
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at x = 0,which lies between

−1 and 1.
Z1 Z0 Z1
1 1 1
∴ 2
dx = 2
dx + 2
dx
x 3 x 3 x3
−1 −1 0
Z0−∈ Z1
2 2
= lim x− 3 dx + lim x− 3 dx
∈→0 ∈→0
−1 0+∈
 1 −∈  1 1
 x 3   x 3 
= lim  1  + lim  1 
∈→0 ∈→0
3 −1 1 3 ∈
ww
1
= 3 lim (− ∈) 3 + 1 + 3 lim 1 − (∈) 3 = 3 × 1 + 3 × 1 = 6.
∈→0 ∈→0
Z3
w.E
Example 3.104. Evaluate the improper integral
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at x = 1 which lies between

0
1
x−1
dx if possible.
0 and 3.
asy
∴
Z3
1
x−1
dx =
En Z1
1
x−1
dx +
Z3
1
x−1
dx
0
gin 0
Z1−∈
1
1
Z3
1
= lim
ee∈→0

0
= lim log |x − 1|
∈→0
x−1
dx + lim
∈→0
1−∈
0
1+∈
∈→0
x−1
dx

rin
+ lim log |x − 1| 31+∈

= lim log | ∈ | − log | − 1| + log 2 − log | ∈ |

∈→0

g.n
= log 0 + log 2 − log 0
= −∞ + log 2 + ∞ et
which is an indeterminate
R3 1
∴ dx diverges.
0 x−1
Z1
1
Example 3.105. Evaluate dx if possible.
x
−1
Solution. The integrand has an infinite discontinuity at x = 0 which lies between

−1 and 1.
Z1 Z0 Z1
1 1 1
∴ dx = dx + dx
x x x
−1 −1 0
Z0−∈ Z1
1 1
= lim dx + lim dx
∈→0 x ∈→0 x
−1 0+∈
h i−∈ h i1
= lim log |x| + lim log |x|
∈→0 −1 ∈→0 −∈

= lim log |− ∈ | − log | − 1| + lim log 1 − log | ∈ |
ww
∈→0 ∈→0

= lim log | ∈ | − log(∈)
∈→0
w.E
!
|∈|
= lim log = lim log 1 = 0, which is a finite number
∈→0 |∈| ∈→0
R1 1
dx converges.
asy
∴
−1 x
A comparison test for improper integrals.
En
Comparison theorem. Suppose that f and g are continuous functions with
R∞
f (x) ≥ g(x) ≥ 0 for x ≥ a.
R∞ gin
(i) If
(ii) If
a
R∞ R∞
ee
f (x)dx is convergent, then g(x)dx is convergent.
g(x)dx is divergent, then f (x)dx is divergent.

a
rin
a
✎
a
Worked Examples
✍
☞
✌
g.n
Example 3.106. Show that
Z∞
0
2
e−x dx is convergent.
et
R∞ R1 R∞
Solution. e−x2 dx = e −x2 dx +
2
e−x dx
0 0 1
R1
e −x2 dx =a definite value and hence it is convergent.
0
R∞ 2
Let us consider the integral e−x dx.
1

For all x ≥ 1,we have x2 ≥ x.

⇒ −x2 ≤ −x
2 2
⇒ e−x ≤ e−x ⇒ e−x ≥ e−x .
Z∞ Zt
−x t
Now e dx = lim e−x dx = lim −e−x 1
t→∞ t→∞
1 1
!

−t −1
1 1
= − lim e − e =− 0− = , which is finite.
t→∞ e e
R∞
∴ e−x dx converges.
ww
1
R∞ 2
By comparison theorem e−x dx converges.
0
w.E ⇒
R∞
0
e−x2 dx is convergent.
asy
Z∞
1 + e−x
Example 3.107. Prove that the integral dx is divergent.
x
En
1
1 + e−x 1 e−x 1
Solution. We have for all x ≥ 1, = + >
x x x x
We know from Example 3.101,
gin
R∞ 1
1 x
dx diverges [∴ p = 1]
ee
R∞ 1 + e−x
∴ By comparison theorem, dx is divergent.
x
rin
1
Example 3.108. Determine the convergency or divergency of the integral
g.n
Z∞
1
3
dx, using comparison test.
x +1
et
1
1 1 1 1
Solution. For all x ≥ 1, we have, < 3 ⇒ 3 > 3 .
+1 x x3x x +1
∞
R 1
We have from Example 3.101, 3
dx converges [p > 1].
1 x
R∞ 1
∴ By comparison theorem 3
dx is convergent.
1 x +1
Example 3.109. Determine the convergency or divergency of the integral

Z∞
cos2 x
dx.
x2
2

Solution. We know that for all x ≥ 2 cos2 x ≤ 1.

cos2 x 1
⇒ 2
≤ 2. [∴ x2 > 0]
x x
1 cos2 x
or 2 ≥ .
x x2
R∞ 1
By Example 3.101, 2
dx converges [p > 1].
2 x
R∞ cos2 x
∴ By comparison theorem dx also converges.
2 x2
Z∞
1
wwExample 3.110. Discuss the convergency or divergency of the integral
1 1
2
x + ex
dx.
w.E
Solution. For all x > 2, we have <
x + ex ex
= e−x .
⇒ e−x >
1
x + ex
.
Z∞
−x
Now e dx = lim
asy
Zt
t
e−x dx = lim −e−x 2
t→∞ t→∞
En
2 2
!

−t −2
1 1
= − lim e − e =− 0− 2 = 2 which is finite.
gin
t→∞ e e
R∞
∴ e−x dx is convergent.
ee
2
R∞ 1
∴ By comparison theorem, dx is convergent.
2 x + ex
rin
g.n
et

4 Multiple Integrals
ww4.1 Evaluation of double integrals
Definition. Let f (x, y) be a single
w.E
valued and bounded function of two
independent variables x and y which
Y
R
asy
is defined in a closed region R of
the xy plane.
En
Divide the region
R into rectangles by drawing lines
Ai be the ith rectangle. gin

parallel to the coordinate axes. Let
Let (xi , yi )
be any point inside the ith rectangle
and ∆Ai be its area.
ee
Let there be
O
rin
X
n rectangles A1 , A2 , . . . , An which lie

completely inside R. g.n
Let us consider the sum
n
X
et
f (x1 , y1 )∆A1 + f (x2 , y2 )∆A2 + · · · + f (xn , yn )∆An = f (xi , yi )∆Ai . (1)
i=1
As n → ∞, the number of rectangles increase indefinitely such that the largest

linear dimension of the rectangle which is the diagonal of ∆Ai tends to zero. The
limit of the sum (1) if exists is defined to be the double integral of f (x, y) over the

"
region R and it is denoted by f (x, y)dA.
R
n
X "
i.e., lim f (xi , yi )∆Ai = f (x, y)dA.
n→∞
∆Ai →0 i=1 R
If A is a typical rectangle whose dimensions parallel to the coordinate axes are dx

and dy then dA = dxdy. Then the above double integral can be written as
" " "
ww f (x, y)dA =
R
f (x, y)dxdy =
R
f (x, y)dydx.
R
w.E
In cartesian coordinates the following cases are to be taken into account while
evaluating the double integrals.
Case (i) Consider the case where

asy Y R
the limits are constants.

region R be a rectangle given by En Let the
R = {(x, y) : a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d},
gin where
a, b, c, d are constants, then, the double
integral is given by
Z Z Zb Zd

ee
Zd
 b
Z
O

rin
X
g.n
  
f (x, y)dxdy =  f (x, y)dy dx or =
 
 f (x, y)dx  dy.

R  
a c c a
et
i.e., if the limits are constants, the order of integration, is immaterial, provided
proper limits are taken.
Case (ii) Consider the case when Y

the limits of x are constants and
the limits of y are functions of x. h(x)
In this case the region R is given
by R = {(x, y) : a ≤ x ≤ b, g(x) ≤ y ≤ h(x)}, g(x)
where a, b are constants. Now the X

x=a x=b
double integral becomes

Multiple Integrals 237
" Zb  Zh(x)

 

 
f (x, y)dxdy =  f (x, y)dy dx.
 
R a g(x)
i.e., if the limits of the innermost integral are functions of x, then the order of
evaluation of the integral is, first with respect to y and finally with respect to x.
Case (iii) Consider the case when

Y
wwthe limits of y are constants and

the limits of x are functions of y=d
w.E
y.
by
Now the region R is given
R = {(x, y) : g(y) ≤ x ≤ h(y), c ≤ y ≤ d},
g(y) h(y)
where c, d are constants.

integral now takes the form asy The double y=c
"
En Zd  Zh(y)
 

gin
 
f (x, y)dxdy =  f (x, y)dx dy.
 
R c g(y)
ee
i.e., if the limits of the innermost integral are functions of y, the order of
integration is first with respect to x and finally with respect to y.
rin
"
✎
Worked Examples
✍
☞
✌
g.n
y = 2.
" Z2 Z2
R
dxdy over the region R bounded by x = 0, x = 2, y = 0,
et[Jan 1996]
Solution. dxdy = dxdy.

R 0 0
Since the limits are constants, the order of integration is immaterial.
" Z2 Z2 Z2
∴ dxdy = (x)20 dy = 2dy = 2 dy = 2[y]20 = 4.
R 0 0 0

Z1 Z2
Example 4.2. Evaluate x(x + y)dydx. [Jun 1996]
0 1
Z1 Z2 Z1 Z2
 
 
Solution. x(x + y)dydx =  x(x + y)dy dx
 
0 1 0 1
Z1  !2  Z1
y2 
!!
 2 2 2 1
=  x (y)1 + x  dx = x +x 2− dx
2 1 2
0 0
ww =
Z1
2
x +
3x
2
!
dx =
x
3
3 1
!
0
+
3 x2
2 2
!1
0
=
1 3 13
+ = .
3 4 12
w.E
0
Note. In some cases, the integrand can be expressed as the product of two
asy
quantities which are independent. In that case the evaluation of the double
integral is equivalent to the product of the integrals involving the independent
En
integrands as the following examples suggest.
Za Zb
gin dxdy
Za Zb Za
1 1
ee xy
Zb
.
rin
g.n
dx dy dx dy
Solution. = = (log x)a1 (log y)b1 = log a log b.
x y x y
1 1 1 1

Z1 Z1
√
dxdy
p
1 − x2 1 − y2
.
et
0 0
Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1
dxdy dx dy
Solution. √ p = √ p
1 − x2 1 − y2 1 − x2 1 − y2
0 0 0 0
π π π2
= (sin−1 x)10 (sin−1 y)10 = = .
22 4

Z2 Z4 Z4 Z2
y
Example 4.5. Prove that (xy + e )dydx = (xy + ey )dxdy
1 3 3 1
Z2 Z4 Z2 !y=4
y y2
Solution. (xy + e )dydx = x + ey dx
2 y=3
1 3 1
Z2
x
= (16 − 9) + (e4 − e3 ) dx
2
1
Z2 Z2
ww =
7
2
1
xdx +
1
(e4 − e3 )dx
w.E 7
2 2 1
x2
+ (e4 − e3 )(x)21
=
!2
asy
7 21
= (4 − 1) + (e4 − e3 )(2 − 1) = + e4 − e3 . (1)
4 4
Z4 Z2 Z4 ! x=2
y
(xy + e )dxdy =
En
x2
y +e x
2
y
x=1
dy
gin
3 1 3
Z4 !
3 y
= y + e dy
=
ee3
3 y2
22
+ey
!4
3
2
rin
3
= (16 − 9) + e4 − e3 =
4
21
4
+ e4 − e3 .
g.n (2)
From (1) and (2) we have the required result.

Z1 Z1+x2
√
dxdy
1 + x2 + y2
.
et
0 0
Solution. Since the limits of the innermost integral are functions of x, the order
of evaluation must be, first w.r.t. y and finally w.r.t. x.
√ √ 
Z1 Z1+x2 Z1  Z1+x2 
dxdy  dy 
2 2
= 2 2  dx
1+x +y 1 + x + y 


0 0 0 0

Z1 " # √1+x2
1 y
= √ tan−1 √ dx
1+x 2 1 + x2 0
0
Z1 Z1
1 π 1
= √ (tan−1 1)dx = √ dx
1+x 2 4 1 + x2
0 0
π p
1 π √
= log(x + 1 + x2 )0 = (log(1 + 2)).
4 4
√2 2
Za Za −y q

0 0
a2 − x2 − y2 dxdy.
w.E
of evaluation must be first w.r.t. x and finally w.r.t. y.
√
2 2
Za −y q
√
2 2
Za −y q
asy
Za Za
a2 − x2 − y2 dxdy = (a2 − y2 ) − x2 dxdy
En
0 0 0 0
Za  q  x= √a2 −y2
 x a2 − y2 x 
a2 − y2 − x2 + sin−1 p
gin
=   dy
2 2 a2 − y2 x=0
0
Za
=
π
0ee Za
a2 − y2 −1
2
sin (1)dy
rin
=
4
0
(a2 − y2 )dy
g.n
et
!a
π 2 y3
= a y−
4 3 0
π 3 a3 π 2a3 πa3
!
= a − = = .
4 3 4 3 6
√
Za Za2 +x2
dxdy
Example 4.8. Evaluate .
x2 + y2 + a2
0 0
of integration must be first w.r.t. y and finally w.r.t. x.

√ √
Za Za2 +x2 Za Za2 +x2
dxdy dy
∴ = dx.
x2 + y2 + a2 x2 + y2 + a2
0 0 x=0y=0
√
Za Za2 +x2
dy
= √ 2 dx.
x=0 y=0 x2 + a2 + y2
Za ! √a2 +x2
1 y
tan−1 √
ww
= √ dx.
x2 + a2 x2 + a2 0
x=0
Za
w.E
1
= √ (tan−1 1 − tan−1 0)dx
x2 + a2
x=0
Za Za
=
x=0
√
2
asy
x +a 2
π
4
π
dx = ·
4
1
x=0
√
1
x + a2
2
dx
En
π p a
= log x + x2 + a2
4 0
π
gin
p
= log a + 2a2 − log a
4
πh √
ee
i
= log a + 2a − log a
4
√
rin

π a 1+ 2 π √
= log = log 1 + 2 .
4 a 4
"
Example 4.9. Evaluate xydxdy over the positive quadrant of the circle
g.n
et
R
x2 + y2 = a2 . [Jan 2014, Jun 1996]
Solution. The region of integration is bounded by the coordinate axes y = 0, x = 0
and the circle x2 + y2 = a2 . Y
Since the innermost integration is w.r.t.
B(0, a)
x, divide the region into strips parallel
P Q
to the x-axis. Along a typical strip, the
q is constant but x varies

y−coordinate x=0
from 0 to a2 − y2 . Finally y varies from X
(0, 0) y=0 (a, 0)
0 to a.

√2 2 √
" Za Za −y Za " 2 # a2 −y2
x
∴ xydxdy = xydxdy = y dy
2 0
R y=0 x=0 y=0
Za #a
1 2 y2 y4 1 a4 a4 a4 a4
" " # " #
1 2 2 1
= y(a − y )dy = a − = − = 1− = .
2 2 2 4 0 2 2 4 4 2 8
y=0

x y
bounded by + = 1.
a b
xydxdy over the region in the positive quadrant
w.E
Solution. The region of integration is bounded by the coordinate axes y = 0, x = 0
x y
and the line + = 1.
a b
asy
Since the innermost integration
is w.r.t. x, divide the region into strips
Y
(0, b) B
parallel to the x-axis. Along a typical

En x=0
P
x
a +
Q
y
b =1
strip PQ, x varies from 0 to a 1 − by . y

gin

(0, 0) y=0
X
A
varies from 0 to b. a(1− y ) (a, 0)
∴
"
R
xydxdy =
Zb Z b
y=0 x=0
xydxdy
ee rin
g.n
Zb !a(1− by )
x2
= y· dy
2 0
et
y=0
Zb " #
1 y 2
= y a2 1 − − 0 dy
2 b
y=0
Zb
a2 y2 2y
!
= y 1+ 2 − dy
2 b b
y=0
Zb
a2 y3 2y2
!
= y+ 2 − dy
2 b b
y=0

#b
a2 y2 y4 2y3
"
= + −
2 2 4b2 3b 0
2
" 2 4 2b3
#
a b b
= + 2−
2 2 4b 3b
2
" 2 2 2b2
#
a b b
= + −
2 2 4 3
2
a 6b + 3b − 8b2
" 2 2
#
=
2 12
2
a b 2 a b2
2
ww =
2 12
=

24
"
xydxdy where R is the region bounded by the
w.E R
parabola y2 = x, the x−axis and the line x + y = 2 lying on the first quadrant.
asy
Solution. Solving y2 = x and x + y = 2 we get the points of intersection.
y2 + y − 2 = 0 ⇒ (y + 2)(y − 1) = 0 ⇒ y = 1, −2. When y = 1, x = 1.
En Y
the x−axis . gin

Divide the region into strips parallel to
Along a typical strip, x (0, 2)
varies from
from 0 to 1.
y2
ee
to 2−y and finally y varies
P
(1, 1)
Q
(2, 1)
rin
y2 = x
" Z1 Z2−y Z1
x2
!2−y
g.n
x=2−y
R
xydxdy =
=
y=0 x=y2
Z1
y
xydxdy =

y=0
(2 − y)2 − y4 dy =
1
y
2 y2
Z1
dy

y 4 + y2 − 4y − y4 dy
et
2 2
y=0 y=0
Z1 !1
1
3 2 5
1 y2 y4 y3 y6
= 4y + y − 4y − y dy = 4 + −4 −
2 2 2 4 3 6 0
0
! " #
1 4 1 4 1 1 24 + 3 − 16 − 2 1 9 3
= + − − = = × = .
2 2 4 3 6 2 12 2 12 8

"
Example 4.12. Evaluate xydxdy where A is the region bounded by x = 2a and
A
the curve x2 = 4ay. [Jan 2006]
Solution.
Y
Let us evaluate this double integral first
w.r.t. y and then w.r.t. x. Divide the
region into strips parallel to the y−axis.
ww PQ is one such strip.

Along this strip, y varies form 0 to
x2
x2 = 4ay Q x = 2a
w.E
and finally x varies from 0 to 2a.
4a
P
X
" asy
Z2a Z4a
x2
A
xydxdy =
En
x=0 y=0
xydydx
= x
2 0gin
x2
Z2a " 2 # 4a
y
dx
=
x=0
Z2a
x
ee
x4
32a 2
!
dx =
Z2a 5
x
32a2
dx
rin
g.n
x=0 x=0
6 2a a4
" #
1 x 1 6
= = (64a − 0) = .
et
32a2 6 0 32a2 × 6 3
"
Example 4.13. Evaluate xy(x + y)dxdy over the area between y = x2 and y = x.
R
Solution. Solving the two equations we get the points of intersection.
y = x2 , y = x.
=⇒ x2 = x =⇒ x2 − x = 0 =⇒ x(x − 1) = 0 =⇒ x = 0 & x = 1.
When x = 0, y = 0, when x = 1, y = 1.
∴ The points of intersection are (0, 0) and (1, 1).

Y
Let us evaluate this double
integral, first w.r.t. y and then w.r.t. x.
y=x (1, 1)
Divide this region into strips parallel to
Q
y = x2
the y−axis. PQ is one such strip. Along
P
this strip, y varies from x2 to x and x X
(0, 0)
varies from 0 to 1.
" Z1 Zx
(x2 y + xy2 )dydx
ww
xy(x + y)dxdy =
R x=0 y=x2
Z1
w.E
!x !x !
y3 2 y2
= x +x dx
3 x2 2 x2
x=0
=
asy
Z1
x 3
3
6 x2 2
2
4
!
(x − x ) + (x − x ) dx
En
0
Z1
x4 x6 x4 x7
!
gin
= − + − dx.
2 2 3 3
0
!1

=
x5 x7 x5 x8
− + −
10 14 15 24
"
ee 0
=
1
−
1
+
1
−
1
10 14 15 24 56
ydxdy over the region R bounded by y = x and

3
= .
rin
y = 4x − x2 .
R
g.n
Solution. The equation of the parabola is
y = −(x2 − 4x) = −((x − 2)2 − 4) = −(x − 2)2 + 4 et
⇒ y − 4 = −(x − 2)2
vertex is (2, 4) and it is open downwards.
Solving the two equations we get
x = 4x − x2 ⇒ x2 + x − 4x = 0 ⇒ x2 − 3x = 0 ⇒ x(x − 3) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, x = 3.
When x = 0, y = 0.
When x = 3, y = 12 − 9 = 3.

The points of intersection are (0, 0), (3, 3).

Y
Let us evaluate the double integral first
(2, 4)
w.r.t. y and then w.r.t. x. Divide the Q
(3, 3)
y=x y = 4x − x2
PQ is one such strip. Along this strip, y
P
varies from x to 4x − x2 . Finally x varies X
(0, 0)
from 0 to 3.
ww " Z 2
Zx=3 4x−x Z3 2 !4x−x2
y
w.E
ydxdy = ydydx = dx
2 x
R x=0 y=x x=0
Z3 Z3
1 1
asy

2 2 2
= (4x − x ) − x dx = 16x2 + x4 − 8x3 − x2 dx
2 2
x=0 0
En
!3
x3 x5 x4
35
# "
1 1 3 4
= 15 + −8 = 5×3 + −2×3
2 3 5 4 0 2 5
1 9
!
= 27 5 + − 6 =
2 5 2 5 gin
27 25 + 9 − 30
!
=
27 4 54
2 5
= .
5
4.2 Change of order of integration ee rin

g.n
Za2 y=g
Z 2 (x)
Consider the integral f (x, y)dydx.
et
x=a1 y=g1 (x)
To evaluate this integral, since the innermost integral has functions of x as

limits, first we integrate w.r.t. y and then we integrate w.r.t x. Sometimes, it is
very difficult to evaluate in this order. By changing the order of integration we
can easily evaluate. In this example the original order of integration is first w.r.t.
y and then w.r.t. x. By the change of order of integration we need to integrate
first w.r.t. x and then w.r.t. y. For this, divide the region into strips parallel to the
x-axis. Consider one such strip. The limits for x will be functions of y which are the

values of x corresponding to the curves in which the ends of the strip lies. Finally
the values of y will be constants according to the movement of this strip along the
given region. If the first integration is with respect to y then divide the region into
strips parallel to the y−axis and then find the corresponding limits for y and x and
then evaluate.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
√
ww
2
Z1 Z x
Example 4.15. Change the order of integration in f (x, y)dydx. [Jan 2014]
0 0
w.E
√
Solution. The region of integration is given by y = 0, y = 2 x, x = 0, x = 1.
i.e., y = 0, y2 = 4x, x = 0, x = 1.
asy Y
By changing
integration, the first integration is w.r.t.En
the order of
y =
4 x
(1, 2)
gin
2
x=0
x. Hence, divide the region into strips P Q
x=1
parallel to the x−axis. PQ is one such
strip. Along this strip, x varies from
to 1. Finally y varies from 0 to 2.
y2
4 ee y=0
rin
X
g.n
√
2
Z1 Z x Z2 Z1
∴ f (x, y)dydx = f (x, y)dxdy.
0 0 y=0 2
x= y4
Za Za
x
et
Example 4.16. Change the order of integration in dxdy and hence
x2 + y2
0 y
evaluate. [Jan 2014, Jun 2013, Jun 2011]
Solution. The region of integration is given by x = y, x = a, y = 0, y = a.
i.e., the region of integration is bounded by the lines x = 0, x = a, y = 0, y = x
By changing the order of integration, the first integration is w.r.t y. The double

integral takes the form

Za Za "
x x
dxdy = dydx.
x + y2
2 x2 + y2
0 y R
Divide the shaded region into strips parallel to the y-axis. PQ is one such strip.
Along this strip, y varies from 0 to x and finally x varies from 0 to a.
ww Za Za
x
Za Zx
x
y=a
(a, a)
w.E
∴
0 y
x + y2
2
dxdy =
x=0 y=0
x + y2
2
dydx
x=0
Q
x=a
y
Za
=
!x
x
asy
1 −1 y
= x tan dx
x x 0 X
x=0 (0, 0) P (a, 0)
=
Za
π
4 Enπ
dx = (x)a0 =
4
πa
4
.
x=0
gin
Z∞ Z∞
e−y
0 x
eey
dydx by changing the order of integration.
Solution. The region of integration is y = x, y = ∞, x = 0, x = ∞. rin

[May 2011, Jan 1999]
Here, the first integration is w.r.t y and then we integrate w.r.t x.

g.n
By changing the order of integration,
the innermost integration must be
Y
et
w.r.t.x.
x=0
So, we divide the region of integration
y=x
into strips parallel to the x−axis.
X
Along a typical strip, x varies from 0 to (0, 0) y=0
y and finally y varies from 0 to ∞.

Z∞  Zy −y 
 y 
Z∞ Z∞ Z∞ −y
 
e−y  e Z
e
 
dydx = dx dy =  dx dy
 
∴ 
y y  y
0 x y=0 x=0 y=0 0
Z∞ −y Z∞ !∞
e y e−y
= (x)0 dy = −y
e dy = = −[e−∞ − e0 ] = −[0 − 1] = 1
y −1 0
x=0 0
√
Z3 Z4−y
Example 4.18. Evaluate (x + y)dxdy by changing the order of integration.
ww 0 1
[Jan 2003]
w.E
p
Solution. The region of integration is bounded between x = 1, x = 4 − y and
y = 0, y = 3. i.e.,x = 1, x2 = 4 − y and y = 0, y = 3.
x = 1, x2 = −(y − 4) and y = 0, y = 3.
asy
The region is bounded between x = 1
and the parabola x2 = −(y−4) with vertex En Y
(0, 4) and y = 0 and y = 3. By changing

gin (0, 4)
ee
the order of integration the innermost y=3 (1, 3)
rin
integration is w.r.t.y. Hence, divide this
x=1 x2 = 4−y
Along a typical strip y varies from 0 to
4 − x2 and finally x varies from 1 to 2.
(0, 0)
g.n
(1, 0)
y=0
(2, 0)
X
0
√
Z3 Z4−y
(x + y)dxdy =
1
4−x2
Z2 Z
(x + y)dydx =
x=1 y=0
Z2
xy +
y2
2 0
!4−x2
dx
x=1
et
Z2
(4 − x2 )2
!
2
= x(4 − x ) + dx
2
x=1
Z2
16 + x4 − 8x2
!
3
= 4x − x + dx
2
1

!2
x2 x4 1 x5 x3
= 4 − + 8x + −4
2 4 2 5 3 1
1 1 4
= 2(4 − 1) − (16 − 1) + 8(2 − 1) + (32 − 1) − (8 − 1)
4 10 3
15 31 28 840 − 225 + 186 − 560 241
=6− +8+ − = = .
4 10 3 60 60
√
b a2 −x2
Za Za
Example 4.19. Change the order of integration in x2 dydx and hence
wwevaluate it.
0
√
0
[Jan 2012]
w.E
b a2 −x2
Solution. The region of integration is given by y = 0, y = a , x = 0, x = a.
b2
i.e., y = 0, y2 = 2 (a2 − x2 )
a
y2
b2
=
x2 y2
1 −
x2
a2 asy
+
a2 b2
= 1.
After changing the order of integration, En
the first integration is w.r.t. x and finally
gin x=0
Y
w.r.t. y. Divide the region into strips

parallel to the x− axis. PQ is one such
strip.
q Along this strip x varies from 0 to
ee P
(0, b)
y=0
rin
Q x=a
X
2
a 1 − by2 . Finally y varies from 0 to b.
√
r
g.n
et
2
b a2 −x2 a 1− y2
Za Za Zb Z b
∴ x2 dydx = x2 dxdy y = b sin θ

0 0 y=0 x=0
r dy = b cos θdθ
2
Zb 3 a
! 1− y2
x b when y = 0, b sin θ = 0
= dy
3 0
y=0 ⇒θ=0
Zb when y = b, b sin θ = b
1 a3 2
= (b − y2 )3/2 dy π
3 b3 ⇒ sin θ = 1 ∴ θ =
0 2
Zb
a3
= 3 (b2 − y2 )3/2 dy
3b
0

π
Z2
a3
= 3 (b2 − b2 sin2 θ)3/2 b cos θdθ
3b
0
π
Z2
a3
= 3 b3 (1 − sin2 θ)3/2 b cos θdθ
3b
0
π
Z2
a3 b
(cos2 θ)3/2 cos θdθ
ww
=
3
0
π
Z2
w.E =
a3 b
3
0
cos3 θ · cos θdθ
asy
π
Z2
a3 b
= cos4 θdθ
3
=
0
a3 b 3 1 π πa3 b
· · · = . En
3 4 2 2 16
gin Za
√
a+ Z a2 −y2
Example 4.20. Change the order of integration in
evaluate it.
ee 0 a−
√
a2 −y2
rin
xydxdy and then
[Jan 2000]
Solution. The region
q of integration
q is between
x = a − a2 − y2 , x = a + a2 − y2 , y = 0, y = a. g.n
i.e.,(x − a)2 = a2 − y2 , (x − a)2 = a2 − y2 , y = 0, y = a.
(x − a)2 + y2 = a2 , (x − a)2 + y2 = a2 , y = 0, y = a.
et
∴ The region of integration is the circle Y
y=a
with (a, 0) as centre and radius a and
between y = 0 and y = a.
y=0 X
When we change the order of (a, 0)
integration, the inner most integration

must be w.r.t y.

Hence, divide the region into strips parallel to y−axis. Along a typical strip, y
p
varies from 0 to a2 − (x − a)2 and finally x varies from 0 to 2a.
√2 2 √
2 2
Za a+ Z a −y Z2a aZ−(x−a)
xydxdy = xydydx
0
√ 2 2 x=0 y=0
a− a −y
√
Z2a a2 −(x−a)2
y2
!
= x dx
2 0
x=0
ww =
1
2
Z2a
2
x(a − (x − a) )dx =
1
2
2
Z2a
(a2 x − x(x2 − 2ax + a2 ))dx
w.E
0 0
Z2a  !2a !2a 
1 2 3 2 2 1  x3 x4 
= (a x − x + 2ax − a x)dx = 2a − 
2 2 3 0 4 0 
=
0
1 2a 3 16a4
"
8a − asy #
=
a4 16
" #
− 4 = a4 =
1 4 2a4
.
En
2 3 4 2 3 2 3 3
Example 4.21. Change

Za Za
y2
dydx. gin the order of integration and hence evaluate
ee
p
√ y4 − a2 x2
0 ax
√
Solution. The region of integration is given by y =
i.e., y2 = ax, y = a, x = 0 and x = a. By changing the order of integration, the first rin
ax, y = a, x = 0 and x = a.
integration is w.r.t. x.
g.n
Hence, we divide the region into strips
parallel to the x-axis. Along a typical
Y
y=a
et
y2 x=0 y=0
strip x varies from 0 to and finally y y2 = ax
a
varies from 0 to a. X
y2
Za Za Za Za
y2 y2
p dydx = p dxdy
√ y4 − a2 x2 y4 − a2 x2
0 ax y=0 x=0

y2
Za Za
1 y2
= r dxdy
a y2 2
y=0 x=0
a − x2
Za    ya2
1  2 −1  x 
= y sin  2  dy
a y
y=0 a x=0
Za
1
= y2 (sin−1 1)dy
ww
a
0
!a
π y3
=
w.E =
2a 3
π
2a 3
a3
=
πa2
6
.
0
asy
Note. While changing the order of integration, we may come across situations
where the region has to be divided into several parts and evaluation has to be
En
done accordingly. The following examples illustrate this aspect.
gin
Example 4.22. Change the order of integration and hence evaluate
Z1 Z2−y
xydxdy.
ee
Solution. The region of integration is given by x = 0, x = 2 − y,
rin
0 0
[Dec 2011]
y = 0, y = 1.
x+y=2
g.n
OACE.
The region of integration is
After changing the order of B(0, 2)
Y
x+y=2
et
integration, the first integration is w.r.t.
y and final integration is w.r.t. x. E Q C(1, 1)
y=1
Q′
Divide the region into two regions x=0 x=1
A(2, 0)
ODCE and DAC. X
O(0, 0) P D(1, 0) P′
Z1 Z2−y " " y=0
∴ xydxdy = xydydx+ xydydx.
0 0 ODCE DAC

Consider the region ODCE

Divide the region into strips parallel to the y−axis. PQ is one such strip.
Along this strip, y varies from 0 to 1 and finally x varies from 0 to 1.
" Z1 Z1
∴ xydydx = xydydx.
ODCE x=0 y=0
Z1 !1
y2
= x· dx
2 0
x=0
ww =
1
2
Z1
x(1 − 0)dx
w.E
0
Z1
1
= xdx
2
1 x2
= · asy
!1
0
En
2 2 0
1
= (1 − 0)
4
1
= .
4 gin
Consider the region DAC
ee
Divide this region into strips parallel to y−axis. P′ Q′ is one such strip.
Along this strip, y varies from 0 to 2 − x and finally x varies from 1 to 2. rin
∴
"
xydydx =
Z2 Z2−x
xydydx.
g.n
DAC
=
x=1 y=0
Z2
x·
y2
2
!2−x
0
dx.
et
x=1
Z2
1
= x(2 − x)2 dx.
2
1
Z2
1
= x(4 + x2 − 4x)dx.
2
0

Z2
1
= (4x + x3 − 4x2 )dx.
2
0
 !2 !2 !2 
1  x2 x4 x3 
= 4 · + −4· 
2 2 1 4 1 3 1
!
1 1 4
= 2[4 − 1] + [16 − 1] − (8 − 1)
2 4 3
!
1 15 28
= 6+ −
2 4 3
ww =
1 72 + 45 − 112
2 12
!
w.E Z1 Z2−y
=
1
24
(5) =
5
24
∴
asy
0 0
1
xydxdy = +
5
4 24
=
6 + 5 11
24
= .
24
En
Example 4.23. Change the order of integration in
Z1 Z2−y
xydxdy and hence
evaluate. gin 0 y
[Jan 2001]
ee
Solution. The region of integration is x = y, x = 2 − y, y = 0, y = 1.
i.e.,x = y, x + y = 2, y = 0, y = 1. Solving we get 2x = 2 ⇒ x = 1.
B is (1, 1), A is (2, 0). rin
Y g.n
The region of integration is OAB.
et
2
=
After the change of order of integration (0, 2)

y
x+
y
=
the innermost integration is w.r.t.y and

x
B(1, 1)
the next integration is w.r.t.x. x=0
Q
Q′
Divide this region into two regions OCB x=1
A(2, 0)
and CBA. X
O(0, 0) P C(1, 0) P′
Z1 Z2−y " " y=0
xydxdy = xydydx + xydydx.
0 y OCB CBA

Consider the region OCB

Divide this region into strips parallel to the y−axis.
One such strip is PQ.
Along this strip y varies from 0 to x.
Finally x varies from 0 to 1.
" Z1 Zx Z1 !x
y2
xydydx = xydydx = x dx
2 0
OCB x=0 y=0 x=0
ww =
1
2
Z1
2
x(x − 0)dx =
1
2
Z1
x3 dx
w.E =
1
2 4
0
x4
!1
0
asy
0
1
= .
8
Consider the region CBA

En
gin
Divide this region into strips parallel to the y−axis.
One such strip is P′ Q′ . Along this strip y varies from 0 to 2 − x and finally x varies
from 1 to 2.
" Z2 Z2−x
ee Z2
y2
!2−x
rin
CBA
xydydx = xydydx =
x=1 y=0
x
2 0
x=1
dx
g.n
=
1
2
Z2
x=1
Z2
x(2 − x)2 dx =
1
2

Z2
x=1
!2
x(4 + x2 − 4x)dx
!2 !2 
et
1 3 1  x2
2 x4 x3 
= (4x + x − 4x )dx = 4 + −4 
2 2 2 1 4 1 3 1
x=1
" # " #
1 1 4 1 15 28
= 2(4 − 1) + (16 − 1) − (8 − 1) = 6+ −
2 4 3 2 4 3
! !
1 72 + 45 − 112 1 5 5
= = = .
2 12 2 12 24

Z1 Z2−y
1 5 3+5 8 1
∴ xydxdy = + = = = .
8 24 24 24 3
0 y
√a √
Z 2 Za2 −x2
Example 4.24. Evaluate y2 dydx by changing the order of integration.
0 x
p a
Solution. The region of integration is bounded by y = x, y = a2 − x2 , x = 0, x = √ .
2
a
i.e.,y = x, x2 + y2 = a2 , x = 0, x = √ .
wwThe required region is OAB. Draw AC

2
B(0, a)
Y
Q′
w.E
P′
perpendicular to OB. C A √a , √a
2 2
Divide this region into two parts OAC P Q

X
asy
and CAB. After changing the order of O x= √a
2
x=0
integration, the innermost integration
must be w.r.t.x.
√a √
Z 2 Za2 −x2 " " En
∴ 2
y dydx = 2
y dxdy+
gin
y2 dxdy.
ee
0 x OAC CAB
Consider the region OAC

Divide this region into strips parallel to the x−axis. rin
Let PQ be one such strip.
a
Along this strip x varies from 0 to y and finally y varies from 0 to √ . g.n
"
y2 dxdy =
OAC
√a
Z 2 Zy
y2 dxdy =
y=0 0
√a
Z2
y
y2 (x)0 dy
2
y=0
et
√a
2 ! √a
y4 1 a4 a4
Z
2
3
= y dy = = = .
4 0 4 4 16
0
Consider the region CAB

Divide this region into strips parallel to the x−axis.

p
One such strip is P′ Q′ . Along this strip x varies from 0 to a2 − y2 and finally y
varies from √a to a.
2
√
"
2 2
Za Za −y Za √2 2
a −y
y2 dxdy = 2
y dxdy = 2
y (x)0 dy
CAB y= √a x=0 y= √a
2 2
Za q
= y2 a2 − y2 dy
√a
ww
2
" #
a 1 π
y = a sin θ, dy = a cos θdθ, when y = √ ⇒ sin θ = √ , θ =
2 2 4
w.E π

When y = a ⇒ a = a sin θ ⇒ sin θ = 1 ⇒ θ =
2
π π
Z2 Z2
=
π
4 asy
a2 sin2 θa cos θa cos θdθ = a4 sin2 θ cos2 θdθ
π
4
=
a4
Z
π
2
En 2 2
4 sin θ cos θdθ =
a4
Z
π
2
(2 sin θ cos θ)2 dθ

4
π
4
π gin 4
π
π
4
=
a4
4
 π
Z2
π
4
π
ee
(sin2 2θ)dθ =
a4
4
Z2
π
4
1 − cos 4θ
2
dθ
rin
g.n

4
Z2 Z2 
a  
=  dθ − cos 4θdθ
8  
et
π π
4 4
 !π 
a4  π2 sin 4θ 2 
= (θ) π − 
8  4 4 π
4
a4 π π 1
!
= − − (sin 2π − sin π)
8 2 4 4
a4 π πa4
= = .
8 4 32
a4 πa4 a4
∴ Value of the integral= + = [π + 2].
16 32 32

√
Z1 Z2−x2
x
Example 4.25. Evaluate p dydx by changing the order of
x2 + y2
0 x
integration.
p
Solution. The region of integration is y = x, y = 2 − x2 , x = 0, x = 1.
i.e., y = x, x2 + y2 = 2, x = 0, x = 1. Y
x
After changing the order of √
y=
B(0, 2)
P′ Q′
integration the inner most integration C A(1, 1)
wwis w.r.t.x and the next integration is P Q
y=0
X
w.r.t. y. The given region is OAB. Draw O x=1
x=0
w.E
AC perpendicular to OB.
Divide this region into two parts OAC
and CAB.
√
Z1 Z2−x2
x asy "
x
"
x
∴
0 x
p
x2 + y2
dydx =
En
OAC
p
x2 + y2
dxdy+
CAB
p
x2 + y2
dxdy

gin
ee
Let PQ be one such strip. Along this strip x varies from 0 to y and finally y varies
from 0 to 1.
rin
"
p
x
dxdy =
Z1 Zy
p
x
dxdy =
1
2
Z1 Zy
p
2x
g.n
dxdy
OAC
x2 + y2
=
1
2
y=0 x=0
Z1 Zy
x2
2
(x + y )
+ y2
2 − 21 2
y=0 x=0
d(x + y )dy =21

2
x2 + y2
Z1  2 et 1 y
 (x + y2 ) 2 
 1
2
 dy
y=0 0 y=0 0
Z1 Z1 √
2 21
= (2y ) − y dy = ( 2y − y)dy
y=0 y=0
√
√ y2 1
!1
y2 2 1 1 √
!
= 2 − = − = ( 2 − 1).
2 0 2 0 2 2 2


p
One such strip is P′ Q′ . Along this strip x varies from 0 to 2 − y2 and finally y
√
varies from 1 to 2.
√ √ √ √ 2
"
2
Z 2 Z2−y Z 2 2 2 1  2−y
x x 1  (x + y ) 
2 
p dxdy = p dxdy =  1
 dy
x2 + y2 x2 + y2 2 2
CAB y=1 x=0 y=1 0
√ √
ww
Z2 √ 2
y2
!
1
= (2 − y)dy =
2 2y −
2 1
y=1
w.E √ √
√
2−1 √ √
1
2
1
√ √
2( 2 − 1) − (2 − 1) = 2( 2 − 1) −
=
1
2
asy
Value of the integral =
√ 2
+ 2( 2 − 1) −
√ √ 2
2 − 1 + 2 2( 2 − 1) − 1
=
√
En 2 √
2−1+4−2 2−1 2− 2
√
=
gin 2
=
2
.
Za 2a−x
ee
Z
Example 4.26. Change the order of integration in the integral xydydx and
evaluate it.
rin
0
[Jan 2013]
x2
a
x2
Solution. The region of integration is given by y = , y = 2a − x, x = 0, x = a.
x2 = ay, x + y = 2a, x = 0, x = a.
a
g.n
After changing the order of
B(0, 2a)
Y et x2 = ay
integration, the first integration is w.r.t.
Q′
P′
y and the final integration is w.r.t. x. C A(a, a) 2a
y=
OAB is the required region. Divide this P Q x+
X
region into OAC and CAB. y=0 O x=a
x=0
Za 2a−x
Z " "
∴ xydydx = xydxdy+ xydxdy.
0 x2 OAC CAB
a


Divide this region into strips parallel to the x−axis. PQ is one such strip.
√
Along this strip, x varies from 0 to ay and finally y varies from 0 to a.
√
" Za Z ay
∴ xydxdy = xydxdy
OAC y=0 x=0
Za ! √ay
x2
= y dy
2 0
y=0
ww
Za
1
= y · (ay − 0)dy
2
0
w.E =
a
2
Za
2
y dy =
a y3
2 3
!a
0
=
a 3 a4
6
·a = .
6
asy
0
Divide this region into strips parallel to the x−axis. P′ Q′ is one such strip.
En
∴
"
xydxdy =
2a−y
Z2a Z
gin
xydxdy
CAB
=
Z2a ee
y=a x=0
y
x2
2
!2a−y
dy
rin
g.n
0
y=a
Z2a
1
=
=
2
1
a
Z2a
y(2a − y)2 dy
y(4a2 + y2 − 4ay)dy
et
2
a
Z2a
1
= (4a2 y + y3 − 4ay2 )dy
2
a
 !2a !2a !2a 
1  2 y2 y4 y3 
= 4a + − 4a · 
2 2 a 4 a 3 a 

!
1 2 2 2 1 4 4 4a 3 3
= 2a (4a − a ) + [16a − a ] − [8a − a ]
2 4 3
4 4
!
1 15a 28a
= 6a4 + −
2 4 3
1 72a + 45a − 112a4
4 4 a4 5a4
!
= = [72 + 45 − 112] = .
2 12 24 24
Za 2a−x
a4 5a4 4a4 + 5a4 9a4 3a4
Z
∴ xydydx = + = = = .
6 24 24 24 8
0 x2
a
wwExample 4.27. Change the order of integration in the integral

Z1 Z2−x
xydydx and
w.E
evaluate it.
Solution. In the above Example, put a = 1.
0 x2
∴
Z1 Z2−x
asy
3
xydydx = .
8
0 x2
En
4.3 Double integral in polar coordinates
gin
ee
Usually the double integral in polar coordinates (r, θ) is of the form
Zθ2 Zf2 (θ)

rin
θ=θ1 r= f1 (θ)
f (r, θ)drdθ.
g.n
Result. Reduction
π
Z2
formula
cosn θdθ =
π
Z2
sinn θdθ
et
0 0
n−1n−3 2
= · · · 1 if n is odd
n n−2 3
n−1n−3 1π
= ··· if n is even.
n n−2 22
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌

Zπ Za
Example 4.28. Evaluate rdrdθ. [Jan 2014]
0 0
Zπ Za Zπ !a Zπ
r2 a2 a2 π πa2
Solution. rdrdθ = dθ = dθ = [θ] = .
2 0 2 2 0 2
0 0 0 0
Zπ Z
sin θ
Example 4.29. Evaluate rdrdθ. [Jan 2014]

0 0
wwSolution.
Zπ Z
sin θ
rdrdθ =
Zπ 2 !sin θ
r
dθ
w.E 0 0
2 0
=
1
0
Zπ
sin2 θdθ =
11π π
= .
2
asy 0
222 8
Zπ Z
En
cos θ
Example 4.30. Evaluate rdrdθ.
Zπ Z
cos θ Zπ 2 !cos θ
0
gin 0
Solution.
0 0
rdrdθ =
r
2 0
1
0
dθ
Zπ
ee rin
=
2
0
cos2 θdθ
g.n
et
π
Z2
1 1π π
= 2 cos2 θ = = .
2 22 4
0
Z2 Zπ
Example 4.31. Evaluate r sin2 θdrdθ. [Jan 2013]
0 0
Z2 Zπ
 

r  sin2 θdθ dr

Solution. I =

 
0 0

 π 
Z2  Z2 
 2 
= r 2 sin θdθ dr
 
0 0
Z2 !2
1 π π r2 π
=2 r· · dr = · = · 4 = 4.
2 2 2 2 0 4
0
π
Z2 2Zcos θ
Example 4.32. Evaluate r2 drdθ.
−π 0
ww
2
π π π
Z2 !2 cos θ Z2 Z2
r3 1 8 16 2 32
w.E
Solution. I =
−π
2
3 0
dθ =
3
−π
2
8 cos3 θdθ = 2
3
0
cos3 θdθ =
3 3
= .
9

Z2 aZcos θ p
asy
r a2 − r2 drdθ.
π
En
0 0
gin
π π
Z2 aZcos θ p Z2 aZcos θ
−1 1
Solution. 2 2
r a − r drdθ = (a2 − r2 ) 2 (−2rdr)dθ
2
0 0
ee =
−1
2
Z  2
0
π
2
0
3 a cos θ
 (a − r2 ) 2 
 3
2
 dθ
0 rin
g.n
0
π
Z 2
−1 2 2 2 2 3
2 3

(a − a cos θ) − (a ) dθ
et
= 2 2
2 3
0
π
Z 2
−1
= (a3 sin3 θ − a3 )dθ
3
0
 π π 
 Z2 Z2 
−1  3
sin3 θdθ − a3 dθ

= a
3  
0 0
−a3 2 −a3 2 π
! !
π
= 1− = −
3 3 2 3 3 2

a3 π 2 a3 3π − 4 a3
! !
= − = = (3π − 4).
3 2 3 3 6 18
"
Example 4.34. Evaluate r3 drdθ where A is the area between the circles
A
r = 2 sin θ and r = 4 sin θ. [Jan 2006]
Solution. The region of integration is the shaded portion.
wwThe first integration is w.r.t. r.

Consider the radius vector PQ. In the Q
w.E
region r varies from 2 sin θ to 4 sin θ. θ x = 4 sin θ
P
varies from 0 to π. 4 x = 2 sin θ
2
"
asy
Zπ 4Zsin θ Zπ !4 sin θ θ
3 3 r4 r
r drdθ = r drdθ = dθ O
4 2 sin θ
En
A θ=0 r=2 sin θ θ=0
Zπ
1
= (44 sin4 θ − 24 sin4 θ)dθ
4
θ=0
Zπ gin
=
1
1
4
θ=0
Zπ
4
ee
(256 sin4 θ − 16 sin4 θ)dθ
Zπ
rin
sin4 θdθ
=
4
θ=0
240 sin θdθ = 60
π
θ=0
g.n
= 60 × 2
3 1 π 45π
Z
θ=0
2
sin4 θdθ
et
= 120 = .
422 2
"
Example 4.35. Evaluate r3 drdθ over the area bounded between the circles
R
r = 2 cos θ and r = 4 cos θ.
Solution.

θ
We first integrate w.r.t. r. Consider the π
θ= 2 P
radial strip OP. Along the strip r varies
−π
from 2 cos θ to 4 cos θ. θ varies from to
2
π r
. O
2
π π
" Z2 4Zcos θ Z2 4 !4 cos θ
3 3 r
r drdθ = r drdθ = dθ
4 2 cos θ θ = − π2
ww
R −π 2 cos θ −π
2 2
π π
Z2 Z2
1 1
= (44 cos4 θ − 24 cos4 θ)dθ = (256 cos4 θ − 16 cos4 θ)dθ
w.E 4
−π
2
π
2 Z2
π
4
−π
2
asy
Z
1 3 1 π 45π
= 240 cos4 θdθ = 60(2) cos4 θdθ = 120 = .
4 422 2
−π 0
2
4.4 Change of Variables in double integralEn

gin
ee
The evaluation of the double integral can be made easy in several
occasions by changing the variables.
Case"(i) Change of variables from (x, y) to u and v.
rin
Let
R
f (x, y)dxdy be the given double integral.
g.n
Let x = g(u, v) and y = h(u, v). By this transformation the elementary area dxdy is
transformed to dxdy = |J|dudv where J =
transformation.
" "
∂(x, y)
∂(u, v)
is the Jacobian of the et
f (x, y)dxdy = F(u, v)|J|dudv.
R R
Case (ii) Change of variables from Cartesian to polar coordinates.

Let x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ.
∂(x, y)
Then dxdy = |J|drdθ, where J = .
∂(u, v)


∂x ∂x cos θ −r sin θ
∂r ∂θ = r cos2 θ + r sin2 θ = r.
Now, J = ∂y ∂y
=
sin θ r cos θ
∂r ∂θ
∴ dxdy = rdrdθ. " "
f (x, y)dxdy = F(r, θ)rdrdθ.
R R
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Example
√
4.36. By changing into polar coordinates, evaluate the integral
Z 2
Z2a 2ax−x
ww 0 0
(x2 + y2 )dydx. [Jan 1999]
w.E
p
Solution. The limits for y are y = 0, y = 2ax − x2 ⇒ y2 = 2ax − x2
x2 + y2 − 2ax = 0 ⇒ (x − a)2 − a2 + y2 = 0 ⇒ (x − a)2 + y2 = a2 .
asy
The limits for x are x = 0, 2a.
En
The region of integration is the upper
semi circle, with centre (a, 0) and radius gin Y
a. In polar coordinates
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, dxdy = rdrdθ.
ee x= 0
r = 2a cos θ
rin
x = 2a
g.n
2 2 2
x + y − 2ax = 0 ⇒ r − 2ar cos θ = 0
O (a, 0) y=0
X
⇒ r(r − 2a cos θ) = 0 ⇒ r = 0, r = 2a cos θ.
The limits for r are r = 0, 2a cos θ.

π
θ varies from 0 to .
2
et
π π
Z2 2aZcos θ Z2 4 !2a cos θ
2 r
∴I= r rdrdθ = dθ
4 0
θ=0 0 0
π
2
3 1 π 3πa4
Z
1
= 24 a4 cos4 θdθ = 4a4 = .
4 422 4
0

√
Z2 Z2x−x2
Example 4.37. Transform the integral (x2 + y2 )dydx into polar coordinates
0 0
and hence evaluate it. [May 2011]
Solution. In the previous problem, put a = 1.
√
Z2 Z2x−x2
x
Example 4.38. Evaluate p dydx by changing into polar
x2 + y2
0 0
wwcoordinates.
Solution. Let I =
Z2
√
Z2x−x2
x
dydx.
[Jan 2001]
w.E
p
x2 + y2
0 0 p
The limits for y are y = 0, y = 2x − x2 ⇒ y2 = 2x − x2 . x varies from 0 to 2.
asy
x2 + y2 − 2x = 0 ⇒ (x − 1)2 − 1 + y2 = 0
⇒ (x − 1)2 + y2 = 1.
En
gin
It is a circle with centre (1, 0) and radius Y
=
2
+y
1) 2
1
= 1. The region of integration is the
ee os
θ
−
2c
(x
r=
upper semi circle. To change into polar

coordinates we have x= 0
rin x=2
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and dxdy = rdrdθ.

O (1, 0) g.n
(2, 0)
X
2
Now, x + y − 2x = 02
y=0
et
r2 − 2r cos θ = 0 ⇒ r(r − 2 cos θ) = 0
r = 0, r = 2 cos θ.
∴ Limits for r are r = 0, 2 cos θ.

π
2
π π
Z2 2Zcos θ Z2 !2 cos θ
r cos θ r2
I= √ rdrdθ = cos θ dθ
r2 2 0
0 0 0
π π
Z 2 Z2
1
= cos θ4 cos2 θdθ = 2 cos3 θdθ
2
0 0
2 4
ww = 2 .1 = .
3 3
Za Za
x2
w.E
0 y
p
x2 + y2
Solution. The limits for x are x = y, x = a. Limits for y are y = 0, y = a.
dxdy by changing to polar coordinates.
asy
The shaded portion is the region of integration.
Changing into polar coordinates we have x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, dxdy = rdrdθ.
When x = a, r cos θ = a ⇒ r =
a
cos θ
.
En
∴ r varies from 0 to
π
a
cos θ
gin
I=
π a
Z4 Zcos θ 2 2
r cos θ
r
4
rdrdθ =
π
Z4
2
cos θ
! a
r3 cos θ
3 0
dθ
ee
Y
rin
g.n
y=a
θ=0 0 0
π π
Z4 Z4 r = cosa θ
1 a3 1
x
et
y=
2
= cos θ 3 dθ = sec θdθ x= 0
3 cos θ 3 x=a
0 0
a3 π a3 √
O X
= log(sec θ + tan θ) 04 = log( 2 + 1) . y=0
3 3
Example
√
4.40. Transform the integral into polar coordinates and hence evaluate
Za Za2 −x2 q
x2 + y2 dydx. [Jun 2012]
0 0
Solution.

√
The limits for y are y = 0, y = a2 − x2
y2 = a2 − x2 Y
2
π/
x2 + y2 = a2 . 2
=
2 =a
θ
x2 + y
The limits for x are x = 0, x = a. P
x=0
By changing into polar coordinates we
0
θ=
O X
have x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, dxdy = rdrdθ. y= 0
wwIn the region of integration, r varies

from 0 to a and θ varies from 0 to .
π
2
x=a
w.E √
Za Za2 −x2 q
x2 + y2 dydx =
π
Z2 Za p
r2 rdrdθ
0 0
asy
θ=0 r=0
Z2 Za
π
Z2
π
r3
!a
π
Z2
a3 a3 π a3 π πa3
=
0
En 0
r2 drdθ =
0
3 0
dθ =
0
3
dθ =
3
· [θ]02 =
3 2
=
6
.
Example gin
4.41. Transform the integral
√
Za Za2 −x2
dxdy
into polar
ee
p
√ a2 − x2 − y2
0 ax−x2
coordinates and then evaluate it.
Solution.
rin [Jan 2012]
The limits for y are

Y
g.n
et
p p
y = ax − x2 y= a2 − x2 P
y2 = ax − x2 y2 = a2 − x2 X
O
a

2,0
2 2 2 2 2
x + y − ax = 0 x +y =a ,
x2 + y2 = a2 is a circle with centre (0, 0),

radius= a. x2 + y2 − ax = 0 is a circle with
a a
centre , 0 and radius .
2 2
The limits for x are x = 0, x = a.

Consider the curve x2 + y2 − ax = 0

By changing into polar coordinates we have,
r2 − a · r cos θ = 0
r(r − a cos θ) = 0
r , 0 ⇒ r = a cos θ.
Consider the equation x2 + y2 = a2 . We have r = a.
ww In the region of integration we have r varies from a cos θ to a and θ varies

π
from 0 to .
w.E 2
∴
√
Za Za2 −x2
p
dxdy
=
π
Z2 Za
√
rdrdθ
√
0 ax−x2
asy
a2 − x2 − y2 a2 − r2
θ=0 a cos θ
Z2
π
Z0
En
−tdt
= dθ
π t
Z2 θ=0 r=a sin θ
=−
0
(t)0a sin θ dθ
gin t2 = a2 − r2
=−
Z2
0
π
(0 − a sin θ)dθ ee 2tdt = −2rdr.
rin
rdr = −tdt
when r = a cos θ,
g.n
π
Z2
=a sin θdθ t2 = a2 − a2 cos2 θ
0
= a (− cos θ)0
π
π
2
= −a cos − cos 0 = −a(0 − 1) = a.

= a2 sin2 θ.
et
= a2 (1 − cos2 θ)
2 t = a sin θ.
when r = a. t = 0.
" q
Example 4.42. Evaluate a2 − x2 − y2 dxdy where R is the semicircle
R
x2 + y2 = ax in the first quadrant by changing to polar coordinates.

a 2 a2 a 2 a2
Solution. x2 + y2 − ax = 0 ⇒ x − + y2 − =0⇒ x− + y2 = .
2 4 2 4
By changing into polar coordinates we get x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, dxdy = rdrdθ.
r2 − ar cos θ = 0 ⇒ r(r − a cos θ) = 0 ⇒ r = 0, r = a cos θ.
Limits for r are 0, a cos θ.
π
Limits for θ are 0, .
2
π
" q Z2 aZcos θ p
Now I = a2 − x2 − y2 dxdy = a2 − r2 rdrdθ
ww 2
R
2 2
Let t = a − r ⇒ 2tdt = −2rdr ⇒ tdt = −rdr
0 r=0
w.E when r = 0, t = a and when r = a cos θ, t = a sin θ

π π π
asy
Z2 aZsin θ Z2 3 !a sin θ Z2
t −1
I= −ttdtdθ = − dθ = (a3 sin3 θ − a3 )dθ
3 a 3
a
En
0 0 0
3 2 3 4 − 3π a3
! ! !
−1 3 2 3 π −a π −a
= a .1 − a = .1 − = = (3π − 4).
gin
3 3 2 3 3 2 3 6 18
R∞ R∞ 2 +y2 ) R∞ 2
Example 4.43. Evaluate e−(x dxdy and hence evaluate e−x dx.
Solution. Let I =
Z∞ Z∞
0 0
e−(x
ee
2 +y2 )
dxdy.
0
[Jan 2014, Jun 2011, Jan 2010, Jan 2004]
rin
0 0
Y g.n
Since x varies from 0 to ∞ and y varies
from 0 to ∞, the region of integration is
the entire first quadrant. x=0
r
P et
Changing to polar coordinates we get
θ
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and dxdy = rdrdθ. O
X
y=0
Here, r varies from 0 to ∞ and θ varies
π
from 0 to .
2

π
Z∞ Z∞ Z2 Z∞
2 +y2 ) 2 dt
∴I= e−(x dxdy = e−r rdrdθ Let r2 = t, 2rdr = dt ⇒ rdr =
2
0 0 0 0
π
Z Z∞2
dt
= e−t dθ When r = 0, t = 0, when r = ∞, t = ∞
2
0 0
π
Z2 !∞
1 e−t
= dθ
ww
2 −1 0
0
π
Z2
1 1 π π
w.E Z∞
=−
2
0
(0 − 1)dθ = (θ)02 = .
2 4
asy
2
To find e−x dx.
0
We have,
Z∞ Z∞
e−(x
2 +y2 )
En
dxdy =
π
4
0
Z∞ Z∞
0
2 2
e−x e−y dxdy =
gin π
0
Z∞
0
−x2
e dx
Z∞
e−y dy =
2
ee4
π
rin
0
 ∞
0
2
4
g.n
et
Z
π

−x 2
 e dx =
 
4
0
Z∞ √
−x2 π
e dx = .
2
0
" s
1 − x2 − y2
Example 4.44. Evaluate dxdy over the positive quadrant of the
1 + x2 + y2
circle x2 + y2 = 1.
Solution.

By changing into polar coordinates we

get x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and dxdy = rdrdθ. Y
2
π/
Now x2 + y2 = 1
θ=
=⇒ r2 = 1 P
x=0
i.e., r = 1. For the region of integration,
1
r=
0
θ=
we have r varies from 0 to 1 and θ varies θ
X
π O y=0
from 0 to .
ww 2
" s
w.E Let I =
π
1 − x2 − y2
1 + x2 + y2
dxdy
=
Z2 Z1 r
asy
1 − r2
1 + r2
rdrdθ
En
0 0
π
Z Z12
r(1 − r2 )
=
0 0
√
gin
1 − r4
drdθ
ee
π
Z Z1
 2

r r3 
 
= √ − √  drdθ
rin

 1 − r4 1 − r4 
0 0
π 
g.n
Z2  Z1 Z1

 1 2r 1 −4r 3 
= √ dr + √ dr dθ
 
2 1 − r4 4 1 − r4 
et
0 0 0
π
Z  Z1 Z1
 2

 1 dt 1 4
d(1 − r ) 

=  √ dr + √  dθ [t = r2 ]
2 4

1 − t2 1 − r4 
0 0 0
π
Z  2 1 1
 
 1 −1 1 1  (1 − r4 ) 2  
=  (sin t)0 +    dθ
2 4 1
0 2 0
π
Z 2 !
1π 1
= + (0 − 2) dθ
22 4
0

π
Z2 !
π 1
= − dθ
4 2
0
!
π 1 π
= − (θ)02
4 2
!
π 1 π
= −
4 2 2
π2 π
= − .
8 4
wwExample 4.45. By transforming into polar coordinates evaluate

x2 y2
x2 + y2
dxdy
"
w.E
over the annular region between the circles x2 + y2 = a2 and x2 + y2 = b2 , (b > a)
Y
[Jan 2013]
Solution. By changing
asy
coordinates we get x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
into polar
b
En
x=0
and dxdy = rdrdθ, x2 + y2 = r2 . a
In the region of integration we X
gin
O y=0
have r varies from a to b and θ varies
from 0 to 2π.
ee rin
"
x2 y2
x2 + y2
dxdy =
Z2π Zb
r2 cos2 θ · r2 sin θ
r2
2
· rdrdθ g.n
=
θ=0 r=a
Z2π Zb
r3 cos2 θ sin2 θdrdθ
et
θ=0 r=a
Z2π !b
2 2r4
= cos θ sin θ · dθ.
4 r=a
0
Z2π
1
= cos2 θ sin2 θ(b4 − a4 )dθ
4
0

Z2π
b4 − a4
= (sin θ cos θ)2 dθ
4
0
Z2π !2
b4 − a4 sin 2θ
= dθ
4 2
0
Z2π
b4 − a4
= sin2 2θdθ.
16
0
Z2π
ww =
b4 − a4
16
0
1 − cos 4θ
2
dθ
w.E
 2π
Z2π

4 4
b − a 
Z 
=  dθ − cos 4θdθ
32  
0 0
asy #2π 

b4 − a4  2π sin 4θ  b4 − a4 (b4 − a4 )π
"
= [θ]0 −  = (2π) =
32 4 0 32 16
En
4.5 Area enclosed by plane curves
gin "
✎
✍
ee
Result. Area of a region R is given by
Worked Examples
R
dxdy.
☞
✌ rin
Example 4.46. Find the area of the circle of radius a by double integration.
g.n
Solution.
The circle is x2 + y2 = a2 .
By symmetry Area = 4× area in the first
and finally x varies from 0 to a. et [Jan 2006]
√
quadrant. Za Za2 −x2 Za √
2 2
Divide the region in the first quadrant ∴ Area = 4 dydx = 4 (y)0 a −x dx

x=0 y=0 x=0
into strips parallel to the y-axis. Along a
√ Za !a
p xp 2 a2 −1 x
typical strip, y varies from 0 to a2 − x2 =4 a2 − x2 dx =4 a − x2 + sin
2 2 a 0
0

a2 −1 a2 π
!
=4 sin (1) = 4 = πa2 .
2 2 2
Y
(0, a) √
y = a2 − x 2
x=0
ww O
y= 0 (a, 0)
X
w.E x2 +y2 = a2
x2 y2
asy
Example 4.47. Find the area of the ellipse +
a2 b2
= 1 using double integration.
[Jun 2013]
Solution.
En
Consider the area in the first quadrant.
gin Y
√
ee
(0, b) y = ab a2 − x 2
Divide this area into strips parallel to
x=0
the y-axis. Along a typical strip, y varies
from 0 to
bp 2
a − x2 and finally x varies rin
y=0 (a, 0)
X
a
from 0 to a.
g.n
By symmetry, Area of the ellipse = 4× Area in the first quadrant.
Za
b
a
√
Za
2 −x2
Za b
√
a2 −x2
Za
bp 2
et
Area = 4 dydx = 4 a
(y)0 dx = 4 a − x2 dx
a
x=0 y=0 x=0 0
Za p !a
4b 2 2
4b x p 2 2
a2 −1 x
= a − x dx = a −x + sin
a a 2 2 a 0
0
4b a2 π
= sin−1 (1) = 2ab = πab.
a 2 2

Example 4.48. Using double integral, find the area bounded by the parabola
y2 = 4ax and x2 = 4ay [Jun 2013, May 2011, Jan 2010]
Solution.
Y
To find the points of intersection, solve x2 = 4ay
the two equations.

A(4a, 4a)
2
y = 4ax (1)
ww x2 = 4ay (2)
y=0 O
X
w.E x42−y264a3 x = 0
(2)2 ⇒ x4 = 16a
= x(x
3
64a3 ) = 0
16a2 −· 4ax x=0
y2 = 4ax
x=
= 0,
asy
x33
64a x− 64a = 0
3
x3 = 64a3 ⇒ x = 4a.
En
gin
When x = 0, y = 0. One point of intersection is O(0, 0).
When x = 4a, 4ay = 16a2
16a2
y=
4a
= 4a.
ee
∴ The other point of intersection is A(4a, 4a).
The shaded portion is the required region. Divide the region into strips rin
parallel to the x−axis. Along one such strip, x varies form
y2
4a
p
to 4ay and finally y
g.n
et
varies form 0 to 4a. √
Z4a Z4ay
∴ Required area = dxdy
y=0 2
x= y4a
Z4a √
4ay
= [x] y2 dy
4a
y=0
Z4a " p
y2
#
= 4ay − dy
4a
0

Z4a Z4a
√ 1/2 1
=2 a· y dy − y2 dy
4a
0 0
 4a !4a
√  y3/2  1 y3
= 2 a ·  3  −
  ·
2 0
4a 3 0
√ 2 1
= 2 a × · (4a)3/2 − 64a3
3 12a
√
4 a √ 16a2
= 8a a −
3 3
ww =
32a
3
2
−
16a
3
2
=
16a2
3
Sq.units
w.E
Example 4.49. Find the area common to y2 = 4x and x2 = 4y using double
integration. [Dec 2011]
asy
Solution. Put a = 1 in the previous example.
Example 4.50. Find by double integration, the area between the parabolas
3y2 = 25x and 5x2 = 9y.
En [Jun 2012]
gin
Solution. To find the points of intersection, solve the two equations.
25
y2 =
x2 = y
3
9
5
x
ee
(1)
(2)
x2 = 95 y
Y
rin
g.n
2 4 81 2
(2) ⇒ x = y A(3, 5)
25
81 × ✚✚
25
✚ 4=
✚
25x
x4 = 27x
x4 − 27x = 0
3
x
O(0, 0)
et X
x(x3 − 27) = 0 y2 = 25
3 x
x = 0, x3 − 27 = 0
x3 = 27
x = 3.

when x = 0, 9y = 0 ⇒ y = 0.
One point of intersection is O(0, 0).
where x = 3, 9y = 5 × 9
y = 5.
∴ The other point of intersection is (3, 5).
The shaded portion is the region of integration. Divide the region √ into strips
3y2 3 y
parallel to the x−axis. Along one such strip, x varies from to √ and finally y
25 5
wwvaries from 0 to 5. √
Z5 Z 5
3 y
√
Z5 √
3 y
√
w.E
5
∴ Area = dxdy = (x) 3y2
dy
25
0 3y2 0
25
Z5
asy
3y2
!
3 √
= √ y− dy
5 25
0

= √  3  −
5
3  y3/2  3
En
·
y3
!5
2 √
= √ [5 5] −
1
· 53 = 10 − 5 = 5 Sq.units.
5 2 0 25 3 0
gin 5 25
Example 4.51. Find the smaller of the areas bounded by the ellipse 4x2 + 9y2 = 36
and the straight line 2x + 3y = 6.
ee
Solution. Solving the given two equations, we get the points of intersection.
rin
[Jan 2012]
Y
2) g.n
et
,
2 2 B(0
4x + 9y = 36 (1) 4x2 +9y2 = 36
2 x+
2x + 3y = 6 (2) 3y=
6
O
X
From (2), 3y = 6 − 2x A(3
, 0)
6 − 2x
i.e., y = .
3
Substituting in (1) we get
9(6 − 2x)2
4x2 + = 36
9

4x2 + 36 + 4x2 − 24x = 36
8x2 − 24x = 0
x2 − 3x = 0
x(x − 3) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or x = 3.
6
When x = 0, (2) ⇒ y = = 2.
3
One point of intersection is (0, 2)
6−6
wwWhen x = 3, y =
3
= 0.
The other point of intersection is (3, 0).
w.E
The shaded portion is the smaller area. Divide the regionrinto
the y−axis. Along one such strip, y varies from
6 − 2x
3
to 4 −
strips parallel to
4 2
9
x and finally x
varies from 3 to 0.
asy
En
q
4− 94 x2
Z0 Z0 q
4− 94 x2
Z
∴ Area = dxdy = y 6−2x dx
x=3 y= 6−2x
3
gin 3
3
Z0  r
ee
!
 4 2 6 − 2x 
=  4 − x −  dx
3
Z0 r
9 3
Z0 Z0 rin
=
3
4
9
(9 − x2 )dx −
3
2dx +
2
3
3
xdx
g.n
=
=
3 2
2
"
2 xp
"
0−
9π
#
2
9 −1 x
9 − x + sin
2
#0
3 3
1
− 2(0 − 3) + [0 − 9] =
0
− 2[x]3 +
−3π
" #0
2 x2
3 2 3
+6−3=3−
3π
et
3 22 3 2 2
π 3(2 − π)
=3 1− = Sq.units.
2 2
Example 4.52. Find the smaller of the areas bounded by y = 2 − x and x2 + y2 = 4

using double integral.

Solution. Solving the given two equations, we get the points of intersection.
We have x2 + y2 = 4 ⇒ x2 + (2 − x)2 = 4 ⇒ x2 + 4 + x2 − 4x = 4 ⇒ 2x2 − 4x = 0
⇒ x2 − 2x = 0 ⇒ x(x − 2) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, x = 2.
Y
When x = 0, y = 2, when x = 2, y = 0.
(0, 2)
The points of intersection are (0, 2) and y = 2− x
ww(2, 0). The shaded portion is the required

region. Divide this region into strips
x=0
O X
w.E
y= 0 (2, 0)
parallel to the y-axis. Along one such
√
typical strip, y varies from 2−x to 4 − x2
asy
and finally x varies from 0 to 2.
√
Now area =
"
dxdy. =
En
Z2 Z4−x2 Z2 √
4−x2
Z2 p
dydx = (y)2−x dx = ( 4 − x2 − (2 − x))dx
R
xp gin
x=0 y=2−x
4
4 − x2 + sin−1
x !2
x=0
− 2(x)20 +
x 2 2
!
x=0
ee
=
2 2 2 0 2 0
rin
4 π
= 2 sin−1 (1) − 2(2 − 0) + = 2 − 4 + 2 = π − 2.
2 2
Example 4.53. Find the area bounded by the parabola y2 = 4 − x and y2 = 4 − 4x as

a double integral and evaluate it. g.n [Jan 2001]
Solution. The parabola y2 = 4 − x = −(x − 4). Its vertex is at (4, 0).
Consider the parabola y2 = 4 − 4x = −4(x − 1) . Its vertex is at (1, 0).
et
Both the parabolas are open to the left. Let us solve the two equations to find the
points of intersection, y2 = 4 − x and y2 = 4 − 4x.
∴ 4 − x = 4 − 4x ⇒ 4x − x = 0 ⇒ 3x = 0 ⇒ x = 0 ⇒ y2 = 4 ⇒ y = ±2.

Y
The points of intersection are
(2, 0), (−2, 0). The shaded portion is the
required region. Divide this region into (1, 0) (4, 0)
O X
strips parallel to the x-axis. Along one
y2
typical strip, x varies from 1 − to 4−y2 .
4
Finally y varies from −2 to 2.
ww " x=4−y2
Z2 Z2 Z2
y2
Z !!
4−y2 2
Now area = dxdy. = dydx = (x) 2 dy = 4−y − 1− dy
1− y4 4
w.E
R y=−2 2 y=−2 y=−2
x=1− y4
Z2 !2 !2
y2 y3 1 y3
!
2 2 2
= 4−y −1+ dy = 4(y)−2 − − (y)−2 +
y=−2
1 asy4
1
3 −2
= 4(2 + 2) − (8 + 8) − (2 + 2) + (8 + 8) = 16 −
16
−4+
16
4 3 −2
= 16 − 4 −
3
16 4
+ = 12 −En 12
12
= 12 − 4 = 8.
3 12
3 3
gin
3
Example 4.54. Find the area of the region bounded by y = x − 2 and y2 = 2x + 4.
The vertex is (−2, 0).

ee
Solution. The parabola is y2 = 2x + 4 = 2(x + 2).
rin
To find the points of intersection, let us solve the two equations.
The curves are y = x − 2, y2 = 2x + 4. g.n
(x − 2)2 = 2x + 4.
x2 − 4x + 4 − 2x − 4 = 0
x2 − 6x = 0
et
x(x − 6) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, x = 6.
When x = 0, y = −2.
When x = 6, y = 4.

Y
The points of intersection are (0, −2) and
(6, 4). The shaded portion is the required
(6, 4)
region. Divide the region into strips
parallel to the x-axis. Along one such
X
y2 − 4 (−2, 0)
O
strip, x varies from to y + 2 and
2 (0, −2)
finally y varies from −2 to 4.
ww " Z4 Zy+2 Z4
w.ENow, Area =
R
dxdy =
y=−2 2
x= y 2−4
dxdy =
y=−2
(x)
y+2
2
x= y 2−4
dy
=
Z4
y+2−asy
y2
2
!!
− 2 dy =
Z4
y+2−
y2
2
!
+ 2 dy =
Z4
y+4−
y2
2
!
dy
y2
−2
y3
!4
En1
−2
1
−2
gin
= + 4y − = (16 − 4) + 4(4 + 2) − (64 + 8) = 6 + 24 − 12 = 18.
2 6 −2 2 6
Area as double integral in polar coordinates
ee✎
!
Result. Area in polar coordinates is given by rdrdθ.
Worked Examples
R
☞
rin
✍
Example 4.55. Find the area of the cardioid r = a(1 − cos θ).
✌
g.n
Solution.
θ
et
Since the curve is symmetric about the
initial line, Area = 2× area above the P
θ=π
initial line. r
O θ=0
Along this region, r varies from 0 to
a(1 − cos θ) and θ varies from 0 to π. r = a(1−cos θ)

Zπ Z θ)
a(1−cos Zπ !a(1−cos θ) Zπ
r2
Area = 2 rdrdθ = 2 dθ = a2 (1 − cos θ)2 dθ
2 0
θ=0 r=0 0 0
Zπ Zπ
1 + cos 2θ
= a2 (1 − cos2 θ − 2 cos θ)dθ = a2 (1 + − 2 cos θ)dθ
2
0 0
Zπ !π !
3 cos 2θ 3 1 sin 2θ
=a 2
( + − 2 cos θ)dθ = a2 (θ)π0 + − 2(sin θ)π0
2 2 2 2 2 0
0
ww 3πa2
!
3π
= a2 = .
2 2
w.E
Example 4.56. Find the area of one loop of the lemniscate of Bernoulli
r2 = a2 cos 2θ.
asy
Solution. The curve is symmetric about both the axes. One loop lies to the right
of y-axis and symmetric about the x-axis.
√
En
∴ Area = 2× area of the portion which lies above the axis.
π
Along the region r varies√from 0 to a cos 2θ and θ varies from 0 to .
∴ Area = 2
π
Z4 a Zcos 2θ
rdrdθ gin 4
ee θ
2θ
4
θ=0 r=0
π/
s
co
θ=
π
!a √cos 2θ a2
rin
4 =
P
r2
r2
Z
=2 dθ
2
g.n
0
θ=0 r
π
O
Z 4
=a
0
2
a2 cos 2θdθ
sin 2θ
! π4
=
a2 π a2
sin − 0 = .
θ = −π/4
et
2 0 2 2 2
Example 4.57. Find the area between r = 2 cos θ andπ r = 4 cos θ. π

Z2 Z2
Solution.π r=4 cos θ 1
Z2 Z
π
Z2 !4 cos θ = (16 cos2 θ − 4 cos2 θ)dθ = 6 cos2 θdθ
r 2 2
−π −π
Area = rdrdθ = dθ 2 2
2 2 cos θ
θ= −π
2
r=2 cos θ θ= −π
2

π
θ
Z2 π
θ= P
2 1π 2
=6×2 cos θdθ = 12 × = 3π.
22
0
O
r
θ = − π2
wwExample 4.58. Find the area inside the circle r = a sin θ but lying outside the
cardioid r = a(1 − cos θ). [Jan 2009]
w.E
Solution. The equation of the given curves are r = a sin θ, r = a(1 − cos θ). Solving,
we get a sin θ = a(1 − cos θ) ⇒ sin θ = 1 − cos θ.
asy
⇒ sin θ + cos θ = 1 ⇒ (sin θ + cos θ)2 = 1.
sin2 θ + cos2 θ + 2 sin θ cos θ = 1 ⇒ 1 + sin 2θ = 1
En
π
⇒ sin 2θ = 0 ⇒ 2θ = 0 or 2θ = π ⇒ θ = 0, θ = .
2
θ
The shaded portion is the required
region. Consider the radius vector OP. gin θ = π/2
The limits for r and θ as OP traverses

the required region is as follows.
ee r
θ=π
rin
P
Q
r = a sin θ
varies from a(1 − cos θ) to a sin θ and θ

π
varies from 0 to .
2
O
g.n
θ=0
r
Area =
Z
π
2 Z sin θ
r=a
θ=0 r=a(1−cos θ)
rdrdθ =
Z
π
2
θ=0
2 a sin θ
r
2
!
a(1−cos θ)
dθ
r = a(1−cos θ)
et
π π
Z2 Z2
1 2 2 2 2 a2
= a sin θ − a (1 − cos θ) dθ = sin2 θ − 1 − cos2 θ + 2 cos θ dθ
2 2
0 0
2 2 a2
!
a 1π π 1π a π
= − − + 2.1 = 2− = (4 − π).
2 22 2 22 2 2 4

Example 4.59. Find the area which is inside the circle r = 3a cos θ and outside the
cardioid r = a(1 + cos θ). [Jan 2013]
Solution. The shaded portion is the required area. Solving the two equations we
get the points of intersection, r = 3a cos θ and r = a(1 + cos θ).
3
θ
π/
=
θ
∴ 3a cos θ =a(1 + cos θ)
r
3 cos θ =1 + cos θ (3a/2,0) (3a, 0)
ww 2 cos θ =1
1 π π
Z3
π
3aZcos θ
π
Z3 "
r2
#3a cos θ
w.E
Required area
2
⇒ θabove
cos θ==2 × area = , − θ .== 2
3 3
π
θ=0 r=a(1+cos θ)
rdrdθ. = 2
θ=0
2 r=a(1+cos θ)
dθ
asy
Z 3
=2 [9a2 cos2 θ − a2 (1 + cos θ)2 ]dθ
En
0
π
Z3
=2
0
π gin
(9a2 cos2 θ − a2 − a2 cos2 θ − 2a2 cos θ)dθ
= 2a2
Z3
0
π
ee
(9 cos2 θ − 1 − cos2 θ − 2 cos θ)dθ
rin
g.n
Z3
= 2a2 (8 cos2 θ − 2 cos θ − 1)dθ
et
0
π
Z3 !
2 8(1 + cos 2θ)
= 2a − 2 cos θ − 1 dθ
2
0
π
Z3
= 2a2 (4 + 4 cos 2θ − 2 cos θ − 1)dθ
0
π
Z3
= 2a2 (3 + 4 cos 2θ − 2 cos θ)dθ
0

 π π π 
 Z3 Z3 Z3 
2 
= 2a 3 dθ + 4 cos 2θdθ − 2 cos θdθ

 
0 0 0
 ! π3 
2
 π
3
sin 2θ π
3

= 2a 3(θ)0 + 4 − 2(sin θ)0 
2 0
π ! π !
2
2π
= 2a 3 − 0 + 2 sin − sin 0 − 2 sin − sin 0
3 3 3
 √ √ 
3 3 
= 2a2 π + 2 ·  = 2πa2 Sq.units.

−2·
2 2
ww4.6 Triple integral in Cartesian coordinates
w.E
Let the function f (x, y, z) be defined in a specific region V in space for all x, y and
z with proper limits. The triple integral of f (x, y, z) w.r.t. x, y and z is defined as
Zz1 Zy1 Zx1
f (x, y, z)dxdydz. asy
z0 y0 x0
En
The evaluation of the triple integral is as follows.
gin
(i) If all the limits are constants, then the integration can be performed in any
order with proper limits.
(ii) Consider
g2 (z) fZ
Zb Z 2 (y,z)
ee
f (x, y, z)dxdydz.
a y=g1 (z) x= f1 (y,z)
rin
g.n
First we integrate with respect to x treating y and z as constants. Next we integrate
the resulting function of y and z w.r.t.y treating z as constant. Finally integrate the
resulting function of z w.r.tz.
Z1 Z2 Z2
✎
Worked Examples
✍
☞
✌
et
Example 4.60. Evaluate x2 yzdxdydz.
0 0 1
Solution.
Z1 Z2 Z2 Z1 Z2 !2
2 x3
x yzdxdydz = yz dydz
3 1
0 0 1 0 0

Z1 Z2
1
= yz(8 − 1)dydz
3
0 0
Z1 !2 Z1
7 y2 7
= z dz = z4dz
3 2 0 6
0 0
!1
28 z2
=
6 2 0
28 1 7
= = .
6 2 3
ww Za Zb Zc
w.E
Example 4.61. Find
Solution.
0 0 0
(x2 + y2 + z2 )dxdydz. [Jun 2009]
Za Zb Zc asy Za Zb
x3
!c
0 0 0
2 2
En
2
(x + y + z )dxdydz =
0 0
3
+ y2 x + z2 x dydz
0
gin =
Za Zb
c3 2 2
!
+ cy + cz dydz
ee
3
0 0
Za  3
rin
!b 
 c b y3 2 b

=  3 (y)0 + c 3 + cz (y)0  dz
0
=
0
Za
c3 b cb3
+ 2
!
+ cz b dz g.n
=
3
0
(z)0 +
3
bc3 a cb3 a
3
3
(z)0 + bc
z3
3
!a
0
et
abc3 ab3 c a3 bc abc 2
= + + = (a + b2 + c2 ).
3 3 3 3
log 2Zx Z
Z x+y
Example 4.62. Evaluate e x+y+z dxdydz. [Jan 2009]

0 0 0

Solution.
log 2Zx Z
Z x+y log 2Zx Z
Z x+y log 2Zx
Z
 x+y 
 Z 
e x+y+z dxdydz = e x ey ez dxdydz = e x ey  ez dz dxdy
 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Z 2Zx
log Z 2Zx
log
x+y
= e x ey (ez )0 dxdy = e x ey (e x+y − 1)dxdy
0 0 0 0
Z 2Zx
log
= (e2x+2y − e x ey )dxdy
ww =
0 0
Z 2 Zx
log 


e2x e2y dy −
Zx
x y 


e e dy dx

w.E
 
0 0 0
log 2 !x
e2y
Z !
e2x x y x
asy
= − e (e )0 dx
2 0
0
Z 2
log
En e2x 1
! !
2x x x
= e − − e (e − 1) dx
2 2
gin 0
log 2
Z
e4x e2x 2x x
!
ee
= − − e + e dx
2 2
0
=
Z 2
log
e4x 3e2x
− x
!
+ e dx rin
0
1 e4x
!log 2
2 2
3 e2x
!log 2
g.n
et
log 2
= − + (e x )0
2 4 0 2 2 0
1 3
= [16 − 1] − (4 − 1) + (2 − 1)
8 4
15 9
= − +1
8 4
15 − 18 + 8 5
= = .
8 8
Z1 Z1−xZx+y
Example 4.63. Evaluate ez dzdydx. [Jan 1996]
0 0 0

Solution.
Z1 Z1−xZx+y Z1 Z1−x Z1 Z1−x
z z x+y
e x+y − 1 dydx

e dzdydx = e 0 dydx =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1
Z Z1−x Z1  Z1−x Z1−x 
 
e x ey − 1 dydx =
 x
ey −

= e dy dx
 
0 0 0 0 0
Z1
1−x
= e x ey 0 − (y)1−x
0 dx
ww
0
Z1 Z1
x 1−x
= e (e − 1) − (1 − x) dx = (e − e x − 1 + x)dx
w.E 0
= e(x)10 − (e x )10 − (x)10 +

x2
2
!1
0
= e − (e − 1) − 1 +
1
2
asy 1 1
=e−e+1−1+ = .
2 2
0
En
Z3 Z1 Z xy
√
gin
Example 4.64. Evaluate xydzdydx. [Jan 2001]
1 1 0
x
Solution.
√
Z3 Z1 Z xy
xydzdydx =
Z3 Z1
ee
√
xy
xy(z)0 dydx =
Z3 Z1
√
xy xydydx =
Z3 Z1
3 3
x 2 y 2 dydx
rin
g.n
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
x x x x
Z3  5 1
 y 2  Z3  ! 25 
3 2 3 
 1 
et
= x  5  dx =
2 x 2 1 −  dx
2 1
5 x 
1 x 1
Z3  5 3 ! 
2 1 2  x 2 
3

= x − dx =  5  − (log x)31 
2
5 x 5 2 1
1
2 2 √
! !
2 2 5
= (3 2 − 1) − log 3 = (9 3 − 1) − log 3 .
5 5 5 5
2
Z1 Z1−x (x+y)
Z
Example 4.65. Evaluate xdzdydx. [Jan 1996]
0 0 0

Solution.
2
Z1 Z1−x (x+y)
Z Z1 Z1−x Z1 Z1−x
(x+y)2
xdzdydx = x(z)0 dydx = x(x + y)2 dydx
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Z1 3 1−x
! Z1
(x + y) 1
= x dx = x((x + 1 − x)3 − x3 )dx
3 0 3
0 0
Z1 Z1  !1 !1 
1 1 3 4 1  x2 x5 
= x(1 − x )dx = (x − x )dx =  −
ww

3 3 3 2 0 5 0
0 0
! !
1 1 1 1 5−2 1
= − = = .
w.E log 2Zx x+log

Z Z y
3 2 5 3 10 10
Solution. asy
e x+y+z dzdydx.
0 0 0
[Jun 2013]
log 2Zx x+log

Z y En
log 2Zx
gin
Z Z
x+y+z x+log y
e x+y+z dzdydx = e 0 dydx
0 0 0 0 0
=ee Z 2Zx
log
0 0

e x+y+x+log y − e x+y dydx.
rin
=
Z 2Zx
log

e2x ey+log y − e x · ey dydx
g.n
=
0 0
Z 2Zx
log
0 0

e2x · ey · elog y − e x ey dydx
et
Z 2Zx
log

= e2x yey − e x ey dydx
0 0
log 2
 Zx Zx

Z 
 2x y x y 
= e ye dy − e e dy  dx


0 0 0

log 2
 Zx

Z 
 2x y x y x
= e yd(e ) − e (e )0  dx


0 0
log 2
Z 

Zx
 

   
 2x  y x
 y   − e x (e x − 1)

= 
e 

 ye 0 − e dy  
 dx

   

0 0
Z 2
log

x
= e2x xe x − ey 0 − e2x + e x dx
0
log 2
ww
Z
= {e2x (xe x − e x + 1) − e2x + e x }dx
0
w.E =
Z 2
log

xe3x − e3x + e2x − e2x + e x dx
asy
0
log 2
Z
= xe3x − e3x + e x dx
En 0
Z 2
log log 2 log 2
gin
Z Z
3x 3x
= xe dx − e dx + e x dx.
0 0 0
=
Z
ee
log 2
0
xd
e3x
3
!
−
e3x
3 0
!log 2
log 2
+ ex 0
rin
=
xe3x
3 0
!log 2 Z
−
log 2
e3x
3
1
3

dx − e3 log 2 − 1 + (elog 2 − 1)g.n
= log 2 ·
8
30
−
!
e
1
0
3x
!log 2
− [8 − 1] + (2 − 1)
39
et
8 8 1 7
= log 2 − − − +1
3 9 9 3
!
8 7 7
= log 2 − + −1
3 9 3
!
8 7 + 21 − 9
= log 2 −
3 9

8 19
= log 2 − .
3 9
$
dxdydz
Example 4.67. Evaluate p for all positive values of x, y, z for
1 − x2 − y2 − z2
which the integral is real. [Jan 2013, Jan 2012]
Solution. The integral is real for all values of x2 + y2 + z2 < 1.
√ √
$ 1−x 2 2
Z1 Z1−x2 Z −y
dxdydz 1
∴ p = p dzdydx
1 − x2 − y2 − z2 1 − x2 − y2 − z2
ww 0 y=0
√
Z1 Z1−x2
z=0
 −1 z
 √1−x2 −y2

w.E = sin p  dydx

1 − x2 − y2 0
0 0
√
Z Z1−x2
1
asy =
0 0
(sin−1 1 − sin−1 0)dydx
En
√
Z1 Z1−x2
π
= dydx
gin 0
Z1
0
2
ee
√
π 2
= [y]0 1−x dx
2
π
Z1 p
0
rin
=
2
1 − x2 dx
0
g.n
et
" #1
π xp 2
1 −1
= 1 − x + sin x
2 2 2 0
" #
π 1 −1
= sin 1 − 0
2 2
π 1 π π2
= · · = .
2 2 2 8
√ √ 2 −x2 −y2
Za Za2 −x2 aZ
1
Example 4.68. p dzdydx. [Dec 2011]
a2 − x2 − y2 − z2
0 0 0

Solution.
√2 2 2
 √a2 −x2 −y2
√ √
Za Za2 −x2 aZ−x −y Za Za2 −x2
1  −1 z 
p dzdydx = sin p  dydx
a2 − x2 − y2 − z2 a2 − x2 − y2 0

0 0 0 0 0
√
Za Za2 −x2
= sin−1 1 − sin−1 0 dydx
0 0
√
Za Za2 −x2
π
= dydx.
ww 0
π
Za
0
√
[y]0 a
2
2 −x2
w.E =
2
π
0
Za p
dx
asy =
2
0
a2 − x2 dx
#a
En
" 2
π a −1 x xp 2 2
= sin + a −x
2 2 a 2 0
gin π a2 −1
" #
= sin 1 − 0
2 2

$ ee dxdydz
=
πa2 π π2 a2
4 2
· =
8
.
, where V is the region bounded by rin

V
x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, and x + y + z = 1.
(x + y + z + 1)3
g.n
[Jan 2014, Dec 2011]
Solution. The limits for x, y and z are as follows.
z : 0 to 1 − x − y
et
y : 0 to 1 − x
x : 0 to 1
$ Z1 Z1−x 1−x−y
Z
dzdydz
∴ = (1 + x + y + z)−3 dzdydx
(1 + x + y + z)3
V 0 0 0

Z1 Z1−x" #1−x−y
(1 + x + y + z)−2
= dydx
−2 0
0 0
Z1 Z1−x
1
=− 2−2 − (1 + x + y)−2 dydx
2
0 0
Z1 Z1−x !
1 1 −2
=− − (1 + x + y) dydx
2 4
0 0
Z1  #1−x 
ww (1 + x + y)−1
"
1  1 1−x 
=−  [y]0 −  dx
2 4 −1 0
0
w.E =−
1
2
Z1
0
1
4
!
(1 − x) + 2−1 − (1 + x)−1 dx
asy !1
 
1  1 1 1 x2 1 1 1

= −  (x)0 − · + [x]0 − (log(1 + x))0 
2 4 4 2 0 2
=−
En
1 1 1 1
2 4 8 2
− + − log 2
!
=−
1 2−1+4
2 gin8
− log 2
!
=−
1 5
2 8
$
ee !
1
− log 2 = log 2 − .
2
5
16
rin
g.n
Example 4.70. Find the value of xyzdxdydz through the positive spherical
octant for which x2 + y2 + z2 ≤ a2 . [Jan 2014, Jun 2010]
Solution. The limits for x, y, z are as follows.
q
z : 0 to a2 − x2 − y2
p
et
y : 0 to a2 − x2
x : 0 to a.
√ √
$
2 −x2 −y2
aZ
Za Za2 −x2
∴ xyzdxdydz = xyzdzdydx.
x=0 y=0 z=0

√ √
Za Za2 −x2 a2 −x2 −y2
z2
" #
= xy · dydx.
2 0
x=0 y=0
√
Za Za2 −x2
1
= xy · (a2 − x2 − y2 )dydx
2
0 0
√
Za Za2 −x2
1
= a2 xy − x3 y − xy3 dydx
2
0 0
# √a2 −x2
ww =
1
2
Za "
a2 x ·
0
y
2
2 y2
− x3 − x
2
y4
4 y=0
dx
w.E =
1
2
Za
a2 x 2
2
2 x3 2
2
2 x 2
4
2 2
!
(a − x ) − (a − x ) − (a − x ) dx
asy
0
Za
a4 x a2 x3 a2 x3 x5 x 4
!
1 4 2 2
= − − + − (a + x − 2a x ) dx
En
2 2 2 2 2 4
0
Za
a4
gin x5 a4 x5 a2 3
!
1 2 3
= x−a x + − x− + x dx
2 2 2 4 4 2
0
ee
!a 4 a
!a !a !a !a !
1 a4 x2 1 x6 a4 x2 1 x6 a2 x4
!
2 x
= −a + − − +
rin
2 2 2 0 4 0 2 6 0 4 2 0 4 6 0 2 4 0
1  a6✁ a6✁ a6 a6✁ a6 a6✁
 
=  ✁ − ✁ + − ✁ − + ✁ 
=
2 ✁4 ✁4
1
×a 6 1
−
12 ✁8
1
!
24 ✁8
g.n
=
2
a6 2 − 1
2
6
24
12 24
!
et
a
= .
48

4.7 Volume as triple integral
Result. If V is the volume bounded by a definite$ region D in space, then the

volume is calculated by the triple integral V = dxdydz with proper limits.
D
x2 y2 z2
Example 4.71. Find the volume of the ellipsoid + + = 1 using triple
a2 b2 c2
ww
integral.
Solution. We know that the ellipsoid is symmetric about the
$ coordinate planes.
w.E
∴ Volume of the ellipsoid = 8×Volume in the first octant = 8
x2 y2 z2
The ellipsoid is given by 2 + 2 + 2 = 1
V
dxdydz.
a
asy
b c r
In the first octant, z varies from 0 to c 1−
x2 y2
−
a2 b2
r
y varies from 0 to b 1 − 2
x2
En
gin
a
and x varies from 0 to a.
∴ Volume = 8
a
q
Z Z a
2
b 1− x2 c
r
eeZ a
2
1− x2 − y2
2
b
dzdydx
rin
x=0 y=0
q
b 1− x
Za Z a2
2
z=0
r g.n
et
2 2
c 1− x2 − y2
a b
=8 (z)z=0 dydx
x=0 y=0
q
2
b 1− x
Za Z a2 r
x2 y2
= 8c 1− − dydx
a2 b2
x=0 y=0
q
2
b (1− x )
Za Z a2 s !
1 x2
= 8c b2 1 − 2 − y2 dydx
b a
x=0 y=0

q
2
 b 1− x2
Za  2 x2
s a
 b (1 − ) 2
! 
8c a2 −1 y y x 
=  sin q +2 b2 1 − 2 − y2  dx
b 2 x 2 a
b2 1 −
 
x=0 a2 0
Za b2 1 −
x2
8c a2
= sin−1 1dx
b 2
0
Za
x2
!
π
= 4bc 1 − 2 dx
2 a
0
!a
ww = 2πbc x − 2

x3
3a 0
a 4πabc
w.E = 2πbc a −
3
=
3
.
x2 y2 z2
1
asy
Note. The volume of the portion of the ellipsoid 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 which lies in
a b c
1 4πabc πabc
the first octant is × Volume of the ellipsoid = × = .
8
En 8 3 6
gin
Example 4.72. Find the volume of the sphere x2 +y2 +z2 = a2 using triple integrals.
[Jan 2006]
ee
Solution. We know that the sphere is symmetric about the coordinate planes.
∴ Volume of the sphere = 8× Volume of the portion of the sphere
that lies in the first octant. rin
The sphere is given by x2 + y2 + z2 = a2 .
g.n
et
p
In the first octant z varies from 0 to a2 − x2 − y2 .
√
y varies from 0 to a2 − x2 .
$
Volume of the sphere = 8 × dzdydx.
V
√ √ 2 −x2 −y2
Za Za2 −x2 aZ
=8 dzdydx
x=0 y=0 z=0

√
Za Za2 −x2 √2 2 2
a −x −y
=8 (z)0 dydx
x=0y=0
√
Za Za2 −x2 q
=8 a2 − x2 − y2 dydx
x=0 y=0
√
Za ! a2 −x2
a2 − x2 y y
q
=8 sin−1 √ + 2 2
a −x −y2 dx
2 a2 − x2 2 0
x=0
Za
ww =8
x=0
a2 − x2 −1
2
sin (1)dx
w.E =4
π
2
Za
x=0
(a2 − x2 )dx
asy
= 2π a x −
x3
2
3 0
!a
En 3
= 2π a −
a
3
3
!
=
4πa3
3
.
gin
Note
ee
The volume of the portion of the sphere that lies in the first octant is
1 1 4πa3 πa3 rin
8
× Volume of the sphere = ×
8 3
=
6
.
g.n
Example 4.73. Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the plane
x y z
et
+ + = 1 and the coordinate planes. [Jun 2006]
a b c
Solution. Let D be the region in space bounded by the tetrahedron.
x y z
The region of integration is given by + + = 1, x = 0, y = 0, z = 0.
a b c x y
Along the region of integration z varies from 0 to c 1 − − .
a b
x
y varies from 0 to b 1 − .
a


x x y
Za b(Z1− a ) c(1−
Za−b)
∴ Volume = dzdydx.
x=0 y=0 z=0
1− ax
Za b(Z )
c(1− x − y )
= (z)0 a b dydx.
x=0 y=0
x
Za b(Z1− a )
x y
ww =
x=0
Za
y=0
c 1 − − dydx.
a b
!b(1− ax )
w.E =c
x=0
y−
xy y2
a
−
2b 0
dx.
asy
Za n x x x 1 2 x 2 o
=c b 1− − b 1− − b 1− dx
a a a 2b a
En
x=0
Za
bc x 2
= 1− dx
2
gin
x=0
a
a
 1 − x 3 

=
=
bc 
−abc
ee
 a 
2  3 −1 
a
[0 − 1]
0
rin
=
6
6
abc
. g.n
Example 4.74. Find the volume of the portion of the cylinder x2 +y2 = 1 intercepted
between the plane x = 0 and the paraboloid x2 + y2 = 4 − z.
et[Jun 2012]
Solution. The surfaces are x2 + y2 = 1, x = 0 and x2 + y2 = 4 − z.
For the required volume integral
x varies from 0 to 1
√
y varies from 0 to 1 − x2
z varies from 0 to 4 − x2 − y2 .

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

√ 2 −y2
Z1 Z1−x2 4−x
Z
Volume = 4 dzdydx
x=0 y=0 z=0
√
2
Z1 Z1−x
4−x2 −y2
= 4 [z]0 dydx
x=0 y=0
√
Z1 Z1−x2
=4 (4 − x2 − y2 )dydx
ww =4
x=0 y=0
Z1  √
2
√
2
4(y)0 1−x − x2 (y)0 1−x −
 y3
! √1−x2 

 dx.
w.E x=0
3 0 
x = sin θ.
Z1
asy
(1 − x2 )3/2
p !
2 2
=4 (4 − x ) 1 − x − dx. dx = cos θdθ.
3
En
0
When x = 0, sin θ = 0 ⇒ θ = 0.
Zπ/2
(cos2 θ)3/2
!
π
(4 − sin2 θ) cos θ − When x = 1 sin θ = 1 ⇒ θ = .
gin
=4 cos θdθ
3 2
0
Zπ/2
ee
cos3 θ
!
2
=4 4 cos θ − sin θ cos θ − cos θdθ
3
0
rin
=4
Zπ/2
4 cos2 θ − sin2 θ cos2 θ −
cos4 θ
3
!
dθ g.n
=4
0
Zπ/2
4 cos2 θ − sin2 θ(1 − sin2 θ) −
cos4 θ
3
!
dθ
et
0
Zπ/2
cos4 θ
!
2 2 4
=4 4 cos θ − sin θ + sin θ − dθ
3
0
 π/2
Zπ/2 Zπ/2 Zπ/2

 Z 
1
= 4 4 cos2 θdθ − sin2 θdθ + sin4 θdθ − cos4 θdθ
 
 3 
0 0 0 0

" #
1 π 1 π 3 1 π 1 3 1 π
=4 4· · − · + · · − · · ·
2 2 2 2 4 2 2 3 4 2 2
" #
1 π 3 1
=4· · 4−1+ −
2 2 4 4
" #
3 1
7=π 3+ −
4 4
" #
1
=π 3+
2
7π
= Cubic units.
ww 2
Example 4.75. Find the volume bounded by the cylinder x2 +y2 = 4 and the planes
w.E
y + z = 4 and z = 0.
Solution.
[May 2011]
asy
En
The given surface is x2 + y2 = 4, z = 0 and
y + z = 4.
In the region, x varies from −2 to 2,
√ √ gin
ee
y varies from − 4 − x2 to 4 − x2 , z
varies from 0 to 4 − y.
Z2
√
Z4−x2 Z4−y
rin
∴ Volume =
√
x=−2 y=− 4−x2 z=0
dzdydx
g.n
et
√
Z2 Z4−x2
4−y
= [z]0 dydx.
√
x=−2 y=− 4−x2
√
Z2 Z4−x2
= (4 − y)dydx.
√
x=−2 y=− 4−x2
Z2  √ " 2 # √4−x2 

2 y 
4(y) √4−x 2 −
  dx.
= √
− 4−x 2 − 4−x2 
x=−2

Z2 " p p 1 #
2 2 2 2
= 4 4 − x + 4 − x − 4 − x − (4 − x ) dx.
2
−2
Z2 p
= 8 4 − x2 dx.
−2
Z2 p
=8×2 4 − x2 dx.
0
ww
" p #2
x 2
4 −1 x
= 16 4 − x + sin
2 2 2 0
w.E
h i
= 16 2 sin−1 1
π
= 16 × 2 ×
2
= 16π Cubic units.
asy
En
Example 4.76. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the cylinders x2 + y2 = a2
and x2 + z2 = a2 .
gin
Solution. The surfaces are the cylinders x2 + y2 = a2 and x2 + z2 = a2 .
In the given region,

ee rin
x varies from −a to a,
√ √ g.n
y varies from − a2 − x2 to a2 − x2 and
√
√
√
z varies from − a2 − x2 to a2 − x2 .
√
et
Za Za2 −x2 Za2 −x2
Volume = dzdydx.
√ √
x=−a y=− a2 −x2 z=− a2 −x2
√
Za Za2 −x2 √
2 2
= [z] √a −x dydx.
− a −x2
2
√
x=−a y=− a2 −x2

√
Za Za2 −x2 p p
= a2 − x2 + a2 − x2 dydx.
x=−a y=− √a2 −x2
√
Za Za2 −x2 p
= 2 a2 − x2 dydx
x=−a y=− √a2 −x2
Za p √
2 2
=2 a2 − x2 (y) √a −x
2 2
dx
− a −x
x=−a
ww =2
Za p
2
a −x 2
p
2 2
p
2 2

a − x + a − x dx
w.E
x=−a
Za p p
=2 a2 − x2 · 2 a2 − x2 dx.
asy
x=−a
Za !a #
x3
"
2 2 2 a
=4 (a − x )dx. = 4 a · (x)−a −
x=−a
"
1 3
#
En "
3 −a
2a3
#
4a3 16a3
gin
2 3 3
= 4 a (a + a) − (a + a ) = 4 2a − =4× = Cubic units.
3 3 3 3
and x2 = 4ay and the plane z = 0 and z = 3. ee

Example 4.77. Find the volume of the region bounded by the surfaces y2 = 4ax
Solution. Let us find the common points of the region bounded by

rin
y2 = 4ax g.n (1)
and x2 = 4ay.
(2) ⇒ y =
x2
4a
.
et (2)

x4
= 4ax.
16a2
x4 = 64a3 x.
x4 − 64a3 x = 0

x(x3 − 64a3 ) = 0
x = 0, x3 = 64a3
x = 4a.
For the given region,

x varies from 0 to 4a,
x2 √
y varies from to 4ax,
4a
z varies from 0 to 3.
ww ∴ Volume =
√
Z4a Z4axZ3
dzdydx
w.E x=0 y= x2 z=0

√
4a
Z4a Z4ax
√
Z4a Z4ax
asy
3
= [z]0 dydx. = 3dydx.
x=0 y= x2 x=0 y= x2
4a 4a
=3 En
Z4a √
[y] x24ax dx.
gin
x=0
Z4a √
4a
x2
!
=3

0
= 3 2 a
ee"
4ax −
 √ x3/2 4a 1
#
4a
−
dx.
·
" 3 #4a 
x 
rin
g.n

3/2 0 4a 3 0 
!
√ 2 3/2 1 3
= 3 2 a (4a) − · 64a
=3
√
4 a
3
3
√
· 4a 4a −
12a
16a2
3
!
et
16a2
!
16a √ √
=3 a·2 a−
3 3
2 2 16a2
!
32a 16a
=3 − =3× = 16a2 Cubic units.
3 3 3
Example 4.78. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the surfaces y2 = x and
the planes x + y + z = 2 and z = 0.

Solution. The given region is bounded by

y2 = x (1)
x+y+z=2 (2)
z = 0. (3)
Whenz = 0, (2) ⇒ x + y = 2
x = 2 − y.
ww y2 = 2 − y
y2 + y − 2 = 0
w.E (y − 1)(y + 2) = 0
∴ y = −2, 1.
For the given region we have,

asy
y varies from −2 to 1,
x varies from y2 to 2 − y and En
z varies from 0 to 2 − x − y.
gin
∴ Volume =
Z1 Z2−y 2−x−y
Z
dzdxdy
y=−2 x=y2 z=0
Z1 Z2−y
ee rin
=
2−x−y
[z]0 dxdy
g.n
et
y=−2 x=y2
Z1 Z2−y
= (2 − x − y)dxdy
y=−2 x=y2
Z1  " 2 #2−y 
 2−y x 2−y 

= 2 · [x]y2 − − y[x]y2  dy
2 y2
y=−2
Z1 !
2 1 2 4 2
= 2{2 − y − y } − {(2 − y) − y } − y{2 − y − y } dy.
2
−2

Z1 !
1
= 4 − 2y − 2y2 − [4 + y2 − 4y − y4 ] − [2y − y2 − y3 ] dy
2
−2
Z1
y2 y4
!
2 2 3
= 4 − 2y − 2y − 2 − + 2y + − 2y + y + y dy
2 2
−2
Z1
3y2 y4
!
3
= 2 − 2y − +y + dy
2 2
−2
#1 " #1 " 4 #1 " #1
y2 3 y3 1 y5
"
y
ww = 2[y]1−2 −2
2−2
−
2 3 −2
1
+
1
+
4 −2 2 5 −2
1
= 2(1 + 2) − (1 − 4) − (1 + 8) + (1 − 16) + (1 + 32)
w.E =6+3− −
9 15 33
2 4
+
10
2 4 10
=9− −
2
asy
9 15 33 180 − 90 − 75 + 66 81
4
+
10
=
20
=
20
Cubic units.
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

5 Differential Equations
5.1 Introduction
wwA differential equation is an equation involving one dependent variable and its
w.E
derivatives with respect to one or more independent variables.
Ordinary Differential Equation
asy
An ordinary differential equation is an equation in which there is only one
independent variable and so the derivatives involved in it are ordinary
derivatives.
En
Partial differential equation
gin
A partial differential equation is an equation in which there are two or more
of them.
ee
independent variables and partial differential coefficients with respect to any one
rin
Examples
∂2 u
(i) 2 = a2 2 .
∂x
∂2 u
∂t g.n
(ii) x
2
2∂ u
∂x2
∂u
(iii) x + y
∂x
+ 2xy
∂u
∂y
∂2 u
∂x∂y
= 5u.
+ y
2
2∂ u
∂y2
= 0.
et
Order of a differential equation
The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative that
occurs in it.
Degree of a differential equation
The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest derivative

occurring in it after the equation has been reduced to a form free from radicals
and fractions as far as the derivatives are concerned.
Examples
d2 x
(i) For the differential equation + a2 x = 0, the order is 2 and the degree is 1
dt2
 !2  23 2
 dy  = c d y , the order is 2 and degree is 2,

(ii) For the differential equation 1 +
dx dx2
 !2 3 2y 2
!
 dy  2 d
since it can be reduced to the form 1 +  = c .
dx  dx2
wwFormation of a differential equation

An ordinary differential equation can be formed by eliminating certain arbitrary
w.E
constants from a relation involving variables and constants.
applied mathematics, every geometrical and physical problems when translated
In the study of
asy
into a mathematical model will always give rise to a differential equation.
✎
✍
Worked Examples
☞
✌
En
Example 5.1. Form the differential equation of the family of straight lines passing
through the origin.
gin
Solution. The equation of the family of straight lines passing through the origin
is given by
ee y = mx.
rin (1)
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

dy g.n
Substituting the value of m in (1) we obtain
dx
!
= m.
et
dy
y= x
dx
which is the required differential equation.
Example 5.2. Obtain the differential equation of the family of circles

x2 + y2 + 2ax + r2 = 0 by eliminating the arbitrary constant a.

Differential Equations 311
Solution. The given equation is
x2 + y2 + 2ax + r2 = 0. (1)
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

dy
2x + 2y + 2a = 0
dx
dy
x+y = −a
dx !
dy
a=− x+y .
dx
ww Substituting the value of a in (1) we obtain

2 2 dy
!
+ r2 = 0
w.E
x + y − 2x x + y
dx
dy
x2 + y2 − 2x2 − 2xy + r2 = 0
dx
asy 2xy
dy
dx
= y2 − x2 + r2 ,
En
gin
Example 5.3. Find the differential equation of the family of circles with centre
(a, b) and radius r.
Solution. The equation of the circle is
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 .
ee rin (1)
g.n
dy
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get 2(x − a) + 2(y − b) =0
dx
dy
x − a + (y − b)
dx
= 0.
Again differentiating we get

d2 y dy dy
et (2)
1 + (y − b) + =0
dx2 dx dx  !2 
d2 y  dy 
(y − b) 2 = − 1 + 
dx dx 
dy 2
1 + dx
y−b=− 2
.
d y
dx2

Substituting this in (2) we get

dy 2
1 + dx dy
x−a− 2
=0
d y dx
dx2
dy 2
dy 1 + dx
x−a= .
dx d2 y
dx2
Substituting the values of x − a and y − b in (1) we obtain

2 dy 2 2
!2 1 + dy 2
ww dy
dx 2
d y
dx

dx2
2
+
1 +
2
d y
dx
2 = r2
dx2
w.E
1+
dy 2 2
dx


1 + dy
!2 

 = r2
asy
2 dx 
d2 y
dx2
dy 2 3
En 1+

d2 y
dx
2 = r2
gin 
dx2
dy
!2  32 2
 = r d y ,
ee
 
1 +
dx dx2

rin
Example 5.4. Form the differential equation of the simple harmonic motion
x = a cos nt. g.n
Solution. x = a cos nt.
Differentiate w.r.t. t we get
dx
et
= −an sin nt.
dt
Again differentiating w.r.t. t we obtain
d2 x
= an2 (− cos nt) = −n2 a cos nt = −n2 x
dt2
d2 x
+ n2 x = 0,
dt2

Solution of a differential equation

A solution of a differential equation is a relation between the variables that
satisfies the given differential equation. A solution of a differential equation is
also called as the integral of the equation.
Examples
d2 x
1. x = a cos nt is a solution of the differential equation + n2 x = 0.
dt2
d2 y dy
2. For the differential equation 2
+ 3 + 2y = 0, y = e−x and y = e−2x are
dx dx
wwsolutions.
General Solution
w.E
A general or complete solution of a differential equation is the one in which the
number of arbitrary constants is equal to the order of the differential equation.
Example. Consider
asy
y = A cos αx + B sin αx (1)
En
where A and B are the arbitrary constants.
gin
Differentiating w.r.t. x we get
dy
dx
d2 y
= −Aα sin αx + Bα cos αx.
ee
= −Aα2 cos αx − Bα2 sin αx. rin
dx2
= −α2 (A cos αx + B sin αx) = −α2 y.
g.n
d2 y
dx2
+ α2 y = 0.
et
Hence, (1) is a general solution of (2) as the number of arbitrary constants A, B is
(2)
the same as the order of (2).

Particular Solution
A particular solution is a solution that can be obtained by giving particular
values to the arbitrary constants in the general solution.
Example. y = 2 cos αx + sin αx is a particular solution of (2), since it can be derived

dy
from the general solution by giving initial values of 0, 2 and α to x, y and
dx
respectively.
Linear independent solutions
Two solutions y1 and y2 of the differential equation
d2 y dy
+ a1 (x) + a2 (x)y = 0 (1)
dx2 dx
wware said to be linearly independent, if there exist constants c1 and c2 such that
c1 y1 + c2 y2 = 0 implies c1 = 0 and c2 = 0.
w.E
If c1 and c2 are not both zero, then the two solutions y1 and y2 are said to be linearly
dependent.
asy
If y1 and y2 are any two solutions of (1) then the linear combination c1 y1 + c2 y2
where c1 and c2 are constants is also a solution of (1).
En
Example. y1 = e−x and y2 = e−2x are two independent solutions of the differential
equation
gind2 y dy
+ 3 + 2y = 0.
ee
dx 2 dx
Then, the general solution is y = c1 e−x + c2 e−2x .

Linear Differential Equation rin
g.n
A linear differential equation is an equation in which the dependent variable and
variable and derivative or product of derivatives.

Note.
et
its derivatives occur only in the first degree and there is no product of dependent
A differential equation which is not linear is called a non linear

differential equation.
Examples
d2 y
1. x 2 + y = x2 is linear.
dx
dy
2. y + x2 = 0 is nonlinear.
dx

5.2 Linear differential equation with constant coefficients
The general form of the nth order linear ordinary differential equation with
constant coefficients is
dn y dn−1 y dy
a0 n
+ a1 n−1
+ · · · + an−1 + an y = Q(x) (1)
dx dx dx
where a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an are constants with a0 , 0. If Q(x) = 0 then
dn y dn−1 y dy
(1) ⇒ a0 n
+ a1 n−1
+ · · · + an−1 + an y = 0 (2)
dx dx dx
wwwhich is the homogeneous equation corresponding to (1).

The general solution of (2) is called the complementary function of (1) and it is
w.E
denoted by yc . The general solution of (2) contains n arbitrary constants. A solution
which contains no arbitrary constants is a particular solution.
asy
If y p is a particular solution of (1), then the general solution of (1) is y = yc + y p .
En
This is also called as the complete solution of the ordinary differential equation.
Computation of Complementary function
Let
d
dx
d2
dx
Then (1) becomes
dn
= D, 2 = D2 , . . . , n = Dn .
dx
gin
ee
(a0 Dn + a1 Dn−1 + · · · + an−1 D + an )y = Q(x)
rin (3)
g.n
The auxiliary equation is
a0 mn + a1 mn−1 + a2 mn−2 + · · · + an−1 m + an = 0.
Let m1 , m2 , . . . , mn be its roots.

Case (i) If m1 , m2 , . . . , mn are real and different then
et
yc = CF = c1 em1 x + c2 em2 x + · · · + cn emn x .
Case (ii) If some of the roots (say r) are equal, where r < n
i.e m1 = m2 = · · · = mr = m, then
C.F = yc = (c1 + c2 x + c3 x2 + · · · + cr xr−1 )emx + cr+1 emr+1 x + · · · + cn emn x .

In particular, if two roots are equal say m1 = m2 = m then,
yc = (c1 + c2 x)emx + c3 em3 x + · · · + cn emn x .
Case (iii) If two roots are complex, say m1 = α + iβ and m2 = α − iβ and the other
roots are real and different, then
yc = eαx (c1 cos βx + c2 sin βx) + c3 em3 x + · · · + cn emn x .
wwCase (iv) If m1 = m2 = α + iβ, m3 = m4 = α − iβ and the other roots are real and
different, then
w.E yc = [(c1 + c2 x) cos βx + (c3 + c4 x) sin βx]eαx + c5 em5 x + · · · + cn emn x .
asy
Computation of particular integral (y p )
Let f (D) = a0 Dn + a1 Dn−1 + · · · + an−1 D + an .
En
Then (3) can be written as f (D)y = Q(x).
gin
Now y p = P.I. =
1
f (D)
Q(x)
5.2.1 Type I
Let Q(x) = eαx .

ee rin
g.n
Case (i) If α is not equal to any of the mi (i = 1, 2, . . . , n), then f (α) , 0. In this case
eαx
y p = PI =
f (α)
(Replace D by α).
Case (ii) If α is equal to some of the m′i s( say m1 = m2 = · · · = mr ) then
f (D) = (D − α)r g(D) where g(α) , 0.
et
1 αx eαx xr
∴ y p = PI = e = .
(D − α)r g(D) g(α)r!
In particular, if r = 1, then
1 eαx
yp = eαx = x.
(D − α)g(D) g(α)

1 αx eαx x2
When r = 2, y p = e = .
(D − α)2 g(D) g(α) 2!
1 αx eαx x3
When r = 3, y p = e = etc.
(D − α)3 g(D) g(α) 3!
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Example 5.5. Solve (D2 − 4)y = 1. [Dec 2013]
Solution. The auxiliary equation is
ww m2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ m2 = 4
∴ yc = c1 e2x + c2 e−2x .
⇒ m = ±2.
w.E yp =
1
=
1
D2 − 4 D2 − 4
e0x
=
e0x
0−4
1
=− .
4
asy 1
Solution is y = yc + y p = c1 e2x + c2 e−2x − .
4
En
Example 5.6. Solve (4D2 − 4D + 1)y = 4.
1 1
Solution. A.E is 4m2 − 4m + 1 = 0 ⇒ (2m − 1)2 = 0 ⇒ m = , .
[Jun 1996]
1
gin
yc = e 2 x (c1 + c2 x).
2 2
yp =
1
ee
4D2 − 4D + 1
(4) =
x
Solution is y = yc + y p = (c1 + c2 x)e 2 + 4.
1
4D2 − 4D + 1
4
e0x = = 4.
1
rin
Example 5.7. Find the particular integral of (D2 − 2D + 1)y = cos hx.
g.n
Solution.
PI =
1
D2 − 2D + 1
"
cos hx =
1
(D − 1)2
#
e x + e−x
2
!
et
[Jun 2013, Jun 2005]
1 1 1
= 2
ex + e−x
2 (D − 1) (D − 1)2
1 x x2 e−x
" #
= e +
2 2 (−1 − 1)2
" 2 x
e−x x2 e x e−x
#
1 x e
= + = + .
2 2 4 4 8

Example 5.8. Find the particular integral of (D2 − 4)y = cosh 2x. [May 2011]
Solution. 1
PI = cosh 2x
D2 −4 " 2x
e + e−2x
#
1
=
(D + 2)(D − 2) 2
" #
1 1 1
= e2x + e−2x
2 (D + 2)(D − 2) (D + 2)(D − 2)
1 x 2x
x −2x
= e + e
2 4 −4
x 2x
ww =
=
8
x
[e − e−2x ]
sinh 2x.
w.E
4
Example 5.9. Find the particular integral of (D3 − 1)y = e2x . [May 2005]
e2x e2x
asy
1
Solution. PI = 3 e2x = 3 = .
D −1 2 −1 7
Solution. En
Example 5.10. Find the particular integral of (D − 1)2 = sinh x. [Nov 2003]
gin
" x
e − e−x
#
1 1
PI = sinh x =
(D − 1)2 (D − 1)2 2
ee
" #
1 1 1
= 2
ex − e−x
(D − 1)2
rin
2 (D − 1)
1 x2 x 1 −x
" #
= e − e
2 2
x 2
= ex −
e−x
4
. g.n
4
Example 5.11. Solve

8
d2 y
dx 2
dy
+ 4 + 5y = −2 cosh x.
dx
et
Solution. The A.E is
m2 + 4m + 5 = 0 ⇒ (m + 2)2 + 5 − 4 = 0
⇒ (m + 2)2 = −1 ⇒ m + 2 = ±i ⇒ m = −2 ± i.
yc = e−2x (c1 cos x + c2 sin x).

2
yp = [−(e x + e−x )]
2(D2
+ 4D + 5)
−1 1
= 2 ex − 2 e−x
D + 4D + 5 D + 4D + 5
−e x e−x
= −
1+4+5 1−4+5
−e x e−x
= − .
10 2
The general solution is y = yc + y p
ww y = e−2x (c1 cos x + c2 sin x) −

e x e−x
10
−
2
.
w.E
Example 5.12. Find the particular integral of (D + 2)(D − 1)2 y = e−2x + 2 sinh x.
[May 2006]
Solution.
PI =
1
asy
(D + 2)(D − 1)2
[e−2x + 2 sinh x]
=
1
(D + 2)(D − 1) 2
En
[e−2x + e x − e−x ]
=
1
(D + 2)(D − 1) 2
gin
e−2x +
1
(D + 2)(D − 1) 2
ex −
1
(D + 2)(D − 1)2
e−x
=
x −2x x2 x e−x
9
9
e + e −
e + e −
6
6
2
x −2x x x e−x
1(4)
4
.
ee rin
Example 5.13. Solve (D2 + 1)2 y = 0. g.n [May 2008]
Solution. A.E is (m2 + 1)2 = 0.
m2 = −1, m2 = −1 =⇒ m = ±i, m = ±i.
The complex roots are repeated.
et
∴ yc = CF = (c1 + c2 x) cos x + (c3 + c4 x) sin x.
y p = PI = 0.
Solution is y = yc + y p
y = (c1 + c2 x) cos x + (c3 + c4 x) sin x.

Example 5.14. Solve (D2 + 1)y = 0 given that y(0) = 0, y′ (0) = 1. [May 1996]
Solution. A.E is m2 + 1 = 0 =⇒ m2 = −1 =⇒ m = ±i.
CF = yc = e0x [c1 cos x + c2 sin x] = c1 cos x + c2 sin x.
y p = PI = 0.
y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x.
ww Given: y(0) = 0.
w.E =⇒ c1 = 0
y′ = −c1 sin x + c2 cos x.
asy
Given: y′ (0) = 1 =⇒ c2 = 1.
Hence, solution is, y = sin x.
1 En
Example 5.15. Find the particular integral of (D2 − 4D + 4)y = 2 x .
1
[Dec 2012]
Solution. P.I = 2
D − 4D + 4
2x
2x =
gin
(D − 2)2
e x log 2
=
(log 2 − 2)2
.
ee
Example 5.16. Find the particular integral of (D2 − 4)y = 3 x .
1 1 1 3x rin [May 2007]
g.n
x x log 3 x log 3
Solution. PI = 2 3 = 2 e = e = .
D −4 D −4 (log 3)2 − 4 (log 3)2 − 4
d2 y
et
dy
Example 5.17. Solve + 6 + 5y = e2x .
dx2 dx
Solution. (D2 + 6D + 5)y = e2x .
A.E is, m2 + 6m + 5 = 0 ⇒ (m + 1)(m + 5) = 0 ⇒ m = −1, −5.
yc = c1 e−x + c2 e−5x .
1 2x 1 2x e2x e2x
yp = e = e = = .
D2 + 6D + 5 (D + 1)(D + 5) 3(7) 21
e2x
Solution is, y = yc + y p = c1 e−x + c2 e−5x + .
21

d3 y d2 y dy
Example 5.18. Solve + 2 + = e2x .
dx3 dx2 dx
m3 + 2m2 + m = 0 ⇒ m(m2 + 2m + 1) = 0
⇒ m(m + 1)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 0, m = −1, −1.
yc = c1 e0x + (c2 + c3 x)e−x
yc = c1 + e−x (c2 + c3 x).
ww yp =
D3
1
+ 2D2 + D
e2x
w.E
1
= e2x
D(D + 1)2
e2x e2x
= = .
2(3)2
asy
18
En
y = c1 + e−x (c2 + c3 x) +
e2x
18
.
gin
Example 5.19. Solve (D2 − 2D + 1)y = (e x + 1)2 . [ Dec 2010]
Solution. AE is m2
ee
− 2m + 1 = 0 =⇒ (m −
yc = e x (c1 + c2 x)
1
1)2 = 0 =⇒ m = 1, 1.
rin
yp =
D2− 2D + 1
1
(e x + 1)2
(e2x + 1 + 2e x ) g.n
et
= 2
(D − 1)
1 1 1
= 2
e2x + 2
e0x + 2 ex
(D − 1) (D − 1) (D − 1)2
e2x x2
= + 1 + 2 ex
1 2
= e2x + 1 + x2 e x .
y = e x (c1 + c2 x) + e2x + 1 + x2 e x .

5.2.2 Type II
Q(x) = sin ax or cos ax where a is a constant.
1 1
y p = P.I. = sin ax or cos ax.
f (D) f (D)
Working rule. Replace D2 by −a2 and evaluate till D is eliminated.

If f (D) = D2 + a2 , then f (D) = 0 when D2 is replaced by −a2 . In this case
Z
1 x −x
wwand
P.I. = 2
D +a 2
sin ax =
2
sin axdx =
2a
cos ax.
w.E 2
1
D +a 2
cos ax =
x
2
Z
cos axdx =
x
2a
sin ax.
Another method
asy
1 1 iax
P.I. =
En
f (D)
sin ax = Imaginary Part of
f (D)
e
and
P.I. =
1gincos ax = Real Part of
1 iax
e
which can be evaluated using Type I.

Note
f (D)
ee f (D)
rin
Suppose f (D) = 0 when D2 is replaced by −a2 , then f (D) is of the form f (D2 ).
Then, P.I. =
1
cos ax =
cos ax
. If f (−a2 ) = 0 then P.I. = ′
x cos ax g.n
if f ′ (−a2 ) , 0.
2
f (D ) 2
f (−a )
x2 cos ax
If f ′ (−a2 ) = 0, then P.I. = ′′
f (−a2 )
f (−a2 )
et
if f ′′ (−a2 ) , 0, and so on. In a similar way the
particular integral for sin ax can be evaluated replacing cos ax.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
Example 5.20. Find the particular integral of (D2 + 4)y = sin 2x.
[Dec 2009, Dec 2011]
Solution.

Z
1 x
PI = 2
sin 2x = sin 2xdx [∵ f (−a2 ) = 0]
D +4 2
!
x − cos 2x
=
2 2
x
= − cos 2x.
4
Example 5.21. Find the particular integral of (D2 + 1)y = sin x sin 2x. [May 1997]
Solution. 1
PI = (sin x sin 2x)
D2+1" #
−1 cos 3x − cos x
ww = 2
=
D +1
−1
"
1
2
cos 3x − 2
1
cos x
#
w.E =
2 D2 + 1
"
−1 cos 3x
2 −32 + 1 2
−
x
Z
D +1
cos xdx
#
=−
"
2 −8 asy
1 cos 3x x
− sin x
2
#
=
cos 3x x sin x
16
+
4 En.
Example 5.22. Find the particular

1 x
Z gin
integral of (D2 + 1)y = sin x.
−x
[Jun 2010]
Solution. P.I = 2
D +1
sin x =
2
ee
sin xdx =
2
cos x.
rin
Example 5.23. Find the particular integral of (D2 + 4D + 2)y = sin 3x. [May 1998]
g.n
Solution. 1 1 1
PI = 2
sin 3x = sin 3x = sin 3x
D + 4D + 2 −9 + 4D + 2 4D − 7
(4D + 7) 4 cos 3x(3) + 7 sin 3x
=
=
(4D + 7)(4D − 7)
12 cos 3x + 7 sin 3x
16(−9) − 49
sin 3x =
16D2 − 49
et
12 cos 3x + 7 sin 3x
=
−144 − 49
1
=− [12 cos 3x + 7 sin 3x].
193
Example 5.24. Find the particular 2

Z integral of (D + 4)y = cos 2x. [May 2001]
1 x x sin 2x x sin 2x
Solution. PI = 2 cos 2x = cos 2xdx = = .
D +4 2 2 2 4

Example 5.25. Find the particular integral of (D2 + 1)2 y = sin 2x.
1 sin 2x sin 2x
Solution. PI = 2 2
sin 2x = 2
= .
(D + 1) (−4 + 1) 9
Example 5.26. Find the particular integral of (D2 + 1)y = sin2 x.

Solution. 1 1 1 − cos 2x
!
2
PI = 2 sin x = 2
D +1 D +1 2
" #
1 1 1
= − cos 2x
2 D2 + 1 D2 + 1
" #
ww
1 1 0x cos 2x
= e −
2 D2 + 1 −4 + 1
" #
1 cos 2x
w.E =
2
1+
1 cos 2x
= +
2 6
3
.
asy
Example 5.27. Find the particular integral of (D"2 + 1)y = sin(2x + 5).
En
#
1 sin(2x + 5) sin(2x + 5)
Solution. PI = 2 sin(2x + 5) = =− .
D +1 −4 + 1 3
gin
Example 5.28. Find the particular integral of (D2 + 4D + 8)y = cos(2x + 3).
Solution.
PI =
=
1
D2 + 4D + 8
1
ee
cos(2x + 3) =
cos(2x + 3) =
1 1
1
−4 + 4D + 8
cos(2x + 3)
cos(2x + 3) rin
=
4D" + 4
1 (D − 1)
4 D + 1#
cos(2x + 3) g.n
et
4 (D − 1)(D + 1)
" #
1 −2 sin(2x + 3) − cos(2x + 3)
=
4 D2 − 1
" #
1 2 sin(2x + 3) + cos(2x + 3)
=−
4 −4 − 1
1
= [2 sin(2x + 3) + cos(2x + 3)] .
20
Example 5.29. Solve (D2 − 4D + 3)y = sin 3x cos 2x. [May 2007]
Solution. The A.E is, m2 − 4m + 3 = 0 ⇒ (m − 1)(m − 3) = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 3.

yc = c1 e x + c2 e3x .
1
yp = sin 3x cos 2x
D2− 4D + 3
1 1
= 2
(sin 5x + sin x)
2 D − 4D + 3
1 1 1 1
= 2
sin 5x + 2
sin x
2 D − 4D + 3 2 D − 4D + 3
= PI1 + PI2 .
1 1 1 1
P.I1 = 2
sin 5x = sin 5x
2 D − 4D + 3 2 (−25 − 4D + 3)
ww =
1 1
2 (−22 − 4D)
sin 5x =
−1 1
4 (11 + 2D)
sin 5x
w.E =−
=−
1 (2D − 11)
4 (2D + 11)(2D − 11)
sin 5x
1 2 × 5 cos 5x − 11 sin 5x
=−
4
asy
4D2 − 121
1 10 cos 5x − 11 sin 5x
4 4(−25) − 121
=−
4 En
1 10 cos 5x − 11 sin 5x
−221
=
884 gin
10 cos 5x − 11 sin 5x
.
ee
" #
1 1 1 1
P.I2 = sin x = sin x
2 D2 − 4D + 3 2 (−1) − 4D + 3
=
1 1
2 2 − 4D
sin x =
1 1
4 1 − 2D
sin x
rin
=
1 (1 + 2D)
4 (1 − 4D2 )
sin x
g.n
=
=
1 sin x + 2 cos x
4
20
5
sin x + 2 cos x
.
et
10 cos 5x − 11 sin 5x sin x + 2 cos x
y = c1 e x + c2 e3x + + .
884 20
Example 5.30. Solve (D2 + 1)y = sin2 x. [May 2006]
1 − cos 2x
Solution. (D2 + 1)y = .
2

The A.E is m2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ m2 = −1 ⇒ m = ±i
yc = e0x (c1 cos x + c2 sin x) = c1 cos x + c2 sin x

1 1 1
yp = (1 − cos 2x) = − cos 2x
2(D2 + 1) + 1) 2(D2+ 1) 2(D2
1 cos 2x 1 1
= e0x − = + cos 2x.
2(D2 + 1) 2(−4 + 1) 2 6
ww y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x +
1 1
+ cos 2x.
2 6
w.E
Example 5.31. Solve the equation (D2 + 16)y = cos3 x.
Solution. A.E.is
[Dec. 2010]
asy
m2 + 16 = 0 ⇒ m2 = −16 ⇒ m = ±4i
En
yc = e0x (c1 cos 4x + c2 sin 4x)
gin
yc = c1 cos 4x + c2 sin 4x.
1
ee rin
yp =
D2
cos3 x
+ 16 "
1 1
#
g.n
cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ
= 2
=
D + 16 4
1
"
1
4 D2 + 16
"
(cos 3x + 3 cos x)
cos 3x + 3 2
1
D + 16
# "
cos x
#
#
1
et
4 cos3 θ = cos 3θ + 3 cos θ
cos3 θ = (cos 3θ + 3 cos θ)

4
1 cos 3x 3 cos x 1 cos 3x 3 cos x
= + = +
4 −9 + 16 −1 + 16 4 7 15
cos 3x 3 cos x
yp = + .
28 20
cos 3x 3 cos x
Solution is y = yc + y p = c1 cos 4x + c2 sin 4x + +
28 20

Example 5.32. Solve (D2 − 3D + 2)y = 2 cos(2x + 3) + 2e x . [Dec 2011, May 2005]
m2 − 3m + 2 = 0 ⇒ (m − 1)(m − 2) = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 2.
yc = c1 e x + c2 e2x .
1 1
yp = 2 cos(2x + 3) + 2 2e x
D2 − 3D + 2 D − 3D + 2
= PI1 + PI2 .
1 1
PI1 = 2 cos(2x + 3) = 2 cos(2x + 3)
ww D2 − 3D + 2 −4 − 3D + 2
1 1
=2 cos(2x + 3) = −2 cos(2x + 3)
−2 − 3D 2 + 3D
w.E = −2
= −2
(2 − 3D)
4 − 9D2
cos(2x + 3)
2 cos(2x + 3) + 6 sin(2x + 3)
1
asy 4 + 36
= − 2[cos(2x + 3) + 3 sin(2x + 3)]
20
1
En
= − [cos(2x + 3) + 3 sin(2x + 3)].
10
PI2 = 2
1
gin
(D − 1)(D − 2)
e x = 2x
ex
−1
= −2xe x .
ee
1
y = c1 e x + c2 e2x − [cos(2x + 3) + 3 sin(2x + 3)] − 2xe x .
10
rin
Example 5.33. Solve (D2 + 16)y = e−3x + cos 4x.
Solution. The A.E is g.n
m2 + 16 = 0 ⇒ m2 = −16 ⇒ m = ±4i.
yc = e0x (c1 cos 4x + c2 sin 4x) = c1 cos 4x + c2 sin 4x.
1 1 e−3x x
Z
et
yp = 2 e−3x + 2 cos 4x = + cos 4xdx
D + 16 D + 16 9 + 16 2
e−3x x sin 4x e −3x x sin 4x
= + = + .
25 2 4 25 8
The general solution is y = yc + y p .
e−3x x sin 4x
y = c1 cos 4x + c2 sin 4x + + .
25 8

5.2.3 Type III
Q(x) = xm where m is a positive integer.

xm xm 1
PI = = = [1 ± g(D)]−1 xm .
f (D) k[1 ± g(D)] k
Expand [1 ± g(D)]−1 using binomial series expansion upto Dm and operate on xm
term by term, we obtain the required particular integral.
Z
1 1
Note. It is important to note that f (x) = f (x)dx. 2 f (x) means integrate
D D
f (x) w.r.t x twice and so on.
wwThe following results will be useful for our discussion.

(i) (1 + x)−1 = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + x4 − · · ·
w.E
(ii) (1 + x)−2 = 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + · · ·
(iii) (1 − x)−1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + · · ·
asy
(iv) (1 − x)−2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + · · · .
En
Example 5.34. Find the particular integral of (D2 + D)y = x2 + 2x + 4. [Jun 2000]
Solution.
gin
1 1
PI = (x2 + 2x + 4) = (x2 + 2x + 4)
D2
+D D(D + 1)
1 1
1 2
Z
1
ee
= (1 + D)−1 (x2 + 2x + 4) = (1 − D + D2 − · · · )(x2 + 2x + 4)
D D
1
= (x + 2x + 4 − 2x − 2 + 2) = (x2 + 4)
D D
rin
2
= (x + 4)dx
x3
[∵
D
stands for integration]
g.n
=
1
3
+ 4x.
Example 5.35. Find the particular integral of (D2 + 5D + 1)y = x2 .

et[May 2002]
Solution. PI = 2 x2 = (1 + (D2 + 5D))−1 x2
D + 5D + 1
= (1 − (D2 + 5D) + (D2 + 5D)2 + · · · )x2 = (1 − D2 − 5D + 25D2 + · · · )x2
= (1 − 5D + 24D2 )x2 = x2 − 5(2x) + 24(2)
= x2 − 10x + 48.

Example 5.36. Solve (D3 − 3D2 − 6D + 8)y = x. [Dec 2006]

Solution. A.E is m3 − 3m2 − 6m + 8 = 0
(m − 1)(m + 2)(m − 4) = 0 ⇒ m = 1, −2, 4.
yc = c1 e x + c2 e−2x + c3 e4x .
1
yp = x
D3 − 3D2 − 6D + 8
1
= h 3 2
ix
8 1 + D −3D8 −6D
#−1
ww D3 − 3D2 − 6D
"
1
= 1+ x
8 8
D3 − 3D2 − 6D
! !
1
w.E =
=
8
1
"
1−
6
8
#
1 + D + ··· x =
1
"
+ ··· x
x+
6
#
=
8
1
8
"
8
3
x+ .
4
#
asy 8 8
En
The general solution is y = yc "+ y p #
gin
y = c1 e x + c2 e−2x + c3 e4x +
1
8
3
x+ .
4
Solution. The A.E is m3 − m2 ee

Example 5.37. Solve (D3 − D2 − D + 1)y = 1 + x2 .
⇒ (m − 1)(m2 − 1) = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 1, −1.
−m+1=0⇒ m2 (m
rin
− 1) − (m − 1) = 0
[Apr 2007]
yc = c1 e −x
1
x
+ e (c2 + c3 x).
g.n
yp =
= 3
−D3
2
1
−D+1
D −D −D+1
(1 + x2 )
D2
e0x + 3
1
2
D −D −D+1
x2
et
x2
=1+ = 1 + [1 − (D + D2 − D3 )]−1 x2
1 − (D + D2 − D3 )
= 1 + [1 + (D + D2 − D3 ) + (D + D2 − D3 )2 + · · · ]x2
= 1 + [1 + D + D2 + D2 + · · · ]x2
= 1 + [x2 + 2x + 4] = x2 + 2x + 5.


y = c1 e−x + e x (c2 + c3 x) + x2 + 2x + 5.
Example 5.38. Solve (D2 + D)y = x2 + 2x + 4. [Dec 2008]

m2 + m = 0 ⇒ m(m + 1) = 0 ⇒ m = 0, −1.
yc = c1 + c2 e−x .
ww yp =
1
D2 + D
(x2 + 2x + 4) =
1
D(1 + D)
(x2 + 2x + 4)
w.E 1
= (1 + D)−1 (x2 + 2x + 4)
D
1
= [1 − D + D2 − · · · ](x2 + 2x + 4)
D
1
asy
= [x2 + 2x + 4 − (2x + 2) + 2]
D
1
= [x2 + 4]
D En
gin
Z
= (x2 + 4)dx
=
x3
3
+ 4x.
ee rin
g.n
The Solution is y = yc + y p
y = c1 + c2 e−x +
x3
3
+ 4x.
et
5.2.4 Type IV
Q(x) = eax g(x) where g(x) may be xm or sin ax or cos ax. In this case
1 ax ax g(x)
P.I = e g(x) = e . This will fall into any of the previous three types
f (D) f (D + a)
which can be evaluated by the known methods.

5.2.5 Type V
Q(x) = xm cos ax or xm sin ax. In this case
1 m 1 m
P.I = x cos ax or x sin ax.
f (D) f (D)
1 iax m 1 m iax
= R.P e x or I.P x e .
f (D) f (D)
1 1
= R.P eiax xm or I.P eiax xm
f (D + ia) f (D + ia)
wwwhich can be evaluated by earlier methods.

✎
✍
Worked Examples
☞
✌
w.E
Example 5.39. Find the particular integral of (D2 + 4D + 4)y = xe−2x . [May 2005]
Solution.
asy
1 1
PI = xe−2x = xe−2x
D2+ 4D + 4 (D + 2)2
1 1
= e−2x
1 1 En
(D − 2 + 2) 2
x = e−2x 2 x
1
Z
D
= e−2x
DD
−2x 1 x
x = e−2x
2
!
gin
e−2x
D
Z
xdx
x2 dx
ee
=e =
D 2 2
=
e−2x x3
2 3
=
x3 e−2x
6
.
rin
Example 5.40. Find the particular integral of
1 1
(D2+ 1)y =
1
xe x .
g.n
[Jun 2003]
et
Solution. P.I = xe x = e x x = ex 2 x
2
D +1 2
(D + 1) + 1 D + 2D + 1 + 1
1 1
= ex 2 x = ex h 2
ix
D + 2D + 2 2 1 + D +2D
2
#−1
ex D2 + 2D
"
= 1+ x
2 2
ex D2 + 2D ex
" #
= 1− + · · · x = [1 − D · · · ]x
2 2 2
ex
= [x − 1].
2

Example 5.41. Find the particular integral of y′′ + 2y′ + 5y = e−x cos 2x.[May 2005]
Solution. P.I = 1 1
2
e−x cos 2x = e−x 2
cos 2x
D + 2D + 5 (D − 1) + 2(D − 1) + 5
1 1
= e−x 2 cos 2x = e−x 2 cos 2x
DZ− 2D + 1 + 2D − 2 + 5 D +4
x x sin 2x
= e−x cos 2xdx = e−x
2 2 2
e−x x sin 2x
= .
4
Example 5.42. Find the particular integral of (D2 − 2D + 2)y = e x cos x. [Dec 2010]
wwSolution. P.I = 1
D2 − 2D + 2
e x cos x.
1
w.E = ex ·
= ex · 2
D +✟
2
(D + 1) − 2(D + 1) + 2
✟+ 1 −✟
1
✟− 2
cos x.
cos x.
asy ✁+2 ✁
2D 2D
1 cos x
= ex · 2 cos x. = e x · x
D
Z +1 2D
=
xe x
2
En
cos xdx =
xe x sin x
2
.
Solution. 1 gin
Example 5.43. Find the particular integral of (D2 − 2D + 4)y = e x cos x. [Dec 2001]
1
PI =
D2
= ex 2
− 2D + 4
1 ee
e x cos x = e x
D + 2D + 1 − 2D − 2 + 4
2
(D + 1) − 2(D + 1) + 4
cos x = e x 2
1
D +3
cos x
cos x
rin
= ex
cos x
−1 + 3
=
e x cos x
2
.
g.n
Example 5.44. Find the particular integral of (D − 1)2 y = e x sin x.
Solution. PI =
1
2
e x sin x = e x
1
sin x
et
[May 2003, Jun 2012]
(D − 1) (D + 1 − 1)2
1 1 1
= e x 2 sin x = e x sin x
DZ DD
1 1
= ex sin xdx = e x (− cos x)
D D
Z
= −e x cos xdx = −e x sin x.

Example 5.45. Solve (D2 + 5D + 4)y = e−x sin 2x. [Dec 2012, May 2011]
Solution. A.E is m2 + 5m + 4 = 0
(m + 1)(m + 4) = 0 ⇒ m = −1, −4.
yc = c1 e−x + c2 e−4x .
1
yp = e−x sin 2x.
D2+ 5D + 4
−x 1
=e · 2
sin 2x.
(D − 1) + 5(D − 1) + 4
ww = e−x 2
1
D − 2D + 1 + 5D − 5 + 4
= e−x · 2
1
sin 2x.
w.E
sin 2x.
D + 3D
1
= e−x · sin 2x.
−4 + 3D
= e−x ·
asy3D + 4
(3D + 4)(3D − 4)
sin 2x.
En
3D + 4
= e−x · sin 2x.
9D2 − 16
gin
3 × 2 cos 2x + 4 sin 2x
= e−x
9 × (−4) − 16
6 cos 2x + 4 sin 2x
= e−x
=−
e−x
−52
−52
ee
(6 cos 2x + 4 sin 2x).
rin
y = c1 e−x + c2 e−4x −
e−x
(6 cos 2x + 4 sin 2x) g.n
52
Example 5.46. Solve (D2 − 2D + 2)y = e2x x2 + 5 + e−2x .

Solution. A.E. is
et[Jun 2009]
m2 − 2m + 2 = 0 ⇒ (m − 1)2 + 2 − 1 = 0
(m − 1)2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ (m − 1)2 = −1
(m − 1) = ±i ⇒ m = 1 ± i.

yc = e x (c1 cos x + c2 sin x).

1
yp = (e2x x2 + 5 + e−2x )
D2
− 2D + 2
1 5 1
= 2 e2x x2 + 2 + 2 e−2x
D − 2D + 2 D − 2D + 2 D − 2D + 2
= PI1 + PI2 + PI3 .
1 1
PI1 = e2x x2 = e2x x2
D2
− 2D + 2 2
(D + 2) − 2(D + 2) + 2
1 1
= e2x 2 x2 = e2x 2 x2
ww
D + 4 + 4D − 2D − 4 + 2 D + 2D + 2
1 e2x D2 + 2D −1 2
= e2x 2
x 2
= 1 + x
2(1 + D +2D ) 2 2
w.E
2
2x 2
!2
e D + 2D D2 + 2D
= [1 − + + . . . ]x2
2 2 2
=
e2x 2 1
2
e2x 2
asy
[x − .2 − 2x + 2]
2
e2x 2
=
2
5 En
[x − 1 − 2x + 2] =
5
2
(x − 2x + 1).
PI2 = 2
D − 2D + 2
1 gin
e0x = .
2
e−2x e−2x
PI3 = 2
D − 2D + 2
The solution is y = yc + y p ee
e−2x =
4+4+2
e2x 2
=
10
.
5 e−2x rin
y = e x (c1 cos x + c2 sin x) +
d2 y
2
(x − 2x + 1) + +
2 10
.
g.n
Example 5.47. Solve
dx2
− 4y = x sinh x.
Solution. (D2 − 4)y = x sinh x
A.E. is
et
[Apr 2006]
m2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ m2 = 4 ⇒ m = ±2.
yc = c1 e2x + c2 e−2x
1 1
y p = PI = x sinh x = x(e x − e−x )
D2 − 4 2(D2 − 4)
1 1 1 1
= xe x − xe−x
2 D2 − 4 2 D2 − 4

ex 1 e−x 1
= x − x
2 (D + 1)2 − 4 2 (D − 1)2 − 4
ex 1 e−x 1
= 2
x − 2
x
2 D + 2D + 1 − 4 2 D − 2D + 1 − 4
ex 1 e−x 1
= x − x
2 D2 + 2D − 3 2 D2 − 2D − 3
ex 1 e−x 1
= 2
x− x
2 (−3)(1 − D +2D ) 2 (−3)(1 − D2 −2D )
3 3
ex D2 + 2D −1 e−x D2 − 2D −1
= 1− x+ 1− x
−6 3 6 3
ww =
−e x h
6
−e x h
1+
D2 + 2D
3
2 i e−x h
i
+ ··· x +
2i
e−x h
6
1+
D2 − 2D
3
i
+ ··· x
w.E P.I. =
6
x+
3
+
The solution is y = yc + y p
6
x− .
3
asy
y = c1 e2x + c2 e−2x −
ex h
6
x+
2 i e−x h
3
+
6
x−
2i
3
Example 5.48. Solve

d2 y
dx2
+ 2
dy
dxEn
+ y =
e−x
x2
. [Jun 2013, May 1989 ]
gin
Solution. A.E is m2 + 2m + 1 = 0 ⇒ (m + 1)2 = 0 ⇒ m = −1, −1.
yc = e−x (c1 + c2 x).
yp =
1
2
(D + 1) x
e−x
2
= e−xee 1 1
(D − 1 + 1) x2
2
rin
g.n
! Z
1 1 1
= e−x 2 2 = e−x x−2 dx
D x D
et
h −1 i Z
−x 1 x −x 1
=e = −e dx
D −1 x
y p = −e−x log x.
y = e−x (c1 + c2 x) − e−x log x.
Example 5.49. Solve (D4 − 1)y = e x cos x. [Apr 2009]

Solution. A.E is m4 − 1 = 0 ⇒ (m2 − 1)(m2 + 1) = 0

⇒ (m − 1)(m + 1)(m2 + 1) = 0 ⇒ m = 1, −1, m2 = −1 ⇒ m = ±i.
yc = C1 e x + C2 e−x + C3 cos x + C4 sin x.

1 1 1
yp = e x cos x = e x cos x = e x 2 cos x
D4−1 4
(D + 1) − 1 (D + 2D + 1)2 − 1
1
= ex 4 cos x
D + 4D + 1 + 4D3 + 2D2 + 4D − 1
2
1
= ex 4 cos x
D + 4D + 6D2 + 4D
3
1 cos x
= ex cos x = e x
ww yp = −
1 − 4D − 6 + 4D
e x cos x
5
.
−5
w.E The general solution is y = yc + y p .
asy
y = C1 e x + C2 e−x + C3 cos x + C4 sin x −
e x cos x
5
.
Solution. (D + 2)2 y = e−2x sin x En

Example 5.50. Solve (D + 2)2 y = e−2x sin x. [Jun 2009]
(D2 + 4D + 4)y = e−2x sin x.

gin
yc = e−2x (c1 + c2 x).
ee
A.E. is (m + 2)2 = 0 ⇒ m = −2, −2.
rin
yp =
1
(D + 2)2
e−2x sin x
1 g.n
= e−2x
(D − 2 + 2)2
1
= e−2x 2 sin x
D
sin x
et
sin x
= e−2x
−1
= −e−2x sin x.

y = e−2x (c1 + c2 x) − e−2x sin x.

Example 5.51. Solve (D2 + 4D + 3)y = e−x sin x + xe3x . [Jun 2010, Jan 2002]
Solution. A.E is m2 + 4m + 3 = 0 ⇒ (m + 1)(m + 3) = 0 ⇒ m = −1, −3.
yc = c1 e−x + c2 e−3x .
1
yp = (e−x sin x + xe3x )
D2
+ 4D + 3
1 1
= e−x sin x + xe3x
(D + 1)(D + 3) (D + 1)(D + 3)
e−x e3x
= sin x + x
(D − 1 + 1)(D − 1 + 3) (D + 3 + 1)(D + 3 + 3)
ww =
e−x
D(D + 2)
sin x +
e3x
(D + 4)(D + 6)
x
w.E = PI1 + PI2 .
PI1 = e−x
1
sin x = e−x
1
sin x
= e−x asy
D2
+ 2D
(2D + 1)
2
4D − 1
sin x = e−x
2D − 1
2 cos x + sin x
−5
=
−e−x
5 En
(2 cos x + sin x).
PI2 = e3x
1
gin
(D + 4)(D + 6)
x
= 2
=
e3x

1
D + 10D + 24
1
24 1 + D2 +10D
x
ee
x
rin
=
e3x
1+
2
24
D + 10D −1
x g.n
=
=
24
e3x h
24
e3x h
1−
x−
10 i
24
D2 + 10D D2 + 10D 2
24
+
24
i
− ··· x et
24 24
e3x h 5i
= x− .
24 12

e−x e3x h 5i
y = c1 e−x + c2 e−3x − (2 cos x + sin x) + x− .
5 24 12

Example 5.52. Solve (D2 − 4D + 3)y = e x cos 2x. [Jun 2012]

Solution. A.E. is
m2 − 4m + 3 = 0
(m − 1)(m − 3) = 0
m = 1, 3.
yc = c1 e x + c2 e3x .
1
yp = e x cos 2x.
ww D2 − 4D + 3
= ex · 2
1
(D + 1) − 4(D + 1) + 3
cos 2x
w.E = ex · 2
1
D + 2D + 1 − 4D − 4 + 3
1
cos 2x
asy = ex 2
= ex
D − 2D
1
cos 2x.
cos 2x
En
=−
e
−4 − 2D
x 1
cos 2x
=−gin2 D+2
ex D−2
2 (D − 2)(D + 2)
cos 2x
=−
2
e
ee
e x −2 sin 2x − 2 cos 2x
x
−4 − 4
= − 2(sin 2x + cos 2x)
!
rin
16
ex
= − (sin 2x + cos 2x). g.n
et
8
ex
= c1 e x + c2 e3x − (sin 2x + cos 2x).
8
Example 5.53. Solve (D2 − 3D + 2)y = x cos x. [Jan 2007]
Solution. The A.E. is m2 − 3m + 2 = 0 ⇒ (m − 2)(m − 1) = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 2.
yc = C1 e x + C2 e2x .
1 1
yp = x cos x = 2 x( R.P. eix )
D2 − 3D + 2 D − 3D + 2

1
= R.P. eix x
i)2
(D + − 3(D + i) + 2
1
= R.P. eix 2 x
D − 1 + 2Di − 3D − 3i + 2
1
= R.P. eix 2 x
D − 3D + 2Di + 1 − 3i
1
= R.P. eix h ix
D2
(1 − 3i) 1 + 1−3i + D(2i−3)
1−3i
eix h D(2i − 3) D2 i−1
= R.P. 1+ + x
1 − 3i 1 − 3i 1 − 3i
ww = R.P.
eix h
1 − 3i
eix h
1−
D(2i − 3) i
1 − 3i
2i − 3 i
x
w.E = R.P.
= R.P.
1 − 3i
eix h
(1 − 3i)2
x−
1 − 3i
x(1 − 3i) − (2i − 3)
i
= R.P. asy
eix
1 + 9 − 6i
h
x − 3ix − 2i + 3
i
= R.P.
eix h
10 − 6i En
x + 3 − i(2 + 3x)
i
= R.P.
(10 + 6i)eix h
136 ginx + 3 − i(2 + 3x)
i
= R.P.
= R.P.
ee
(10 + 6i)(cos x + i sin x)(x + 3 − i(2 + 3x))
136
136 rin
(10 cos x − 6 sin x + i(10 sin x + 6 cos x))(x + 3 − i(2 + 3x))
=
(10 cos x − 6 sin x)(x + 3) + (10 sin x + 6 cos x)(2 + 3x))
136
.
g.n
The solution is y = yc + y p .
y = C1 e x + C2 e2x +
et
(10 cos x − 6 sin x)(x + 3) + (10 sin x + 6 cos x)(2 + 3x))
.
136
Example 5.54. Solve (D2 + 1)2 y = x2 cos x. [May 2002]

Solution. A.E. is (m2 + 1)2 = 0 ⇒ m2 = −1, −1 ⇒ m = ±i, ±i.
yc = (C1 + C2 x) cos x + (C3 + C4 x) sin x.

1 1
yp = x2 cos x = 2 x2 (R.P. eix )
(D2+ 1) 2 (D + 1)2
1
= R.P. eix x2
((D + i)2 + 1)2
1
= R.P. eix 2 x2
(D − 1 + 2Di + 1)2
1
= R.P. eix 2 x2
(D + 2Di)2
1
= R.P. eix x
2
D 2

2
(2Di) 1 + 2i
ww = R.P. eix

1 + 2i
−4D2
D −2

x2
w.E = R.P.
−eix h
4D
−e
2
ix
1 − 2
D
2i
+ 3
3D2
D2
−4
i
+ · · · x2
asy
h i
= R.P. 1 + iD − + · · · x2
4D2 4
eix h 2 3 i
En
= −R.P. x + i2x − 2
4D2 4
eix h 2 3i
gin
= −R.P. x + 2ix −
4D2 2
ix
e 1
Z
3
= −R.P. x2 + 2ix − dx
= −R.P. ee
4 D
eix 1 x3
4 D 3
eix
Z 3
x
+ ix2 − x
3
2

3
2
rin
= −R.P.
4
ix
e x 4
3
+ ix2 − x dx
x 3 2
3x i
2
g.n
et
h
= −R.P. +i −
4 12 3 4
cos x + i sin x h x4 x3 3x2 i
= −R.P. +i −
4 12 3 4
1 hh x4 3x2 i x3 i
yp = − − cos x − sin x .
4 12 4 3
1 hh x4 3x2 i x3 i
y = (C1 + C2 x) cos x + (C3 + C4 x) sin x − − cos x − sin x .
4 12 4 3

d2 y dy
Example 5.55. Solve 2
− 2 + y = xe x sin x. [Dec 2013, May 2010]
dx dx
2 2
Solution. A.E. is m − 2m + 1 = 0 ⇒ (m − 1) = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 1.
yc = e x (C1 + C2 x).
1
yp = xe x sin x
(D − 1)2
1
= ex x sin x
(D + 1 − 1)2
1
= e x 2 x sin x
ww =e x1
DZ
D
x sin xdx
w.E = ex
D
1
1h
Z
xd(− cos x)
Z
asy
i
= ex − x cos x − − cos xdx
D
1h i
= ex
En
− x cos x + sin x
D
h Z Z i
x
=e − x cos xdx + sin xdx
=e −x
h Z
gin
xd(sin x) − cos x
i
x
h (
ee
Z
= e − x sin x − sin xdx − cos x
h
= e x − x sin x − cos x − cos x
i
) i
rin
h i
= −e x x sin x + 2 cos x . g.n
h i
et
y = e x (C1 + C2 x) − e x x sin x + 2 cos x .
Example 5.56. Solve (D2 − 4D + 4)y = x2 e2x cos 2x. [Jan 2007]
Solution. A.E. is (m − 2)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 2, 2.
yc = e2x (C1 + C2 x).

1 1
yp = 2
x2 e2x cos 2x = e2x x2 cos 2x
(D − 2) (D + 2 − 2)2
Z
1 1
= e2x 2 x2 cos 2x = e2x x2 cos 2xdx
DZ D
1 sin 2x
= e2x x2 d
D 2
2 Z
2x 1 x sin 2x sin 2x
h i
=e − 2xdx
D 2 2
1 h x2 sin 2x Z i
= e2x − x sin 2xdx
D 2
ww
2 Z
2x 1 x sin 2x
h − cos 2x i
=e − xd
D 2 2
1 h x2 sin 2x −x cos 2x Z − cos 2x i
w.E = e2x
= e2x
D 2
−
2
1 h x2 sin 2x x cos 2x 1 sin 2x i
+ −
−
2
dx
= e2x
D
1
D
2
2asy +
2
h x2 sin 2x x cos 2x sin 2x i
2
−
2 2
4
=
e2x h
2
Z
2
En
x sin 2xdx +
Z
x cos 2xdx −
1
2
Z
sin 2xdx
i
=
e2x h
2
Z
x2 d
gin
− cos 2x Z
2
+ xd
sin 2x 1 − cos 2x i
2
−
2 2
=
e2x
4
h
e2x h
− x2 cos 2x + 2 xd
Z
ee
− x2 cos 2x + cos 2x(2x)dx + x sin 2x − sin 2xdx +
Z sin 2x
+ x sin 2x +
Z
cos 2x
+rin
cos
cos 2x i
2x i
2
=
e
4
2x h
2
Z
− x2 cos 2x + x sin 2x − sin 2xdx + x sin 2x + cos 2x
2
g.n
2
i
=
4
e2x h
4
e2x h
− x2 cos 2x + x sin 2x +
cos 2x
3
2
+ x sin 2x + cos 2x
i
i
et
= − x2 cos 2x + 2x sin 2x + cos 2x
4 2
e2x h i
yp = 4x sin 2x + (3 − 2x2 ) cos 2x .
8
e2x h i
y = e2x (C1 + C2 x) + 4x sin 2x + (3 − 2x2 ) cos 2x .
8

Example 5.57. Solve (D2 − 2D)y = x2 e x cos x. [Jan 2002]

Solution. A.E. is m2 − 2m = 0 ⇒ m(m − 2) = 0 ⇒ m = 0, 2.
yc = C1 + C2 e2x .
1 1
yp = x2 e x cos x = e x x2 cos x
D2 − 2D (D + 1)2 − 2(D + 1)
1 1
= ex 2 x2 cos x = e x 2 x2 cos x
D + 2D + 1 − 2D − 2 D −1
= ex (R.P. eix )x2
D2 − 1
ww = R.P. e x eix
1
(D + i)2 − 1
1
x2
w.E = R.P. e x eix 2

D − 1 + 2Di − 1
= R.P. e x eix 2
1
x2
x2
asy
D − 2 + 2Di
1
= R.P. e x eix 2
x2
(−2) 1 − D +2Di
En
2
x
e e ix 2
D + 2Di −1 2
= -R.P. 1− x
= -R.P.
2
2 gin
e x eix
1+
2
D2 + 2Di D2 + 2Di 2
2
+
2

+ · · · x2
= -R.P.
= -R.P.
2 ee
e x eix 2 1
x + (2 + 4ix) + (−2)
e x eix 2
2
x + 1 + 2ix − 2

rin
= -R.P.
2
e x eix 2
x − 1 + 2ix

g.n
et
2
ex
= -R.P. (cos x + i sin x) x2 − 1 + 2ix
2
−e x
= [cos x(x2 − 1) − 2x sin x]
2
ex
= [(1 − x2 ) cos x + 2x sin x].
2
ex
y = C1 + C2 e2x + [(1 − x2 ) cos x + 2x sin x].
2

Example 5.58. Solve (D2 − 4D + 4)y = 8(e2x + sin 2x + x2 ).

Solution. A.E is m2 − 4m + 4 = 0 ⇒ (m − 2)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 2, 2.
yc = e2x (c1 + c2 x).

1
P.I = (8e2x + 8 sin 2x + 8x2 )
(D − 2)2
1 1 1
= 2
8e2x + 2
8 sin 2x + 8x2
(D − 2) (D − 2) (D − 2)2
= PI1 + PI2 + PI3 .
ww PI1 =
1
(D − 2)2
1
8e2x
= 8
x2 2x
2
e = 4x2 e2x .
1
w.E PI2 = 2
D − 4D + 4
1
= − 8 sin 2x
4D
8 sin 2x =
−4 − 4D + 4
8 sin 2x
asy
= −2 sin 2xdx =
2 cos 2x
2
= cos 2x.
PI3 =
1
(D − 2)2
En
8x2 =
8 1
4 1 − D 2
x2 = 2 1 −
D −2 2
2
x
gin
2
D D2
+ . . . x2

=2 1+2 +3
2 4
2 3
= 2 x + 2x + 2
4
= 2x2 + 4x + 3.
ee rin
g.n
y = e2x (c1 + c2 x) + 4x2 e2x + cos 2x + 2x2 + 4x + 3.
Example 5.59. Solve (D2 + 4)2 y = cos 2x.

et
Solution. The A.E is (m2 + 4)2 = 0 ⇒ m = ±2i, ±2i.
yc = (c1 + c2 x) cos 2x + (c3 + c4 x) sin 2x.

1
yp = cos 2x
(D2
+ 4)2
1
=x 2
cos 2x[ See note on Page 134]
2(D + 4)2D

x 1
= cos 2x
4 D(D2 + 4)
x 1
= 3
cos 2x
4 D + 4D
x x
= cos 2x
4 (3D2 + 4)
x2 cos 2x
!
=
4 −12 + 4
−x2
= cos 2x.
32
ww The general solution is y = yc + y p

y = (c1 + c2 x) cos 2x + (c3 + c4 x) sin 2x − x2
32 cos 2x.
w.E
An important result to remember
Let us evaluate
1
f (x).
Let
1
D−a
D−a
f (x) = y.
asy
En
Operating on both sides by D − a we obtain
⇒ (D − a)y = f (x) ⇒ Dy − ay = f (x).
R R gin
This is a linear equation of the first order, where P = −a, Q = f (x).
ee
pdx −adx
I.F. = e =e = e−ax .
The solution is
Z
rin
g.n
y × I.F = Q × I.Fdx
Z
−ax
ye = f (x)e−ax dx
y=eax
Z
e−ax f (x)dx. et
d2 y
Example 5.60. Solve + a2 y = tan ax.
dx2
Solution. A.E is m2 + a2 = 0 ⇒ m = ±ai.
yc = c1 cos ax + c2 sin ax.

1 1
yp = tan ax = tan ax
D2 +a2 (D + ai)(D − ai)

1 h 1 1 i
= − tan ax
2ai D − ai D + ai
1 h 1 1 i
= tan ax − tan ax .
2ai D − ai D + ai
1
PI1 = tan ax
D −Zai Z
aix −iax
h 1 ax
i
=e tan axe dx ∵ f (x) = e f (x)e−ax dx
D−a
Z
= eaix tan ax(cos ax − i sin ax)dx
sin2 ax
Z
ww
iax
=e (sin ax − i )dx
cos ax
1 − cos2 ax
− cos ax Z
= eiax −i dx
w.E = eiax
a
− cos ax i
a
cos ax
− log(sec ax + tan ax) + i
a
sin ax
a
=
−eiax
a
asy
cos ax − i sin ax + i log(sec ax + tan ax)
−1 iax −iax

En

= e e + ieiax log(sec ax + tan ax)
a
−1
gin

= 1 + ieiax log(sec ax + tan ax) .
a
changing i into −i we get

1
D + ai
tan ax =
−1 1
−1
a ee
1 − ie−iax log(sec ax + tan ax)
1 1

rin
yp =
2ai a
−1
(1 + ieiax log(sec ax + tan ax)) +
2ai a
1
= 2 (−i + eiax log(sec ax + tan ax)) + 2 (−i − e−iax log(sec ax + tan ax))
g.n
(1 − ie−iax log(sec ax + tan ax))
2a
1 h iax
2a
= 2 (i − e log(sec ax + tan ax) − i − e−iax log(sec ax + tan ax))
2a
1
i
et
= − 2 [(cos ax + i sin ax) log(sec ax + tan ax)
2a
+ (cos ax − i sin ax) log(sec ax + tan ax)]
−1
= log(sec ax + tan ax)2 cos ax
2a2
−1
y p = 2 cos ax log(sec ax + tan ax).
a

Solution is y = yc + y p .
−1
y = c1 cos ax + c2 sin ax + cos ax log(sec ax + tan ax).
a2
5.3 Linear differential equations with variable coefficients
5.3.1 Cauchy’s homogeneous linear differential equation
The general form of the nth order linear D.E with variable coefficients is
ww a0 xn
dn y
dx n
dn−1 y dy
+ a1 xn−1 n−1 + · · · + an−1 x + an y = Q(x)
dx dx
w.E
where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are constants with a0 , 0.
This can be reduced to a linear D.E with constant coefficients as follows.
Let x = ez , ⇒ z = log x.
asy dy dy dz dy 1
= =
En dx dz dx dz x
dy dy
gin x =
dx dz
d2 y
ee
=
d dy d 1 dy
dx2 dx dx
= 2 +
=
dx x dz
−1 dy 1 d dy
x dz x dx dz rin
=− 2
−1 dy 1 d dy dz
+
x dz x dz dz dx g.n
=− 2
=− 2
−1 dy 1 d2 y 1
+
x dz x dz2 x
−1 dy 1 d2 y
+ 2 2
et
x dz x dz
d 2y d 2y dy
x2 2 = 2 − .
dx dz dz
d 2 d2
Let θ = ,θ = 2.
dz dz
dy dy
Now, θy = =x = xDy
dz dx

Then xD = θ.
d2 y
x2 = θ2 y − θy = θ(θ − 1)y
dx2
x2 D2 y = θ(θ − 1)y.
Similarly x3 D3 = θ(θ − 1)(θ − 2)y etc.
On substitution in (1), it will be reduced to a D.E with constant coefficients, which

can be evaluated as usual.
✎ ☞
wwExample 5.61. Reduce x2

✍
d2 y
Worked Examples
− 3x
dy
✌
+ 3y = x into a differential equation with
w.E
constant coefficients.
Solution. The given equation is
dx2 dx
[May 2007]
asy
(x2 D2 − 3xD + 3)y = x. (1)
Let x = ez or z = log x.
En
gin
d
Then, xD = θ and x2 D2 = θ(θ − 1) where θ = .
dz
Now (1) gives (θ(θ − 1) − 3θ + 3)y = ez .
(θ2 − 4θ + 3)y = ez
ee
i.e, (θ2 − θ − 3θ + 3)y = ez
rin
d2 y dy
− 4 + 3y = ez , g.n
et
dz 2 dz
which is a linear second order differential equation with constant
coefficients.
d2 y dy
Example 5.62. Solve x + = 0. [Jun 2006]
dx2 dx
d2 y dy
Solution. The given equation is x 2 + = 0.
dx dx
Multiplying by x, we get
d2 y dy
x2 2
+x = 0.
dx dx

d d2 d
Now x = θ, then x2 2 = θ(θ − 1) where θ = .
dx dx dz
The given equation becomes
(θ(θ − 1) + θ) y = 0
(θ2 − θ + θ)y = 0
θ2 y = 0.
The A.E is m2 = 0 =⇒ m = 0, 0
ww ∴ yc = e0z (c1 + c2 z) = c1 + c2 z
w.E yc = c1 + c2 log x.
y p = 0.
asy
En
y = c1 + c2 log x.
d2 y dy
Example 5.63. Solve x2 + 4x + 2y = 0. [Jun 2013, May 2008]
dx 2
Solution. Let x = ez or z = log x.
d d2
dx
gin d
Let x
dx dx
The given equation is reduced to
(θ(θ − 1) + 4θ + 2)y = 0
ee
= θ. Then, x2 2 = θ(θ − 1) where θ = .
dz
rin
(θ2 − θ + 4θ + 2)y = 0
(θ2 + 3θ + 2)y = 0. g.n
A.E is m2 + 3m + 2 = 0
(m + 1)(m + 2) = 0, m = −1, m = −2.
et
yc = c1 e−z + c2 e−2z
= c1 e− log x + c2 e−2 log x

−1 ) −2 c1 c2
= c1 elog(x + c2 elog x = c1 x−1 + c2 x−2 = + 2.
x x
y p = 0.


c1 c2
y= + 2.
x x
2
d y dy
Example 5.64. Solve x2 2 − x + y = 0. [Jun 2009, May 2003]
dx dx
dy d
Define x = θy where θ = .
dx dz
d2 y
Then, x2 2 = θ(θ − 1)y.
dx
∴ The given equation becomes
ww θ(θ − 1)y − θy + y = 0
(θ2 − θ − θ + 1)y = 0
w.E (θ2 − 2θ + 1)y = 0

A.E is m2 − 2m + 1 = 0 ⇒ (m − 1)(m − 1) = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 1.
asy
yc = (c1 + c2 z)ez .
En
= (c1 + c2 log x)x.
y p = 0.
The solution y = yc + y p gin

i.e., y = (c1 + c2 log x)x.
ee rin
Example 5.65. Transform the equation x2 y′′ + xy′ = x into a linear differential
equation with constant coefficients.
Solution. Let x = ez or z = log x. g.n
[May 2011, Dec 2011, Jun 2010]
Let x
d
dx
d2
dx
d
= θ. Then, x2 2 = θ(θ − 1) where θ = .
dz et
(θ(θ − 1) + θ)y = ez
(θ2 − θ + θ)y = ez
θ2 y = ez
d2 y
= ez ,
dz2

which is the required linear equation.
Example 5.66. Reduce the equation (x2 D2 + xD + 1)y = log x into an ordinary
differential equation with constant coefficients. [Dec 2010]
d d2
Let x = θ. Then, x2 2 = θ(θ − 1) where θ = d
dz .
dx dx
(θ(θ − 1) + θ + 1)y = z
ww (θ2 − θ + θ + 1)y = z
(θ2 + 1)y = z
w.E d2 y
dz2
+ y = z,
asy
which is the required linear equation.
2
coefficients. En
Example 5.67. Convert (x2 D2 + xD + 7)y =
x
into an equation with constant
[Dec 2009]
d d gin
Define D =
Then x
d
dx
dx
,θ = .
= θ. x 2d
2
dx2
dz
ee
= θ(θ − 1).
The given equation is reduced to rin
(θ(θ − 1) + θ + 7)y =
2
ez
= 2e−z g.n
(θ2 − θ + θ + 7)y = 2e−z
(θ2 + 7)y = 2e−z

et
d2 y
+ 7y = 2e−z ,
dz2
which is the required differential equation with constant coefficients.
2
Example 5.68. Convert (3x2 D2 + 5xD + 7)y = x log x into an equation with constant
coefficients [Dec 2013]


d d
Let D = ,θ= .
dx dz
d d2
Then, x = θ, x2 2 = θ(θ − 1).
dx dx
2
(3 · θ(θ − 1) + 5θ + 7)y = ·z
ez
(3θ2 − 3θ + 5θ + 7)y = 2e−z z
(3θ2 + 2θ + 7)y = 2e−z z
ww 3
d2 y
dz 2
dy
+ 2 + 7y = 2e−z z,
dz
w.E which is the required equation.
Example 5.69. Solve (x2 D2 + xD + 1)y = 0. [Jun 2005, May 2002]
d asy
d
En
Define D = ,θ = .
dx dz
d d2
Then, x = θ. x2 2 = θ(θ − 1)
dx dx
gin
(θ(θ − 1) + θ + 1)y = 0
(θ2 − θ + θ + 1)y = 0
ee rin
(θ2 + 1)y = 0.
A.E is m2 + 1 = 0. g.n
m2 = −1
m = ±i.
et
yc = e0z (c1 cos z + c2 sin z) = c1 cos(log x) + c2 sin(log x)
y p = 0.
y = c1 cos(log x) + c2 sin(log x).

Example 5.70. Solve x2 y′′ − xy′ + y = x.

Solution. (x2 D2 − xD + 1)y = x.
d d
Define D = ,θ = .
dx dz
Then, xD = θ, x2 D2 = θ(θ − 1).
Now, the given equation is reduced to
(θ(θ − 1) − θ + 1)y = ez
ww (θ2 − θ − θ + 1)y = ez
(θ2 − 2θ + 1)y = ez .
w.E A.E is m2 − 2m + 1 = 0 ⇒ (m − 1)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 1.
asy
yc = ez (c1 + c2 z) = x(c1 + c2 log x).
yp = 2
1
θ − 2θ + 1
En
ez =
1
(θ − 1)2
ez
=
z2 z
2
e
=
x(log x)2
2
gin
ee
The general solution isy = yc + y p
x
i.e., y = x(c1 + c2 log x) + (log x)2 .
2
rin
Example 5.71. Solve x 2d
dx 2
2y dy
+ 4x + 2y = x log x.
Solution. Let x = ez , or z = log x.
dx
g.n
[Dec 2006, May 2003]
Define D =
dx
d
,θ = .
d
dz
Then, xD = θ, x2 D2 = θ(θ − 1).
et
(θ(θ − 1) + 4θ + 2)y = ez z
(θ2 − θ + 4θ + 2)y = ez z
(θ2 + 3θ + 2)y = ez z.

A.E is, m2 + 3m + 2 = 0 ⇒ (m + 1)(m + 2) = 0 ⇒ m = −1, −2.
c1 c2
yc = c1 e−z + c2 e−2z = + 2.
x x
1 1
yp = ez z = ez z
θ2
+ 3θ + 2 2
(θ + 1) + 3(θ + 1) + 2
1 1
= ez 2 z = ez 2 z
θ + 2θ + 1 + 3θ + 3 + 2 θ + 5θ + 6
1 ez 5θ + θ2 −1
= ez 2
z = 1 + z
6 1 + 5θ+θ 6 6
6
ww ez 5θ + θ2 ez 5θ

= 1− + ··· z = 1− z
6 6 6 6
z
e 5θ e z 5 x 5
w.E
= z− z = z − .1 = log x − .
6 6 6 6 6 6
i.e., y =
x asy
c1 c2 x
+ 2 + log x − .
x 6
5
6
En
Example 5.72. Solve (x2 D2 − xD + 1)y =
log x 2
. [Jun 2005]
gin
x
z
Solution. Let x = e , or z = log x.
d d
Define D = ,θ = .
dx dz
Then, xD = θ, x2 D2 = θ(θ − 1).
ee
rin
(θ(θ − 1) − θ + 1)y = (ze−z )2
g.n
(θ2 − θ − θ + 1)y = z2 e−2z
(θ2 − 2θ + 1)y = z2 e−2z
(θ − 1)2 y = z2 e−2z .
et
A.E is m2 − 2m + 1 = 0 ⇒ (m − 1)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 1.
yc = ez (c1 + c2 z) = x(c1 + c2 log x).

1 1 1
yp = 2
z2 e−2z = e−2z 2
z2 = e−2z z2
(1 − θ) (1 − (θ − 2)) (1 − θ + 2)2

1 2 e−2z z2 e−2z θ −2 2

= e−2z z = = 1 − z
(3 − θ)2 9 1− θ 2
9 3
3
e−2z 2 θ2 e−2z 2 2 1
= 1 + θ + 3 + · · · z2 = z + 2z + 2
9 3 9 9 3 3
e−2z 4 2
= z2 + z +
9 3 3
1 4 2
y p = 2 (log x)2 + log x + .
9x 3 3
The solution is y = yc + y p .
ww 1 4 2
y = x(c1 + c2 log x) + 2 (log x)2 + log x + .
9x 3 3
w.E
Example 5.73. Solve x2
d2 y
dx 2
dy
dx x
1
+ 4x + 2y = x2 + 2 . [Jun 2013, May 2008]
asy
d d
Define D = ,θ = .
dx dz
Then, xD = θ, x2 D2 = θ(θ − 1).
En
gin
(θ(θ − 1) + 4θ + 2)y = e2z + e−2z
(θ2 − θ + 4θ + 2)y = e2z + e−2z
ee
(θ2 + 3θ + 2)y = e2z + e−2z .
A.E is m2 + 3m + 2 = 0 ⇒ (m + 1)(m + 2) = 0 ⇒ m = −1, −2. rin

yc = c1 e−z + c2 e−2z =
c1 c2
x
+ 2.
x g.n
yp =
=
θ2
1
+ 3θ + 2
1
(e2z + e−2z )
e2z +
1
e−2z
et
(θ + 1)(θ + 2) (θ + 1)(θ + 2)
e2z ze−2z
= +
12 −1
x 2 log x
yp = − 2 .
12 x
c1 c2 x2 log x
Solution is y = yc + y p = + 2+ − 2 .
x x 12 x

Example 5.74. Solve (x2 D2 − 3xD + 4)y = x2 given that y(1) = 1, y′ (1) = 0.
d d
Define D = dx , θ = dz .
Then, xD = θ, x2 D2 = θ(θ − 1).
(θ(θ − 1) − 3θ + 4)y = e2z
(θ2 − θ − 3θ + 4)y = e2z
ww (θ2 − 4θ + 4)y = e2z
(θ − 2)2 y = e2z .
w.E A.E is m2 − 4m + 4 = 0 ⇒ (m − 2)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 2, 2.
asy
yc = e2z (c1 + c2 z)
= x2 (c1 + c2 log x).
yp =
1
Ene2z
=
z2 2z (log x)2 2
e = x .
(θ − 2)2
Solution is y = yc + y p .gin 2 2
ee
y = x2 (c1 + c2 log x) +
When x = 1, y = 1 which gives c1 = 1

x2
2
(log x)2 .
rin
1 x2 1
y′ = x2 c2 + (c1 + c2 log x)2x + (log x)2 x + 2 log x . g.n
x
When x = 1, y′ = 0. which implies
0 = c2 + 2
2 x
et
c2 = −2
Solution is
x2
y = x2 (1 − 2 log x) + (log x)2 .
2

Example 5.75. Solve the differential equation (x2 D2 − xD + 4)y = x2 sin(log x)

[Jun 2012]
d d
Let D = ,θ= .
dx dz
d d2
Then, x = θ, x2 2 = θ(θ − 1).
dx dx
(θ(θ − 1) − θ + 4)y = e2z sin z
ww (θ2 − θ − θ + 4)y = e2z sin z
(θ2 − 2θ + 4)y = e2z sin z.
w.E The A.E. is
asy
m2 − 2m + 4 = 0
(m − 1)2 + 4 − 1 = 0
(m − 1)2 + 3 = 0En
gin
(m − 1)2 = −3
√
m − 1 = ± 3i
ee
√
m = 1 ± 3i.
rin
z
√ √
yc = e (c1 cos 3z + c2 sin 3z)
√ √ g.n
yc = x(c1 cos 3 log x + c2 sin 3 log x).
yp =
2z
θ2
1
− 2θ + 4
e2z sin z
1
et
=e 2
sin z
(θ + 2) − 2(θ + 2) + 4
1
= e2z 2 sin z
θ + 4θ + 4 − 2θ − 4 + 4
1
= e2z 2 sin z
θ + 2θ + 4
1
= e2z sin z
−1 + 2θ + 4

1
= e2z sin z
2θ + 3
2θ − 3
= e2z sin z
(2θ − 3)(2θ + 3)
2θ − 3
= e2z 2 sin z
4θ − 9
2 cos z − 3 sin z
= e2z
−4 − 9
−e 2z −x2
= (2 cos z − 3 sin z) = 2 cos(log x) − 3 sin(log x) .
13 13
ww = x(c1 cos
√ √
3 log x + c2 sin 3 log x) −
x2
13

2 cos(log x) − 3 sin(log x) .
w.E
Example 5.76. Solve (x2 D2 − 3xD + 4)y = x2 cos log x [Dec 2010]
Let D =
d
dx
,θ= .
d
dz asy
Then, x
d
dx
d2
En
= θ, x2 2 = θ(θ − 1).
dx
gin
ee
(θ(θ − 1) − 3θ + 4)y = e2z cos z
(θ2 − θ − 3θ + 4)y = e2z cos z

rin
(θ2 − 4θ + 4)y = e2z cos z
(θ − 2)2 y = e2z cos z. g.n

The A.E. is (m − 2)2 = 0
m = 2, 2.
et
yc = e2z (c1 + c2 z)
= x2 (c1 + c2 log x).

1
yp = e2z cos z
(θ − 2)2
1
= e2z cos z
(θ + 2 − 2)2

1
= e2z cos z
θ2Z
1
= e2z cos zdz
θ
1
= e2z sin z
θZ
= e2z sin zdz
= −e2z cos z = −x2 cos(log x).
ww = x2 (c1 + c2 log x) − x2 cos(log x).
w.E
Example 5.77. Solve (x2 D2 − 2xD − 4)y = x2 + 2 log x.
[Jun 2010]
Define D =
d
d
dx
asy
,θ= .
2 d
d
dz
2
Then, x
dx
= θ, x
dx2
En= θ(θ − 1).
The given equation is now reduced to
gin
(θ(θ − 1) − 2θ − 4)y = e2z + 2z.
ee
(θ2 − θ − 2θ − 4)y = e2z + 2z.
(θ2 − 3θ − 4)y = e2z + 2z.

rin
The A.E. is
g.n
m2 − 3m − 4 = 0
(m − 4)(m + 1) = 0.
et
m = −1, 4.
yc = c1 e−z + c2 e4z
c1
= + c2 x4 .
x
1
yp = 2 (e2z + 2z)
θ − 3θ − 4

1 2
= e2z + 2 z
θ2 − 3θ − 4 θ − 3θ − 4
e2z 2
= + z
4 − 6 − 4 −4 1 − θ2 −3θ
4
2z 2
!−1
e 1 θ − 3θ
= − 1− z
−6 2 4
−e2z 1 θ2 − 3θ
!
= − 1+ + ··· z
6 2 4
−e2z 1
" #
3
= − z−
ww =
−x
6
6
2 1
2
"
− log x − .
2
4
3
4
#
w.E Solution is y = yc + y p
c1 x2 1
"
3
#
asy
4
= + c2 x − − log x − .
x 6 2 4
d2 y dy
Example 5.78. Solve (x2
En
dx 2
+ 4x + 2y) = e x
dx
x2 gin
d2 y dy
(or)
log x
+ 4x + 2y = ee .
dx

d d
2
ee dx
rin
[Dec 2013]
Define D =
dx
,θ = .
dz
Then, xD = θ, x2 D2 = θ(θ − 1). g.n
(θ(θ − 1) + 4θ + 2)y = ee
(θ2 − θ + 4θ + 2)y = ee
z
z
et
z
(θ2 + 3θ + 2)y = ee .
A.E is m2 + 3m + 2 = 0 ⇒ (m + 1)(m + 2) = 0 ⇒ m = −1, −2.
yc = (c1 e−z + c2 e−2z )

c1 c2
= + 2.
x x

!
1 ez (θ + 2) − (θ + 1) ez 1 1 z
yp = e = e = − ee .
(θ + 1)(θ + 2) (θ + 1)(θ + 2) θ+1 θ+2
1 ez 1 ez
= e − e
θ+1 θ+2
y p = PI1 − PI2 .
1 ez 1 z
PI1 = e = ee
θ+1 θ − (−1)
Z Z
z ez z
=e−z
e e dz = e −z
ee d(ez )
z ex
= e−z ee =
ww
.
x
1 ez 1 z
PI2 = e = ee
θ+2 θ − (−2)
w.E =e−2z
Z
2z ez
e e dz = e −2z
Z
z
ez ee ez dz.
Let ez = t.
ez dz = dt. asy
PI2 = e −2z
Z
te dt = e En
t
td(et )
i
−2z
Z h
=e−2z
" Z #
gin
te − e dt = e−2z [tet − et ]
t t
z
= e−2z [ez ee − ee ] =
x − 1 x ex ex
ee
z 1
x2
[xe x − e x ]
rin
g.n
= e = − 2.
x2 x x
ex ex ex ex
Now P.I = PI1 − PI2 =
y=
c1 c2 e x
x
+ 2 + 2.
x x
x
−
x
+ 2 = 2.
x x
et
5.3.2 Legendre’s linear differential equation
The general form of the Legendre’s linear differential equation is
dn y n−1 d
n−1 y dy
(ax + b)n + a1 (ax + b) + · · · + an−1 (ax + b) + an y = Q(x)
dxn dx n−1 dx

where a, b, ai ’s are constants.

d
It can be reduced to the previous type by the substitution ez = ax + b and θ = .
dz
⇒ z = log(ax + b)
dy
(ax + b) = aθy ⇒ (ax + b)D = aθ.
dx
d2 y
Then, (ax + b)2 = a2 θ(θ − 1)y ⇒ (ax + b)2 D2 = a2 θ(θ − 1) etc.
dx2
✎ ☞
ww ✍
Worked Examples
✌
w.E
Example 5.79. Transform the equation (2x + 3)2 y′′ − (2x + 3)y′ + 2y = 6x into a
differential equation with constant coefficients. [May 2005]
Define θ = .
d
dz asy
Solution. Let 2x + 3 = ez or z = log(2x + 3).
En
Then, (2x + 3)D = 2θ and (2x + 3)2 D2 = 4θ(θ − 1).
Now, the given differential equation is reduced to
gin
(4θ(θ − 1) − 2θ + 2)y = 6
(ez − 3)
ee
(4θ2 − 4θ − 2θ + 2)y = 3(ez − 3)
(4θ2 − 6θ + 2)y = 3(ez − 3)

2
rin
4
d2 y
dz2
−6
dy
dz
+ 2y = 3(ez − 3), g.n
d2 y dy
et
Example 5.80. Transform the equation (2x + 3)2 2
− 2(2x + 3) − 12y = 6x into a
dx dx
differential equation with constant coefficients. [May 2015, Jun 2012]
d
Define θ = .
dz
d d2
Then, (2x + 3) = 2θ and (2x + 3)2 2 = 4θ(θ − 1).
dx dx

Now, the given differential equation is reduced to

(ez − 3)
(4θ(θ − 1) − 2(2)θ − 12)y = 6
2
(4θ2 − 4θ − 4θ − 12)y = 3(ez − 3)
(4θ2 − 8θ − 12)y = 3(ez − 3)

d2 y dy
4 − 8 − 12y = 3(ez − 3),
dz2 dz
wwExample 5.81. Solve (x + 2)2

d2 y
dx 2
dy
− (x + 2) + y = 3x + 4.
Solution. Let x + 2 = ez ⇒ z = log(x + 2).
dx
[Jun 2008]
w.E Define θ = .
d
dz
d
Now (x + 2)
dx
d 2
=θ
asy
and (x + 2)2 2 = θ(θ − 1).
dx
En
gin
(θ(θ − 1) − θ + 1)y = 3(ez − 2) + 4 = 3ez − 2
ee
(θ2 − θ − θ + 1)y = 3ez − 2
(θ2 − 2θ + 1)y = 3ez − 2
(θ − 1)2 y = 3ez − 2. rin

A.E is, (m − 1)2 = 0 ⇒ m = 1, 1. g.n
yc = ez (c1 + c2 z) = (x + 2)(c1 + c2 log(x + 2)).
yp =
1
(3ez − 2)
et
(θ − 1)2
1 1
=3 2
ez − 2 e0z
(θ − 1) (θ − 1)2
z2
= 3 ez − 2
2
3
y p = (log(x + 2))2 (x + 2) − 2.
2

The general solution is y = yc + y p .
3
y = (x + 2)(c1 + c2 log(x + 2)) + (log(x + 2))2 (x + 2) − 2.
2
Example 5.82. Solve (2x + 3)2 y′′ − (2x + 3)y′ − 12y = 6x. [Dec 2009]
d
Solution. Let 2x + 3 = ez and θ =
dz
Now (2x + 3)D = 2θ
and (2x + 3)2 D2 = 4θ(θ − 1).
ww The given equation is now reduced to
w.E 1
(4θ(θ − 1) − 2θ − 12)y = 6 (ez − 3)
2
(4θ2 − 4θ − 2θ − 12)y = 3(ez − 3)
asy
(4θ2 − 6θ − 12)y = 3(ez − 3)
En
2(2θ2 − 3θ − 6)y = 3(ez − 3)
3
(2θ2 − 3θ − 6)y = (ez − 3).
gin 2
A.E is, 2m2 − 3m − 6 = 0
3
ee
3
2(m2 − m − 3) = 0 ⇒ (m − )2 − 3 −
2 4
9
16
=0
rin
√ g.n
et
3 2 57 3 57
m− = ⇒m− =±
4 16 4 4
√ √ √
3 57 3 + 57 3 − 57
m= ± ⇒m= , .
4 4 4 4
√ √
3+ 57 3− 57
4 z 4 z
yc = c1 e + c2 e
√ √
3+ 57 3− 57
4 4
yc = c1 (2x + 3) + c2 (2x + 3) .

!
1 3 z 1 3 z 9
PI = 2 (e − 3) = 2 e −
2θ − 3θ − 6 2 2θ − 3θ − 6 2 2
9
3 1
= 2
ez − 2 2 e0z
2 2θ − 3θ − 6 2θ − 3θ − 6
9
3 ez 2
= −
2 2 − 3! − 6 0 − 0 − 6
3 ez 9 3 3
= + = − (2x + 3) + .
2 −7 2(6) 14 4
ww
√ √
3+ 57
4
3− 57
4
3 3
y = c1 (2x + 3) + c2 (2x + 3) − (2x + 3) + .
14 4
w.E
Example 5.83. Solve (3x + 2)2
d2 y
dx2
dy
+ 3(3x + 2) − 36y = 3x2 + 4x + 1.
dx
[Jun 2013]
Define D =
d
dx
asy
,θ= .
d
d
dz
d2
Then, (3x + 2)
dx
En
= 3θ, (3x + 2)2 2 = 9θ(θ − 1)
dx
(9θ(θ − 1) + 3 · 3θ − 36)y = 3 gin

ez − 2
!2
+4
ez − 2
!
+1
3
ee
3 3
4
(9θ2 − 9θ + 9θ − 36)y = (e2z + 4 − 4ez ) + (ez − 2) + 1
9
1
3
(9θ2 − 36)y = [e2z + 4 − 4ez + 4ez − 8] + 1 rin
2
3
1
9(θ − 4)y = [e2z − 4] + 1 g.n
3
1
(θ2 − 4)y = e2z −
27
1 2z 1
= e − .
4
+
27 9
1
et
27 27
The A.E. is m2 − 4 = 0
m2 = 4
m = ±2.
yc = c1 e2z + c2 e−2z

c2
= c1 (3x + 2)2 + .
(3x + 2)2
1
yp = (e2z − 1)
27(θ2 − 4)
" #
1 1 2z 1 0z
= · e − · e
27 θ2 − 4 θ2 − 4
" #
1 1 2z 1
= ·e −
27 (θ − 2)(θ + 2) −4
" 2z #
1 ze 1
= +
27 4 4
ww =
2
(3x + 2) log(3x + 2)
108
+
1
108
w.E Solution is y = yc + y p
y = c1 (3x + 2)2 +
c2
+
1 h
(3x + 2)2 108
(3x + 2) 2
log(3x + 2) + 1
i
Example 5.84. Solve (1 + x)2asy d2 y dy

+ (1 + x) + y = 4 cos[log(1 + x)].
En dx 2 dx
[Dec 2014, Dec 2011]
Define D =
d
dx
, θ= .
d
dz gin
Solution. Let 1 + x = ez or z = log(1 + x).
Then, (1 + x)
d
dx ee
d2
= θ, (1 + x)2 2 = θ(θ − 1).
dx
rin
(θ(θ − 1) + θ + 1)y = 4 cos z.
g.n
(θ2 − θ + θ + 1)y = 4 cos z
(θ2 + 1)y = 4 cos z.
The A.E. is m2 + 1 = 0
et
m2 = −1
m = ±i.
yc = e0z (c1 cos z + c2 sin z)

= c1 cos log(1 + x) + c2 sin log(1 + x).

4
yp = cos z
θ2
+1
z
= 4 cos z
2θZ
= 2z cos zdz
= 2z sin z
= 2 log(1 + x) sin log(1 + x).
ww Solution is y = yc + y p
y = c1 cos log(1 + x) + c2 sin log(1 + x) + 2 log(1 + x) sin log(1 + x).
w.E
5.4 Method of variation of parameters
Consider the equation asy

En
d2 y
dx 2
dy
+ P(x) + Q(x)y = R(x).
dx
(1)
gin
Let C.F = c1 y1 (x) + c2 y2 (x) where c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants, then y1 (x) and
y2 (x) are two independent solutions of
d2 y
dx2
ee dy
+ P(x) + Q(x)y = 0.
dx
rin (2)
g.n
By the method of variation of parameters, y p is evaluated by y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2
et
where u(x) and v(x) are evaluated by the following way.
Define the Wronskian of y1 and y2 by

y1 y2
W = , 0,
y′ y′
1 2
Z Z
y2 R(x) y1 R(x)
Then, u(x) = − dx and v(x) = dx.
W W
Then, the general solution is given by y = yc + y p .
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌

Example 5.85. Find the Wronskian of y1 , y2 of y′′ − 2y′ + y = e x log x. [Dec 2012]
Solution. The A.E. is
m2 − 2m + 1 = 0
(m − 1)2 = 0
m = 1, 1.
yc = e x (c1 + c2 x).
∴ y1 = e x , y2 = xe x .
ww y′1 = e x

y′2 = xe x + e x = e x (x + 1).

y1 y2 e x xe x

w.E

W[y1 , y2 ] = =
y′ y′ e x e x (x + 1)
1 2

asy
1 x
= e x × e x
1 x + 1
En
= e2x (x + 1 − x) = e2x
Example 5.86. Solve

d2 y
dx2 gin
+ a2 y = sec ax. [Jun 2012]
ee
Solution. A.E is m2 + a2 = 0 ⇒ m2 = −a2 ⇒ m = ±ai.
CF = yc = C1 cos ax + C2 sin ax.

rin
y1 = cos ax,
R(x) = sec ax.

y2 = sin ax.
g.n

W =

y1 y2 cos ax
=
sin ax

y′ y′ −a sin ax a cos ax
1 2
et
= a cos2 ax + a sin2 ax = a.
Now, y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2 .

Z Z
y2 R(x) sin ax sec ax
u(x) = − dx = − dx
W a
Z
1 1 log(sec ax)
=− tan axdx = −
a a a

1
= − 2 log sec ax.
Za Z
y1 R(x) cos ax sec ax 1
v(x) = dx = dx = x.
W a a
−1 x
Hence, y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2 = 2 log sec ax cos ax + sin ax.
a a
cos ax x
y = C1 cos ax + C2 sin ax − 2
log sec ax + sin ax.
a a
wwExample 5.87. Solve by the method of variation of parameters,

d2 y
dx2
+ y = x sin x.
[Jun 2010, May 2002]
w.E
Solution. A.E is m2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ m2 = −1 ⇒ m = ±i.
asy
yc = c1 cos x + c2 sin x.
y1 = cos x, y2 = sin x.
En
Now, y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2 .
gin

y1 y2 cos x sin x
W = = = cos2 x + sin2 x = 1.
y′ y′ − sin x cos x
u(x) = −
Z
1
y2 R(x)
2
dx
ee rin
g.n
W
Z Z
sin x × x sin xdx
=− = − x sin2 xdx
1
=−
=−
Z
x(1 − cos 2x)
1 x2
−
Z
2
xd
sin 2x
1
2
Z
dx = − [ xdx −
Z
x cos 2xdx]
et
2 2 2
1 x2 x sin 2x
Z
sin 2x
=− − − dx
2 2 2 2
1 x2 x sin 2x cos 2x
=− − − .
Z2 2 2 Z 4
y1 R(x)
v(x) = dx = cos x × x sin xdx
W

Z Z
sin 2x 1 cos 2x
= x dx = xd −
2 2 2
Z
1 x cos 2x cos 2x 1 x cos 2x sin 2x
=− − dx = − − .
2 2 2 2 2 4
Hence, y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2
1 x2 x sin 2x cos 2x 1 x cos 2x sin 2x
= − cos x − − − sin x − .
2 2 2 4 2 2 4
x2 x sin 2x cos 2x
! !
1 1 x cos 2x sin 2x
ww y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x − cos x

2
Example 5.88. Solve by the method of
2
−
2
−
4
− sin x
2 2
−
4
variation of
.
parameters
w.E
d2 y
dx2
+ y = cosecx cot x.
Solution. A.E is m2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ m2 = ± − 1 ⇒ m = ±i.
[Dec 2007]
asy

En

gin
y1 y2 cos x sin x
W = = = cos2 x + sin2 x = 1.
1 2
Z
y2 R(x)
ee
y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2 , R(x) = cosecx cot x.
Z
rin
g.n
u(x) = − dx = − sin xcosecx cot xdx = − log(sin x).
W
Z Z
y1 R(x)
v(x) = dx = cos xcosecx cot xdx
=
Z
Z
W
cos2 x
2
sin x
2
dx =
Z
cot2 xdx
Z
2
Z
et
= (cosec x − 1)dx = cosec xdx − dx = − cot x − x.
y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2 = −(log sin x) cos x + (− cot x − x) sin x.
Solution is, y = yc + y p .
y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x − (log sin x) cos x + (− cot x − x) sin x.

Example 5.89. Solve by the method of variation of parameters (D2 + a2 )y = tan ax.
[Dec 2014, Jun 2009]
Solution. A.E is m2 + a2 = 0 ⇒ m = ±ai.
yc = c1 cos ax + c2 sin ax.
y1 = cos ax, y2 = sin ax.
R(x) = tan ax.

y1 y2 cos ax
ww
sin ax
W = = = a.
y′ y′ −a sin ax a cos ax
1 2
w.E y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2 .
u(x) = −
Z
y2 R(x)
W
dx = −
Z
sin ax tan ax
a
dx
=−
1
a
Z
asy
sin2 ax
cos ax
dx = −
1
a
Z
1 − cos2 ax
cos ax
dx
En
Z Z
1 1
=− sec axdx + cos axdx
a a
=−
Za gin
1 log(sec ax + tan ax)
a Z
1
+ 2 sin ax.
a
v(x) =
=
1
a
Z
y1 R(x)
W
dx =
ee
1
cos ax tan ax
sin axdx = − 2 cos ax.

a
a
dx
rin
y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2
g.n
et
1 cos ax sin ax
=− 2
(log(sec ax + tan ax) − sin ax) cos ax − .
a a2
1 cos ax sin ax
y = c1 cos ax + c2 sin ax − 2
(log(sec ax + tan ax) − sin ax) cos ax − .
a a2
d2 y
Example 5.90. Solve by the method of variation of parameters 2 + 8y = tan 2x.
dx2
[Dec 2013]

Solution. The given equation can be written as
d2 y
!
2 + 4y = tan 2x
dx2
d2 y tan 2x
+ 4y = .
dx2 2
The A.E. is m2 + 4 = 0
m2 = −4
ww m = ±2i.
w.E
yc = c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x.
∴ y1 = cos 2x, y2 = sin 2x.
asy
tan 2x
R(x) = .
2
y1 y2 cos 2x sin 2x
W =
En
=
y′ y′ −2 sin 2x 2 cos 2x
1 2

gin
= 2 cos2 2x + 2 sin2 2x
= 2(cos2 2x + sin2 2x)
= 2.
y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2 .
ee rin
u(x) = −
Z
y2 R(x)
W
dx g.n
=−
=−
Z
1
Z
sin 2x · tan 2x
2×2
sin 2x ·
dx.
sin 2x
dx
et
4 cos 2x
sin2 2x
Z
1
=− dx
4 cos 2x
1 − cos2 2x
Z
1
=− dx
4 cos 2x
Z
1
=− (sec 2x − cos 2x)dx
4

" #
1 log(sec 2x + tan 2x) sin 2x
=− −
4 2 2
−1
= log(sec 2x + tan 2x) − sin 2x
Z8 Z
y1 R(x) tan 2x
v(x) = dx = cos 2x · dx.
W 2×2
Z
1 sin 2x
= cos 2x · dx
4 cos 2x
Z
1
= sin 2xdx.
4
!
ww
1 cos 2x cos 2x
= − =−
4 2 8
∴ y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2
w.E 1
= − [log(sec 2x + tan 2x) − sin 2x] cos 2x −
8
cos 2x sin 2x
8
asy 1
y = c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x − [log(sec 2x + tan 2x) − sin 2x] cos 2x −
sin 4x
.
En 8 16
gin
Example 5.91. Solve the differential equation
d2 y
dx2
+ 2
dy
dx
+ y =
e−x
x2
by the method
of variation of parameters.
Solution. The A.E. is ee rin
[Jun 2013]
2
m + 2m + 1 = 0
g.n
(m + 1)2 = 0
m = −1, −1.
yc = e−x (c1 + c2 x)
et
y1 = e−x , y2 = xe−x .
e−x
R(x) = 2
.
x
y1 y2 e−x xe−x
W= =
y′ y′ −e−x −xe−x + e−x
1 2


e−x xe−x
=
−e−x e−x (1 − x)

1 x
= e−x × e−x
−1 1 − x
= e−2x (1 − x + x) = e−2x .
y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2 .
Z
y2 R(x)
u(x) = − dx
ww =−
Z
Z x e
W
xe−x · e−x
2 −2x
dx.
w.E =−
Z
1
x
dx = − log x.
y1 R(x)
Z −x −x
e e
v(x) =
Z
asy
1
W
dx =
Z
−2
x2 e−2x
x−1
dx
En
= 2
dx = x dx = =− .
x −1 x
Now y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2
gin 1
= − log x(e−x ) − xe−x
x
ee
= −e−x (log x + 1)
rin
y = e−x (c1 + c2 x) − e−x (log x + 1).
g.n
Example 5.92. Solve by the method of variation of parameters the differential
d2 y
equation 2 + y = cosecx.
dx
Solution. The auxiliary equation is
[Dec 2012, May 2011] et
m2 + 1 = 0
m2 = −1
m = ±i.

R(x) = cosecx.

y1 y2 cos x sin x
W = =
1 2
= cos2 x + sin2 x = 1.
y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2 .
Z
y2 R(x)
Now, u(x) = − dx
ww Z
W
= − sin x · cosecxdx.
w.E Z
= − dx = −x.
Z
y1 R(x)
v(x) =
asy
Z
W
dx
cos x · cosecxdx
En
=
Z
gin
= cot xdx = log sin x.
∴ y p = u(x)y1 + v(x)y2
ee
= −x cos x + log(sin x) · sin x.
rin
y = c1 cos x + c2 sin x − x cos x + sin x log sin x.
g.n
5.5 Simultaneous linear differential equations with constant
coefficients
et
We have seen so far, the method of solving a single differential equation involving
one independent variable x and one dependent variable y. Quite often we come
across linear differential equations in which there will be two or more dependent
variables and a single independent variable. Such equations are known as

simultaneous linear equations. In this section, we consider linear differential

equations with one independent variable t and two dependent variables x and y.
We need two differential equations to solve for x and y. Hence, we will be given a
system of two linear differential equations which need not be of the same order.
We shall consider here only first order linear differential equations with constant
coefficients and we consider three types of equations.
5.5.1 Type I
wwWe consider simultaneous equations of the form
w.E a1
dx
dt
+ b1 y = f (t), a2
dy
dt
+ b2 x = g(t).
asy
First we eliminate one of the dependent variables from the two equations which
results in a second order linear differential equation with constant coefficients in
En
the other dependent variable and the independent variable t.
✎ ☞
gin ✍
Worked Examples
dy dx
✌
Example 5.93. Solve for x and y if

Solution. The given equations are
dy
=x
ee dt
= x,
dt
= y.
rin
[May 2004]
(1)
g.n
dt
dx
= y. (2)
dt
Differentiating (2) w. r. t. x we get
d2 x dy
dt2
=
dt
= x[from (1)]
et
d2 x
−x=0
dt2
d
(D2 − 1)x = 0where D = .
dt
A.E is m2 − 1 = 0
m2 = 1

m = ±1
∴ x = c1 et + c2 e−t .
dx
Now from (2) we have y = = c1 et − c2 e−t .
dt
dx dy
Example 5.94. Eliminate y from the system + 2y = − sin t and − 2x = cos t.
dt dt
Solution. Differentiating the first equation w.r.t. t we get
d2 x dy
ww 2
+ 2 = − cos t.
dt dt
d2 x
+ 2[2x + cos t] = − cos t.
dt2
w.E d2 x
dt2
+ 4x + 2 cos t + cos t = 0
asy
d2 x
dt2
+ 4x = −3 cos t,
En
dx
dy
+ x = cos t. gin
Example 5.95. Eliminate y from the simultaneous equations
dt
+ y = sin t and
dt
d2 x dy
+ = cos t.
ee
Solution. Differentiating the first equation w.r.t. t we get
rin
d2 x
dt2 dt
+ cos t − x = cos t. g.n
dt2
d2 x
dt2
− x = 0, et
dx dy
Example 5.96. Solve − y = t, + x = t2 . [May 2011, Jun 2006]
dt dt
Solution. The equations are
dx
− y = t. (1)
dt
and

dy
+ x = t2 . (2)
dt
Differentiating (1) w. r. t. t we get
d2 x dy
− =1
dt2 dt
2
d x
− [−x + t2 ] = 1 [ from (2)]
dt2
d2 x
2
+ x = 1 + t2 .
dt
This is a second order differential equation.
Now, A.E is m2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ m = ±i
ww xc = CF = c1 cos t + c2 sin t.
w.E
1
xp = 1 + t2 = (1 + D2 )−1 (1 + t2 )
1 + D2
= (1 − D2 + D4 − · · · )(1 + t2 ) = 1 + t2 − 2 = t2 − 1.
asy
Solution is x = xc + x p = c1 cos t + c2 sin t + t2 − 1.
From (1) we get
y=
dx
En
− t = −c1 sin t + c2 cos t + 2t − t
dt
gin
y = c2 cos t − c1 sin t + t.
ee
The required solution is x = c1 cos t + c2 sin t + t2 − 1.
rin
Example 5.97. Solve
dx
dt
+ y = sin t,
dy
dt
g.n
+ x = cos t given that x = 2, y = 0 when t = 0.
[Dec 2009]
dx
dt
+ y = sin t.
et (1)
dy
+ x = cos t. (2)
dt
Differentiating (1) w.r.t t we get
d2 x dy
+ = cos t
dt2 dt
d2 x
− x + cos t = cos t [from (2)]
dt2

d2 x
− x = 0.
dt2
This is a second order linear differential equation with constant coefficients.
A.E is m2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ m2 = 1 ⇒ m = ±1.
The solution is x = c1 et + c2 e−t .
dx
From (1) we obtain y = − + sin t
dt
i.e., y = c1 et − c2 e−t + sin t.
ww Given, x = 2 when t = 0
w.E =⇒ c1 + c2 = 2.
y = 0 when t = 0.
(3)
asy
=⇒ c1 − c2 = 0. (4)
En
(3) + (4) =⇒ 2c1 = 2 ⇒ c1 = 1 ⇒ c2 = 1.
gin
The solution is x = et + e−t
y = et − e−t + sin t.
Example 5.98. Solve

dx
dt
+ y = et , x −
Solution. The equations are
dy
dt ee
= t.
rin
[Dec 2012]
dx
dt
+ y = et .
g.n (1)
x−
dy
dt
= t.
Differentiating(1) w.r.t. t we get

et (2)
d2 x dy
+ = et
dt2 dt
d2 x
+ x − t = et [from (2)]
dt2
d2 x
+ x = t + et .
dt2

m2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ m2 = −1
m = ±i.
xc = c1 cos t + c2 sin t
1
xp = (t + et )
D2 +1
1 1
= 2 t+ 2 et
D +1 D +1
ww = (1 + D ) t + et
2 −1 1
2
= (1 − D2 + D4 · · · )t +
et
w.E =t+
et
2
.
2
asy
The solution for x is
En
x = xc + x p
et
.
x = c1 cos t + c2 sin t + t +
2
dxgin
y = et −
t
"dt
ee
= e − −c1 sin t + c2 cos t + 1 +
et
2
#
rin
= et + c1 sin t − c2 cos t − 1 −
et
e
2
t
g.n
y = + c1 sin t − c2 cos t − 1.
2
Example 5.99. Solve the simultaneous equations

dx
dt
+ 2y = sin 2t,
dy
dt
et
− 2x = cos 2t.
[Jun 2012]
dx
+ 2y = sin 2t (1)
dt
dy
− 2x = cos 2t. (2)
dt

Differentiating (1) w.r.t.t we get

d2 x dy
2
+ 2 = 2 cos 2t.
dt dt
d2 x
+ 2[2x + cos 2t] = 2 cos 2t. [ f rom(2)]
dt2
d2 x
+ 4x + 2 cos 2t = 2 cos 2t.
dt2
d2 x
+ 4x = 0.
dt2
ww m2 + 4 = 0 ⇒ m2 = −4
w.E m = ±2i.
xc = c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t.
x p = 0.
asy
En
x = xc + x p = c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t.
gin
ee
dx
2y = sin 2t −
dt
= sin 2t − [−2c1 sin 2t + 2c2 cos 2t]
rin
= sin 2t + 2c1 sin 2t − 2c2 cos 2t.
sin 2t
y= + c1 sin 2t − c2 cos 2t. g.n
2
Example 5.100. Solve

dx
dt
− y = t and
dy
dt
et
+ x = t2 given that x(0) = y(0) = 2.
[Dec 2011]
Solution. Refer Example 2.104.
The solution is
x = c1 cos t + c2 sin t + t2 − 1

Given: when t = 0, x = 2
∴ c1 − 1 = 2 ⇒ c1 = 3.
Also, when t = 0, y = 2.
∴ c2 = 2.
The solutions are
x = 3 cos t + 2 sin t + t2 − 1
y = 2 cos t − 3 sin t + t.
wwExample 5.101. Solve

dx
dt
+ 2y = − sin t,
dy
dt
− 2x = cos t given, x = 1 and y = 0 at
w.E
t = 0.
[Dec 2010]
asy
dx
En
+ 2y = − sin t (1)
dt
dy
− 2x = cos t. (2)
dt
gin
Differentiating (1) w.r.t.t we get
d2 x
d2 x
dt2
dy
+ 2 = − cos t
dt
ee rin
dt2
d2 x
+ 2[2x + cos t] = − cos t [from (2)].
g.n
dt2
+ 4x + 2 cos t = − cos t.
d2 x
dt2
+ 4x = −3 cos t.
et
m2 + 4 = 0 ⇒ m2 = −4
m = ±2i.
xc = c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t.

1
xp = (−3 cos t)
D2 +4
cos t
= −3 ·
−1 + 4
cos t
= −3 = − cos t.
3
∴ The solution for x is
x = xc + x p
x = c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t − cos t.
ww 2y = − sin t −
dx
dt
w.E = − sin t − [−c1 2 sin 2t + 2c2 cos 2t + sin t]
= − sin t + 2c1 sin 2t − 2c2 cos 2t − sin t
asy
= 2c1 sin 2t − 2c2 cos 2t − 2 sin t.
En
y = c1 sin 2t − c2 cos 2t − sin t.
Given: when t = 0, x = 1.
∴ c1 − 1 = 1 ⇒ c1 = 2.
gin
When t = 0, y = 0.
−c2 = 0 ⇒ c2 = 0.
∴ The solutions are
ee rin
x = 2 cos 2t − cos t
g.n
y = 2 sin 2t − sin t.
5.5.2 Type II
et
We consider a system of first order linear differential equations of the form
dx dx
+ b1 x + c1 y = f (t) and a2
a1 + b2 x + c2 y = g(t).
dt dt
d
Procedure. Replace by D and rewrite the given equations involving D.
dt
Eliminating either x or y from the two equations we obtain a second order

differential equation in the other variable for which the solution can be obtained
by earlier methods. Substituting this value in any one of the given equations, we
obtain the solution for the other variable.
✎ ☞
Worked Examples
✍ ✌
dx dy
Example 5.102. Solve = 3x + 8y, = −x − 3y, x(0) = 6, y(0) = −2. [May 2007]
dt dt
d
Solution. Let = D. The given equations are reduced to
dt
dx
ww dt
= 3x + 8y
(D − 3)x − 8y = 0. (1)
w.E dy
dt
= −x − 3y
asy
(D + 3)y + x = 0.
Operating (1) by D + 3 we obtain

(2)
En
(D + 3)(D − 3)x − 8(D + 3)y = 0
gin
(D2 − 9)x + 8x = 0
ee
(D2 − 9 + 8)x = 0
(D2 − 1)x = 0
rin
m2 − 1 = 0.
m = ±1. g.n
From (1) we have 8y =
dx
x =c1 et + c2 e−t .
− 3x =⇒ y =
"
1 dx
− 3x
# et
dt 8 dt
1n o 1 −1
y= [c1 et − c2 e−t ] − 3[c1 et + c2 e−t ] = [−2c1 et − 4c2 e−t ] = [c1 et + 2c2 e−t ].
8 8 4
When t = 0, x = 6.
=⇒ c1 + c2 = 6. (3)

When t = 0, y = −2.
c1 + 2c2
⇒ = −2
−4
c1 + 2c2 = 8. (4)
(4) − (3) ⇒ c2 = 2 ⇒ c1 = 4.
Solution is x = 4et + 2e−t
1
y = − [4et + 4e−t ] = −[et + e−t ].
4
dx dy
Example 5.103. Solve + 2x − 3y = t, − 3x + 2y = e2t . [Dec 2014, Jun 2006]
dt dt
wwSolution. Let
d
dt
= D. The given equations are reduced to
w.E (D + 2)x − 3y = t.
−3x + (D + 2)y = e2t .

(1)
(2)
asy
(1) × 3 =⇒ 3(D + 2)x − 9y = 3t (3)
En
Operating (2) by D + 2 we obtain
gin
−3(D + 2)x + (D + 2)2 y = (D + 2)e2t = 2e2t + 2e2t = 4e2t . (4)
ee
(3) + (4) =⇒ ((D + 2)2 − 9)y = 4e2t + 3t.
(D2 + 4D + 4 − 9)y = 4e2t + 3t
(D2 + 4D − 5)y = 4e2t + 3t. rin

This is a second order linear differential equation. g.n
A.E is, m2 + 4m − 5 = 0 ⇒ (m + 5)(m − 1) = 0 ⇒ m = −5, m = 1.
C.F. = yc = c1 e−5t + c2 et .
et
1 1
yp = 4e2t + 3t
D2+ 4D − 5 2
−5 1 − D +4D
5
e2t 3 D2 + 4D −1
=4 − 1− t
7 5 5
4 3 D2 4
= e2t − 1 + + D + ··· t
7 5 5 5

4 3 4
PI = e2t − t +
7 5 5
4 3 4
y = c1 e−5t + c2 et + e2t − t + .
7 5 5
From (2) we have

dy
3x = + 2y − e2t
dt " #
4 3 4 3 4
= −5c1 e−5t + c2 et + 2e2t − + 2 c1 e−5t + c2 et + e2t − (t + ) − e2t
7 5 7 5 5
9 6 39
3x = −3c1 e−5t + 3c2 et + e2t − t − .
7 5 25
ww −5t t 3 2t 2
x = −c1 e + c2 e + e − t − .
7 5
9
5
w.E
Example 5.104. Solve (D + 2)x + 3y = 0, 3x + (D + 2)y = 2e2t .
[May 2003]
asy
(D + 2)x + 3y = 0. (1)
En
3x + (D + 2)y = 2e2t . (2)
gin
Operate (1) by (D + 2) we get
ee
(D + 2)2 x + 3(D + 2)y = 0.
(2) × 3 ⇒ 9x + 3(D + 2)y = 6e2t .

rin
(3)
(4)
(3) − (4) ⇒ (D + 2)2 − 9 x = −6e2t

g.n

D2 + 4D + 4 − 9 x = −6e2t

D2 + 4D − 5 x = −6e2t .

A.E is, m2 + 4m − 5 = 0 ⇒ (m + 5)(m − 1) = 0.

et
xc = c1 e−5t + c2 et .
e2t
x p = −6
D2 + 4D − 5
e2t −6 2t
= −6 = e .
7 7

x = xc + x p .
6
x = c1 e−5t + c2 et − e2t .
7
From (1) we have
3y = −(D + 2)x = −Dx − 2x

12 2t 12
= 5c1 e−5t − c2 et + e − 2c1 e−5t − 2c2 et + e2t
ww 7
24
3y = 3c1 e−5t − 3c2 et + e2t
7
7
w.E 1
3
−5t t 24
y = 3c1 e − 3c2 e + e2t = c1 e−5t − c2 et + e2t .
7
8
7

dx
dt asy
+ 4x + 3y = t;
dy
dt
+ 2x + 5y = e2t . [Dec 2013]
En
(D + 4)x + 3y = t.
2x + (D + 5)y = e2t . gin (1)
(2)
Operate (1) by D + 5, we get ee rin

(D + 4)(D + 5)x + 3(D + 5)y = (D + 5)t = 1 + 5t.
g.n
(2) × 3 ⇒
6x + 3(D + 5)y = 3e2t .
et
Subtracting, we get
(D + 4)(D + 5)x − 6x = 1 + 5t − 3e2t
(D2 + 9D + 20 − 6)x = 1 + 5t − 3e2t
(D2 + 9D + 14)x = 1 + 5t − 3e2t .

m2 + 9m + 14 = 0
(m + 2)(m + 7) = 0
m = −2, − 7.
xc = c1 e−2t + c2 e−7t .
1
xp = (1 + 5t − 3e2t )
D2 + 9D + 14
ww = 2
1
D + 9D + 14
1
(1 + 5t) − 2
3
D + 9D + 14
3e2t
e2t
w.E =
14 1 + 9D+D
1
14
2

9D + D2
(1 + 5t)
!−1
−
4 + 18 + 14
3e2t
asy =
14
1
· 1+
14
9D + D 2
!
(1 + 5t) −
36
e2t
En
= 1− · · · (1 + 5t) −
14 14 12
2t
" #
1 9 e
gin
=
14
1
"
1 + 5t −
14
45
#
·5 −
e2t
12
=
ee
14
14
"
1 + 5t −
1 14 + 70t − 45
14
14
−
#
12
−
e2t
12
rin
=
70t − 31 e
196
−
2t
12
.
g.n
x = xc + x p
70t − 31 e2t
et
x = c1 e−2t + c2 e−7t + − .
196 12
3y = t − (D + 4)x.
70t − 31 e2t
!
−2t −7t
= t − (D + 4) c1 e + c2 e + −
196 12

e2t 70t − 31 e2t

!
−2t −7t 70
= t − −2c1 e − 7c2 e + − + 4c1 e−2t + 4c2 e−7t + −
196 6 49 3
70 e2t 70t − 31 e 2t
= t − 2c1 e−2t + 3c2 e−7t − + − + .
196 6 49 3
70t 31 70 e2t
=t− + − − 2c1 e−2t + 3c2 e−7t + .
49 49 196 2
21t 54 e2t
3y = − + − 2c1 e−2t + 3c2 e−7t + .
49 196 2
e2t
!
1 21t 54 −2t −7t
y= − + − 2c1 e + 3c2 e + .
3 49 196 2
ww5.5.3 Type III
w.E
Here, we consider a system of linear first order differential equations of the form
a1
dx dy
+ b1 + c1 x = f (t)
asy a2
dt
dx
dt
dy
+ b2 + c2 y = g(t).
En
dt dt
d
As in Type II, replace by D and eliminate any one variable and solve for the
gin
dt
other variable by obtaining a second order linear differential equation and finally
on substitution of this value in any one of the equations, we obtain the solution for
the other variable.

dx dy
−
dt dt
ee
+ 2y = cos 2t,
dx dy
+
dt dt
− 2x = sin 2t.
rin [Dec 2008]
Solution. Let
d
dt
= D. The given equations can be written as
g.n
Dx − (D − 2)y = cos 2t
(D − 2)x + Dy = sin 2t
et (1)
(2)
Operating (1) by D we get
D2 x − D(D − 2)y = −2 sin 2t (3)
Operating (2) by (D − 2) we obtain
(D − 2)2 x + D(D − 2)y = (D − 2) sin 2t = 2 cos 2t − 2 sin 2t (4)

(3)+(4)=⇒
(D2 + (D − 2)2 )x = 2 cos 2t − 4 sin 2t
(D2 + D2 − 4D + 4)x = 2 cos 2t − 4 sin 2t
(2D2 − 4D + 4)x = 2 cos 2t − 4 sin 2t
(D2 − 2D + 2)x = cos 2t − 2 sin 2t.
A.E is, m2 − 2m + 2 = 0
ww (m − 1)2 + 2 − 1 = 0
(m − 1)2 = −1
w.E m − 1 = ±i ⇒ m = 1 ± i.
asy
xc = et (c1 cos t + c2 sin t).
1
En
xp = (cos 2t − 2 sin 2t)
D2 − 2D + 2
1 1
cos 2t − 2 2
gin
= 2 sin 2t
D − 2D + 2 D − 2D + 2
1 1
= cos 2t − 2 sin 2t
=
−4 − 2D + 2
1
−2 − 2D
−1 1
ee
cos 2t − 2
cos 2t +
−4 − 2D + 2
1
−2 − 2D
1
sin 2t
sin 2t rin
=
2 D+1
−1 (D − 1)
2 D2 − 1
D+1
cos 2t + 2
(D − 1)
D! − 1
sin 2t g.n
=
=
−1 −2 sin 2t − cos 2t
2 −5
2 sin 2t + cos 2t
!
+
+
2 cos 2t − sin 2t
−5
2 cos 2t − sin 2t
et
−10 −5
−1 −1
= (2 sin 2t + cos 2t + 4 cos 2t − 2 sin 2t) = (5 cos 2t).
10 10
−1
xp = (cos 2t)
2
1
The solution is x = xc + x p = et (c1 cos t + c2 sin t) − (cos 2t).
2

dx
(1) + (2) ⇒ 2 + 2y − 2x = cos 2t + sin 2t
dt
dx
2y = 2x − 2 + cos 2t + sin 2t.
" dt #
t cos 2t
= 2 e (c1 cos t + c2 sin t) −
2
" !#
t t 1 − sin 2t
− 2 e (−c1 sin t + c2 cos t) + e (c1 cos t + c2 sin t) − + cos 2t + sin 2t
2 2
sin 2t
= 2et ((c1 sin t − c2 cos t) +
2
ww t
y = e ((c1 sin t − c2 cos t) +
sin 2t
4
.
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et


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Unit Number Page Number

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1.1 Representation of a function.

wwDefinition. A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D exactly

Another way to represent a function is by an Arrow diagram. Each arrow

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associated with x, f (a) is associated with a and so on.

The most common method for visualizing a function is its graph. If f is a

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ww If we reverse the roles of x and y, then we get the equation x = h(y) = y2 − 4

Piecewise difined functions.

For all x ≤ −1.

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The combined graph of f is given below.

The graph of f is given below.

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The open dots are not included at the

Example. f (x) = x2 is even,

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(i) f (x) = x5 − x. asy

Increasing and decreasing functions. A function f is called increasing on an

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1.2 Limit of a function

Definition. Intuitive definition of a limit. Suppose f (x) is defined. When x is

x→a asy x→a−

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1. lim f (x) + g(x) = lim f (x)+ lim g(x).

ww 4. lim f (x)g(x) = lim f (x) × lim g(x).

6. lim f (x) n = lim f (x) , where n is a positive integer.

9. lim xn = an , where n is a positive integer

Direct substitution property. If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a

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Example 1.8. Find lim (2x2 − 3x + 4).

Solution. lim (2x2 − 3x + 4) = lim 2x2 − lim 3x + lim 4

Example 1.10. Find lim

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Example 1.14. Show that lim |x| = 0.

Solution. We know that |x| = 

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w.E ∴ lim f (x) = lim (8 − 2x) = 0.

Definition. A function f is continuous at a number a, if lim f (x) = f (a).

1. f (a) must be defined.

2. lim f (x) exists.

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3. lim f (x) = f (a).

ww(i) f (2) is defined and f (2) = 1.

(iii) Since f (2) = 1 , lim f (x), f (x) is not continuous at x = 2.

(a) Any polynomial is continuous everywhere. i.e., it iscontinuous on R = (−∞, ∞).

(b) Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined, i.e., it is continuous

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Theorem. The following types of functions are continuous at every number in

ww 5. Inverse trigonometric functions.

w.E6. Exponential functions.

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lim f (x) = lim (1 + x2 ) = 1.

ww The domain of continuity of f is {(−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).

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Solution.Let f (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2.