CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION

1.1 An Overview

A study of fluid flow usually starts with incompressible fluids, i.e. liquid or low
velocity gas flows. This state of the fluid at any point in space or time is then completely
determined by the local pressure and velocity, and two equations are sufficient to
describe such flows. These equations are i) Conservation of mass (the Continuity
equation) and ii) Newton’s Law that a fluid element moves under the influence of the
forces which act on it (The momentum equation). The temperature changes of the fluid
and associated density variations normally do not enter in the analysis, except when
extremely large flow systems are considered; (Atmospheric flows or Flows in lakes and
oceans). A thorough understanding of the pattern of analysis of incompressible flows
gives an insight on how to treat compressible, high-speed fluid flows. The state of flow
involves additional variables such as temperature and density which need to be
determined. This in turn needs additional equations. The needed additional equation are
provided by the condition that the energy must be conserved (energy equation) and a
relationship between pressure, temperature and density (equation of state).

Besides, other complicated flow patterns also exist where in different parts of the
flowing medium maintain different temperatures as well as different velocities. Such
flows are generally called Multiphase flows. The medium then consists of a mixture of
gas and liquid, gas and solid, or liquid and solid constituents. Usually, there are only two-
phases involved, say, a fluid and small solid particles, most generally referred with the
term “Suspended Particulate matter (SPM)”. Such flows also are called Two-phase flows.
The particles in such flows are almost never of uniform size but have some size
distribution. Since the particle velocity is seen to depend on the particle size, the particle
phase has many velocities. Usually, for the sake of simplicity, only average particle size
is considered in general for the purpose of analysis and therefore particle velocity is
considered as a single variable.

In the case of the particles, one must distinguish between two situations. The
particle concentration may be so low that the presence of the particles has no effect on the
two phase flow, except in the immediate vicinity of the particles. Considerable

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simplifications result, because the fluid flow can be analyzed without regard to the
presence of the particles, and the trajectory of the particles in this flow filed is calculated
in a second stage of the analysis. In the other case, the particle concentration is high
enough that the interaction between the fluid and the particles modifies the flow. In this
situation, one is not concerned with the motion of the individual particles, and only the
average motion is of interest. The average distance between the particles is much smaller
than the dimensions of interest in a given problem, and it seems natural to consider the
particles as if they wear molecules of a second fluid. This “particle fluid” can be
characterized by its velocity, temperature and concentration. Six equations that describe
the conservation of mass, momentum and energy corresponding to each phase for
determining the six dependent flow variables; viz. velocity, temperature and pressure of
the fluid phase and velocity, temperature and concentration of the particle phase. These
equations contain terms which relate the interaction between the phases and are in
general not amenable for rigorous mathematical description. These relationships are
established through a set of empirical relationships derived from suitable experimental
observations should be added. It is evident that even relatively simple flows may lead to a
system of equations that isn’t amenable to analytical solutions and must be solved more
or less elaborate numerical techniques.

Overall development of dynamics of fluid flow with SPM is based upon:

(i) Extending the dynamics of single particle to the case of molecular theory.

(ii) Modifying the continuum approach to account for the particles in the fluid phase.

Despite the discreteness of particles, the disposed solid phase is viewed as a

continuum. Soo[1], Marble[2], Saffmann[3], Batchelor[4] and many others have
presented modified form of Navier-Stoke’s equations for the fluid and the particle phases.
Analysis of heat and flow characteristics of the fluid as well as particle phases provide
vital information required to solve many of the practical problems. Keeping in view the
importance associated with heat transfer analysis of two phase flows, an investigation is
proposed to be carried out towards a detailed study of thermal boundary layer flows
under various boundary conditions. The details of the research problem identified in the
present context are presented in section 1.4 of this chapter. Various aspects related to the
governing equations of the flow pattern, their simplifications for different boundary
conditions, the method of solving the same along with the results and conclusion drawn
there from are compiled in this document in subsequent chapters that follow. Flows of

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fluid-particle suspension have many practical applications and the same are described
here in the next section.

1.2 Importance of the Flow of Fluid-Particle Suspension

Problems of two-phase flows arise in many engineering and industrial
applications. In heat transfer technology, dust particles, embedded in fluids are used in
gas-cooling chambers to enhance heat transfer processes, as it is well known that solid
particles are better conductors of heat than liquids. Dusty gas flows assume importance in
such engineering problems as fluidization (flow through packed beds), sedimentation,
powder technology, flows in rocket tubes where small carbon or metallic fuel particles
are present, aerosol filtration, gas purification, motion of suspension and slurries and in
the process by which raindrops are formed by the coalescence of small droplets which
might be considered as solid particles for the purpose of examining their movement prior
to coalescence. Similar situations can also be noticed in the flows of fluids containing
dissolved micro-molecules, fiber suspensions, latex particles in emulsion paints,
reinforcing particles in polymer melts and rock crystals in molten lava. Knowledge of
two-phase flows is of vital importance in petroleum industry and in the purification of
crude oils·

Knowledge of dusty fluid flows is useful to some extent in understanding the

rheology of blood flow through capillaries, where red blood cells can be regarded as rigid
particles, embedded in the plasma which is a Newtonian fluid. Thus by treating blood as
a dusty fluid, it is possible to determine the effect of red corpuscles on the velocity
distribution of the plasma and to assess the loss of pressure head in the capillaries due to
the presence of red cells. These useful results would help medical scientist and others in
the diagnosis of diseases connected with the circulatory system and in the design of such
medical apparatuses as blood pumps and oxygenators. Another biological situation where
the study of two-phase flows assumes importance is the phenomena of particle deposition
in the respiratory tract.

The two phase flows are not only of fundamental interest from the fluid
mechanics standpoint of view but also of great economic, social and environmental
importance due to their application in the chemical and coating industries, weather
prediction, earth quake, cyclone and cloud computing etc. The disposal of waste water
borne particulate in the coastal zone, prediction of particulate deposition from urban
atmospheric gas emissions etc.

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 The flow and heat transfer along a stretching sheet has very vast applications in
prediction of flow over a helicopter rotor blades, nuclear cooling system, nuclear waste
disposal and aero foil lift hysteretic at the stall etc. The dust particles in the boundary
layer includes soil erosion natural winds, dust entrainment in cloud during a nuclear
explosion, flow in rocket tubes, in the field of propulsions and blood flow in capillaries.
Thus the study of the flow of dust laden fluid has very good applications in the
following fields:
(i) Emission of effluents from industries.
(ii) Smoke emission from vehicles.
(iii) Flying ash produced from thermal reactors.
(iv) Flows in rocket tubes where small carbon or metallic fuel particles are
present.
(v) Transportation of sediments by water and air.
(vi) Spraying of insecticides.
(vii) Scattering of radioactive fallout.
(viii) Erosion of soils.
(ix) Cooling effects of air conditioners.
(x) Fiber suspension and paper making.
(xi) Dissemination of pollen.
(xii) Rock crystals in Molten Lava.
(xiii) Color of sky at twilight.
(xiv) Lunar ash flows.
(xv) Powder Technology.
(xvi) Aircraft icing.
(xvii) Mechanical Engineering.
(xviii) Chemical Engineering etc.
(xix) Biological Science
(xx) Space Science

The above two phase flow phenomena associated with our daily life can be categorized
as:

 Small-Scale action like entrainment of dust by vacuum cleaning equipment etc.

 Modest-Scale like the dispersion of soot particles from the factory chimney etc.
 Large-Scale meteorological disturbance like sound and snow storm etc.

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 Mathematical analysis of such two-phase flows is tedious as compared to that of
clear fluid. The analysis of various published results concerns mainly on the particle
velocity and temperature being unable to follow rapid change in fluid flow. Section 1.3
that outlines a brief report on the earlier investigations reported in literature w.r.t. the two
phase flows. A detailed review on the literature regarding the heat and flow
characteristics of fluid-particle suspension is presented in Chapter -2 of this volume.

1.3 Previous Studies on Two Phase Flow

To the best of the author’s knowledge on the flow and heat transfer in fluids with
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM), no consulted effort has been given to analyze the
effect of particle-particle interaction on boundary layer characteristics like skin friction
and heat transfer coefficient. From the literature available so far on this topic, it may be
concluded that studies relating to flow with SPM with negligible volume fraction
(Soo[1,11,12], Marble[2,9], Saffman[3,5], Batchelor[4], Otterman[6], Gireesha et. al.[52-
57], Tabakoff & Hamed[16,17], Prabha & Jain[20-22], Das et. al.[51]), constant density
of the particle phase(Pavithra & Gireesha[136], Gireesha et. al. [128], Das et. al.[51]) and
omission of momentum equation in y-direction of particle phase (Soo[1,11,12],
Marble[2,9], Saffman[3,5], Batchelor[4], Otterman[6]) are inadequate. Further, the
assumption no slip condition for particle velocity is not physically plausible since the
particles do not flow in unison with fluid. According to Rudinger [23], consideration of
finite volume fraction in flow analysis is well justified at high fluid density and at high
particle mass fraction. The errors that would result from neglecting the particle volume
range from insignificant to large. Otterman[7] has shown that the standard boundary layer
approximations are valid for the fluid phase provided that the density of the particulate
phase is of same order as that of the fluid. Further, it has been shown that the boundary
layer approximation of the momentum equation for the fluid phase is not necessary and
that the particle momentum equation in the transverse direction cannot be neglected.
Taking into consideration the above aspects, the -component of the momentum equation
of the fluid phase is dropped and the - component of the momentum equation of the
particle phase is retained. Practically contact and separation between the suspended
particles and a wall of different materials or similar material with different surface
conditions cause the electrification of suspended particles by virtue of which they are
charged. As it was pointed out by Soo[11] that this tribo-electrification of particles has a
significant impact on the boundary layer characteristics. In the present work the

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inadequacy in the studies related to flow of fluid with SPM is met by considering these
effects in mathematical modeling of the physical problems. Further, the internal heat
generation & absorption and radiation for both phases have also been taken into account
to bridge the gap of the results pertaining to the investigations carried out by
(Gireeshaet.al.[52,54,56], Mukhopadhayay[63], Gorder & Vajravelu[65], Jat & Chand
[73]) and many others so far, w.r.t. the internal heat transfer phenomena.

1.4 Identification of the Problem

As will be discussed elsewhere in this document, the studies related to two phase
flows are scant and are incomplete in many aspects despite several practical applications
associated with such flows. Keeping this in view and to fill the gap in the state of the art
of the knowledge in this area, i.e., the two phase flow and with an insight to identify the
characteristics of the flow of fluid-particle suspension, it is decided to take up an
investigation of two phase flow past certain standard patterns of boundary conditions that
are practically relevant. Further, considering the fact that in all real fluid flows
development and growth of the boundary layer plays a significant role in the dynamics of
motion, in the present investigation focus is given to the analysis of boundary layer flows
in the two phase medium with heat transfer aspects. The exact research problem taken up
for investigation is defined in section 1.4.1 that follows here.

1.4.1 Definition of the Problem

Majority of the two phase flow applications include heat exchange between the
boundary and the two phases. For an understanding of the characteristics of flow there
exist in general two alternate approaches. These are: a) Physical (Experimental) modeling
and b) Mathematical modeling. In addition to the two there also exists a third approach
for exploring the characteristics of a system which is field or prototype observation.
However, the analysis from prototype or field observations cannot be generalized for
adaptation to similar flow situations. The observations made or the data obtained from
such studies can only be useful for validation of the results obtained through other
methods. Physical modeling for this type of flow systems is not only complicated but also
is subject to scale errors due to the heat exchange phenomenon which again is complex
for replication in non-dimensional terms. The choice is thus limited to mathematical
modeling of the problem considered. Moreover, mathematical modeling enables
consideration of all the influencing variables simultaneously and solve the governing

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equations using suitable mathematical techniques. Thus, keeping in view the
aforementioned aspects the research problem considered for investigation is defined as

“Modeling Heat Transfer Aspects in the Laminar Flow of Fluid-Particle Suspension”.

The problem defined above indicates that the analysis/modeling is limited to

laminar flow only. Consideration of the most general type of fluid flow, i.e., turbulent
flow will necessitate inclusion of Reynold’s stress terms in the governing equations
making the analysis more complicate. Further, since the analysis is aimed at simultaneous
inclusion of all influencing variables, which has not been fully explored hither to, an
initial solution for less complicated flow pattern should be the choice for understanding
the characteristics of the flow of fluid-particle suspension. Thus limiting the study to
laminar flow is justified at this stage of investigation. Once the dynamics of laminar flow
of particulate suspension is explored, the same can be extended to turbulent flows also as
a further research.

The above defined problem is solved by identifying the below listed objectives.

1.4.2 Study Objectives

Any analysis of flow characteristics mainly depend on the boundary conditions

that exist in nature. Majority of the practical boundary conditions can be categorized into
stationary flat plate and a moving flat plate. The influence of heat transfer parameters,
radiation effects, electrification of SPM and the presence of source and sink are included
in the study through the following objectives:

A) Analysis of mixed convective heat transfer of a particulate suspension over a semi-

infinite flat plate with electrification of particles.
B) Study of boundary layer flow and heat transfer of fluid-particle suspension over a
vertical stretching sheet with radiation.
C) Imploring the radiation and electrification effect on thermal boundary layer flow of
fluid-particle suspension due to an exponential stretching sheet with heat
source/sink.
D) Analysis of flow and heat transfer of particulate suspension past a wedge with
electrification of particles.
E) Study of flow and heat transfer in a radiative boundary layer of fluid-particle
suspension with internal heat generational/absorption over a flat plate.

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The above objectives are achieved by considering the numerical modeling through
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. The parameters considered for
characterizing the flow of fluid-particle suspension are

a) fluid and particle phase velocities & temperatures

b) lift, drag and transverse forces in addition to the forces that arise due to particle
electrification and phase change of particles and
c) internal heat generation/absorption and thermal radiation.

The governing equations used and transformation of the same into dimensionless form
are presented in respective chapters where they are considered for modeling and analysis.

1.4.3 Overall Outcome

Through present investigation it became possible to understand the dynamics of

the boundary layer flow and heat transfer characteristics of fluid with SPM. The present
investigation has resulted in some worth mentioning conclusions out of which one
significant conclusion is w.r.t. the rate of wall heat transfer past a vertical stretching
sheet(Chapter4). For this case the rate of heat transfer is observed to increase
considerably with increase of diffusion parameter and other non-dimensional parameters
like Grashoff number, Prandtl number etc. Similarly the temperature of both fluid and
particle phases are observed to increase in the presence of heat sink for the flow of fluid
with SPM past an exponential stretching sheet as well as a radiative boundary layer flow
past a flat plate(Chapters 5 & 7). Further an interesting conclusion is obtained w.r.t.
variation of Nusselt number for flow past a wedge (Chapter 6). The results from each part
of the overall study are discussed separately and conclusions drawn there from for each
case are compiled here in individual chapters (Chapters 3 to 7).

1.5 Organization of the Thesis

The present investigations have been devoted for the convectional flow and heat
transfer past a flat plate, stretching sheet or a wedge, where the flow properties with
suspended particulate matter (SPM) are majorly affected by electrification of particles,
thermal radiation, and heat source/sink. Mainly the numerical algorithms are used to
obtain the solution of modeled problems to ensure the validity. The numerical results are
obtained using method of similarity transformations, shooting technique and Runge-Kutta

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4th order scheme or a finite difference method by using non-uniform grid technique. The
entire work is presented in the following 8 chapters.

Chapter 1 – Introduction:

Comprises mainly the introduction to flow of fluid-particle suspension and its

basic characteristics. This chapter also includes a mention on the importance of fluid-
particle suspension flows along with the practical fields where in they occur. Further the
previous studies on two phase flow carried out by various other investigators which
motivated this researcher to take up the studies are briefly presented here. Finally an
outline of the research problem, its definition and objectives are listed here.

Chapter 2 –Literature Review:

Focuses on the review of research and development in the subject area along with
a critical review of previous literature. This chapter also outlines the fundamental
equations that describe the flow system. The continuity, momentum and energy equations
of boundary layer fluid particle suspension flows are transformed into non-dimensional
form using the theory based upon Eulerian approach. At the end a description is given on
numerical methods that are used to solve the governing equations.

Chapter 3 – Mixed Convective Heat Transfer of a Particulate Suspension over a Semi-

infinite Flat Plate with Electrification of Particles:

Deals with two phase thermal mixed convective boundary layer flow with
suspended particulate matter (SPM) over a semi-infinite flat plate with electrification of
the particles, which is analyzed by momentum integral method followed by numerical
integration and Runge-Kutta 4th order method. Details about the methodology and the
results related to the variation of non-dimensional parameters are discussed here.

Chapter 4 – Boundary Layer Flow and Heat Transfer of Fluid-Particle Suspension over a
Vertical Stretching Sheet with Radiation:

Describes a boundary layer analysis for the effect of viscous dissipation and
thermal radiation of a convective flow of a fluid-particle suspension past a vertical
stretching sheet. The details of transformation of governing partial differential equations
of flow field to nonlinear ordinary differential equations are described there. The results
pertaining to non-dimensional boundary layer profiles as well as the shear stress and rate

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of wall heat transfer are described here w.r.t. the variation of different physical
parameters like Grashoff number, Prandtl number, Eckret number, diffusion parameter
and radiation parameter.

Chapter 5 – Radiation and Electrification Effects on Thermal Boundary Layer Flow of

Fluid-Particle Suspension due to an Exponential Stretching Sheet with Heat Source/Sink:

Emphasizes on the rational approach for the modeling of two phase flow
formulations to describe the thermal radiative boundary layer flow of fluid-particle
suspension due to an exponential stretching sheet in the presence of electrification of
particles and internal heat source/sink. This chapter contains the details about the
governing partial differential equations of flow field and their transformation into
ordinary differential equations using similarity transformations in exponential forms and
are solved numerically by shooting technique using Runge-Kutta 4th order method. The
effects of various physical parameters on the momentum and thermal boundary layer
profiles, local skin friction coefficient and local heat transfer on the vicinity of the plate
are compiled in this chapter and are represented graphically.

Chapter 6 – Flow and Heat Transfer of Particulate Suspension Pasta Wedge with
Electrification of Particles:

Covers the aspects related to boundary layer flow and heat transfer past a
symmetric wedge with electrification of particles. The results obtained from the
numerical solution of the governing equations by employing finite difference technique
using non-uniform grid form the contents of this chapter. The impact of various
influencing parameters on the flow profiles are compiled here.

Chapter 7 –Flow and Heat Transfer in a Radiative Boundary Layer of Fluid-Particle

Suspension with Internal Heat Generational/Absorption over a Flat Plate:
Illustrates the results related to the fluid flow and heat transfer analysis to steady
laminar boundary layer flow with suspended particulate matter (SPM) over a semi-
infinite flat plate, where the behavior of the flow is greatly affected by thermal radiation
and heat generation/absorption terms for both the phases are introduced. The governing
differential equations of flow field are reduced into difference equations using three point
formulae which are solved numerically with the help of finite difference technique using
non-uniform grid and the details are reported there upon.

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Lastly Chapter 8 discusses a brief summary of the overall work carried out along with the
important conclusions and suggestions for future study.

The list of references followed by 8 appendices form the concluding part of this
document.

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