1

Title
Structuring Strategic Intervention Materials (SIM): Impact to the
Least Mastered Competencies in Entrepreneurship of Senior High
School Students

Prepared & Submitted by:

Mery Rose L. Virrey
MAED-THE
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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Entrepreneurs, who create their own venture (Shane & Venkataraman,

2000), usually engage in the development of new and undefined concepts of

products or services. These entrepreneurs usually have limited access to

information. This is often caused by minimal internal secondary data

availability of entrepreneurs (Mohan-Neill, 1995; Peter & Brush, 1996) and

limited access to reliable information sources (Forbes, 1999). Due to these

limitations entrepreneurs are often depending on gathering knowledge

externally (Kraaijenbrink, Wijnhoven, & Groen, 2007). However, gathering

external knowledge can be a costly and time consuming activity for

entrepreneurs, who often possess limited resources in terms of capital

(Abimbola, 2001), know-how (Rode and Vallaster, 2005) and time (Wong and

Merrilees, 2005).

As mentioned by Stevenson, Roberts and Grousback (1985) the

identification and selection of new business opportunities is one of the key

characteristics of a successful entrepreneur. The start of a new venture can

be defined by the opportunity development process, which contains several

steps; (1) identification of an opportunity, (2) evaluation of this opportunity

and, (3) the development of this opportunity, also called the exploitation

(Shane and Venkataraman, 2000; Venkataraman, 1997). In the first stage,

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the entrepreneur can either passively or actively discover a business

opportunity or idea; in the second stage the entrepreneur tries to evaluate

this idea to see whether it is plausible and, for example, how it would be

perceived in the market; the third and final stage is the execution of the idea

which is typically considered the launch of the business and further

development. This process is called the ’entrepreneurial opportunity

development’ (EOD).

In order to address how entrepreneurs can recognize and acquire

external information that benefits this entrepreneurial opportunity

development process, Dyer, Gregersen, & Christensen (2008) who identified

4 different behaviors called ‘entrepreneurial search behaviors’: Questioning,

Observing, Experimenting and Networking are look into. These behaviors

characterize entrepreneurs and can help them in the different phases of the

entrepreneurial opportunity development process.

The purpose of the study is to determine the effect of SIM technique on

students’ achievement in Entrepreneurship subject. Specifically a quasi-

experimental pre-test, post-test, non-equivalent control group design was

utilized for the study. The sample is consisted of 80 Entrepreneurship

students. Two intact classes were used; one class (group A) is classified as

high section (i.e. high achievers group) while the other class (group B) is

classified as low section (i.e. the academically challenged group). Members of

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the same class were assigned randomly to experimental and control groups.

Experimental groups were taught selected topics in TLE using SIM technique.

Control groups were taught the same topics using traditional method. Pretest

was administered to both groups before the commencement of the treatment.

Treatment was administered for a period of six weeks after which a posttest

was administered. This study aims to assess the Effects of SIM on students’

academic achievement in Entrepreneurship. Specifically it aims to answer the

following questions, (a) what is the level of performance of the student’s base

on pretest and post test scores using the traditional methods of teaching

Entrepreneurship. (b) What is the level of performance of the student’s base

on pretest and post test scores using the Strategic Intervention materials in

teaching Entrepreneurship. (c) Is there a significant difference between the

pretest and post test scores of students using the traditional methods of

teaching Entrepreneurship. (d) Is there a significant difference between the

pretest and post test scores of students using the Strategic Intervention

materials in teaching Entrepreneurship. (e) Is there a significant difference

between the pretest and post test scores of students in using the traditional

methods of teaching and the strategic intervention materials in teaching

Entrepreneurship.

The onset of the K-12 basic education program aims to erase the poor

academic achievement of students in the different subject areas. The addition

of two years in high school has envisaged development of valuable skills and
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full mastery of the students in the subjects learned. Unfortunately, the recent

NAT result has addresses challenge to the teaching workforce particularly on

the subjects that students displayed poor performance. The result suggest

that on the average, the students obtained an MPS of 48.90 in the 2012 NAT,

an improved performance when compared to the previous years, 44.33 in

2006 and 46.80 in 2005. To conclude, it was still a poor performance. The

glaring difference on the result was the scanty performance of students in

science which register 40.53 and the lowest among the subjects. This implies

that there is a missing ingredient in teaching and handling science lessons. In

Portugal, it has been observed that there is a deficient learning in science both

at middle and secondary level (Fonseca, 2006). This confirmed that there is a

failure in teaching science worldwide. The letdown was due to the ineffectivity

and incongruity of teaching strategies and instructional materials employed in

teaching the lesson. Several teaching strategies and instructional materials

are utilized to meet the learning style and need of the students. Alas, the

result is still poor achievement. To note, learning strategies interact with

personal characteristics of students. The fact that there is no ideal strategy

that generates success in all learning situations, hence, teachers need to be

trained to develop an understanding and skills in using appropriate strategies

that satisfy student learning (Simsek & Balaban, 2010). Moreover, there are

manifestations that teaching science and mixing with a teaching material and

strategy was too hot to handle. This statement was supported by the finding
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of Wood (2002) which emphasized that teachers in California High School

struggled in teaching science particularly Biology in a way the students can

truly understand the concepts. Consequently, the effectiveness of one’s

teaching approach may require the use of tools, techniques and strategies to

improve students learning and is sometimes used in a quantitative way, being

very effective or not effective (Drucker, 2006). This finding could be validated

by the poor performance displayed by students in F. Bangoy National High

School. The lack of appropriate materials, effective strategy and focus of

students has been becoming a perennial problem. Therefore, this endeavor

was conducted to offer solutions in improving the academic achievement of

students in science. The researcher would like to introduce the use of strategic

intervention material (SIM) as strategy in teaching science lessons. Strategic

intervention materials are instructional materials that meant to teach the

concept and skills. Materials are given to students to help them master a

competency based skill which they were not able to develop during the regular

classroom teaching. The ultimate aim of SIM is to make students master the

least learned concepts in science. In doing so, once they mastered the concept

they can easily comprehend questions and answer it correctly, thus, better

academic gain is achieved. This research is anchored on the following theories;

first, social development theory by Vygotsky which says that social interaction

profoundly influences cognitive development; second is Bandura’s social

learning theory which posits that people learn from one another via
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observation, imitation and modeling; and lastly, the constructivist theory by

Bruner which suggests that learning is a social process, whereby students

constructs new concepts based on current knowledge.

The Philippine Educational System undergoes major changes brought

about by the Kindergarten to Grade 12 or K-12 Basic Education Curriculum.

Challenges come along with these changes. One of the issues faced by the

present curriculum is the dearth of learning materials. This issue became an

inevitable problem that haunts the country’s new curriculum in the three years

of its implementation. Admittedly, the Department of Education agreed that

there have been delays in the delivery of learning materials such as activity

sheets and modules for the pupils (Legaspi, 2014).Even before the change of

the curriculum, elementary public school teachers had already several

complaints on the shortage of learning materials particularly textbooks which

is a predicament that still exists at present. The unavailability of instructional

materials and also teachers’ lack of knowledge on material development

become prevalent and lingering problems among educational institutions.

Strategic Intervention Materials (SIMs) are instructional materials

designed for remediation purposes and are considered one of the solutions

employed by DepEd to enhance academic achievements of pupils performing

low in class. SIMs are commonly used instructional materials in teaching

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Entrepreneurship but not that common in the language arts. They are carefully

made and thought of in order to stimulate the pupil’s interest on the certain

skill and thereby increasing their level of understanding and master the

concept of the subject matter. It has been noted that there are already several

SIMs in Entrepreneurship that can be viewed in the internet and are available

in public elementary schools like in however, SIMs in Entrepreneurship are

considered rare. The researcher on this matter developed SIMs for the Senior

High School Students who failed to master the competencies in studying

Entrepreneurship subject. Strategic Intervention Materials (SIMs) are aimed

to help teachers provide students the needed reinforcement to make progress

in their respective subjects. Various studies have particularly pointed out the

effectiveness in the utilization of SIMs in their respective Entrepreneurship

subject.

Theoretical Framework

This study consists of various readings that are related to the study that

gave significant insights that helped much in the development of this present

study. Included here is the Strategic Intervention Materials (SIM) developed

by the researcher that make the learners and the teachers become more

productive and make them more confident.

Performance is a factor that assesses student learning outcomes.

Classroom objective in teaching were established as part of evaluation in

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which pupils were the subject of evaluation and being assessed by evaluators

if how much a pupil acquires and retains in the course of his participation in

the classroom activities Balacuit (2001).

According to Catedrilla (2000) the pupils’ performance level functions

are: 1.) communicating teachers’ expectations; 2.) providing feedbacks to

pupils and 3.) informing instructional decisions Holmes (2012) Learning gaps

are referred to as being the difference between where students currently are

in their education level and where they should be; to determine a child’s

learning gap, teachers and students should both perform and assess a variety

of ongoing task.

Furthermore, learning gaps are the difference between what we know

about effective learning and what is currently happening in the classroom.

Addressing learning gaps is done by identifying the learning gap first and

implementation is important in developing the quality of teaching in order to

close the gap.

According to Rosenshine et al. (2009) intervention studies in which

students have been taught to generate questions as a means of improving

their comprehension. Overall, teaching students the cognitive strategy of

generating questions about the material they had read resulted in gains in

comprehension, as measured by tests given at the end of the intervention.

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Consequently Teichert and Stacy (2002) stated that the effectiveness of

intervention for a college general chemistry course was designed to apply

research on students’ preconceptions, knowledge integration, and student

explanations in interviews. They found out that intervention group students

are better than the control group students.

Conceptual Framework

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Teaching Strategies in
Entrepreneurship Academic Achievement of
students in
Entrepreneurship subject
• Traditional Method

• Strategic Intervention  pretest

Materials  posttest
-Guide Card  Gain score
-Activity Card  Periodical test
-Assessment Card
-Enrichment Card
-Reference Card

Research Paradigm
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Statement of the Problem

This study aims to assess the Effects of Strategic Intervention Materials on

students academic achievement in Entrepreneurship subject. Specifically it

aims to answer the following questions:

1. What is the level of performance of the students base on pretest and

post test scores using the traditional methods in teaching

Entrepreneurship?

2. What is the level of performance of the students base on pretest and

post test scores using the Strategic Intervention materials in teaching

Entrepreneurship?

3. What is the mean scores of the pre-test and post-test score of students

using the Strategic Intervention Materials in teaching Entrepreneurship?

4. Is there a significant difference between the pretest and post test scores

of students using theStrategic Intervention materials in teaching

Entrepreneurship?

5. Is there a significant difference between the pretest and post test

scores of students in using the traditional methods of teaching and the

strategic intervention materials in teaching Entrepreneurship?

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Research Hypotheses

There is no significant difference between the pretest and post test

scores of students using the Strategic Intervention materials in teaching

Entrepreneurship.

There is no significant difference between the pretest and post test

scores of students in using the traditional methods of teaching and the

strategic intervention materials in teaching Entrepreneurship.

Significance of the Study

The result of this study would be beneficial to the following:

Teacher. This study is beneficial to the teachers to improve instruction

resulting to higher academic performance of the Senior High School students

in Entrepreneurship.

The most important task of carrying out the success of the teaching learning

process lies on them. This study could help them realize the things that they

need to do for the pupils to improve their performance through effective

instruction of the teachers.

Students. At the end, it could help them realize that they have to contribute

their own part in the educational process by giving their best in the learning

what their teachers are teaching and by actively participating in any activity

that will enable their teachers to carry on uninterrupted instruction. To

improve the performance and academic skills of Senior High School students
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in Aceba Systems Technololgy Institute-Tiaong Quezon particularly in

Entrepreneurship subject and to introduce the interesting activities of a

Strategic Intervention Material (SIM) to the students.

Parents. It will serve as an important reminder that the school need their

cooperation and support in teaching their children to learn by being more of

what they are doing at home and in school to give assistance and support to

their needs. In addition, they could realize their special participation in the

success of the school-student performance.

Definition of Terms

To make the readers understand more this research, the following terms

are hereby operationally defined:

Achievement. According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current

English, achievement means a thing that somebody has done successfully,

especially using his own effort and skill. In this study, achievement refers to

the scores obtained by the students on the criterion referenced test after

learning through SIM-MODs and conventional teaching (Direct Instruction).

Activity Card. This defines the task/s that the learner should undertake in

order to develop the skill. It provides enough example and work-out solutions.

If the learner will have difficulty in answering the exercises, he can always

refer to an example for help.

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Answer Key. The answers in the pretest and posttest are listed down in this

section and are found at the last page of learning materials/SIM-MOD.

Assessment Card. This helps the learner measure his mastery of the skill

upon completion of the task/s. The result of the assessment also gives the

teacher information on the knowledge/skills the learner failed to understand

so that the teacher could revise or improve the materials to further

develop/enhance the identified skills.

Components and Organization. It is one of the criteria in the evaluation of

the SIM-MOD. This had included the composition of the SIM-MODs, the terms

used, the available number of the learning materials, and the time required to

use the SIM-MODs.

Control Group. As used in the study, the students in this group underwent

intervention activities through conventional strategies (direct instructions).

They were the students from the Grade 11 and 12 level of Aceba Sysyems

Technology Institute, AY 2018-2019.

Data Analysis Techniques or Statistical Tests. In order to analyze data

and calculate different statistics the most widely, commonly and

comprehensive computer software in social sciences, SPSS has been used. In

this study the researcher has specifically used mean, standard deviation,

independent sample t-test for testing the difference between two groups.
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Design. It is one of the criteria in the evaluation of the SIM-MOD. This had

included the SIM-MOD size, lay-outing, packaging, etc.

Development (SIM-MOD Development). It refers to the set of procedures

done in the design and construction of a learning material.

Direct Instruction. According to Blair (1998), Direct Instruction is a teaching

strategy where the teacher assumes the major responsibility for the lesson’s

progress and practice flexibility by adapting the class activities and lessons to

their students’ age and abilities. The teacher explains, demonstrates and

monitors progress of students.

Enrichment Card. This extends learning providing additional concepts and

exercises for further application of knowledge/skills. This will challenge the

learner to think creatively and develop higher order thinking skills.

Experimental Group. The students in this group were the ones who were

exposed to using learning materials called SIM-MODs, AY 2018-2019.

Gain Score. This refers to the accomplishment of ability required as a result

of teaching shown in the difference of posttest score and pretest score.

Methods of Teaching. Generally refers to all the activities performed by the

teacher inside the classroom during the teaching learning process.

Module. According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, module is a unit

that can form part of a course of a study. It provides thorough understanding

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of the content matter in a more effective manner. In this study, modules refer

to self-instructional, self-explanatory, self-contained, self-directed, self-

motivating, and self-evaluating material to assess the achievement of the

students.

Participants. Senior High School students of Aceba Systems Technology

Institute in Tiaong,Quezon selected. The permission to conduct the research

was acquired from the approval of the principal. A total of 80 students

participated in the study.

Posttest. It is a measurement of what has been learned by the student.

Pretest. A measure which identifies the weakness of a student’s

achievement.

Reference Card. This provides additional content and emphasizes important

facts or details relevant to the concept in focus. It also provides a list of

resources or books the learner may refer to for further reading.

Research Design. A descriptive method approach was used in this study for

the development and evaluation of the learning materials and for investigating

the impact of these learning materials, a mixed method was used to provide

more depth in the research by implementing more than one research methods

such as quasi-experimental design (quantitative) along with interviews with

open-ended questions (qualitative).

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SIM-MOD or Strategic Intervention Materials and Module Combined.

It is a two-in-one packet of learning materials consisting of cognitive

objectives, a sequence of activities and provisions for evaluation aimed at

enhancing skills of the students in Entrepreneurship. Strategic Intervention

Materials (SIM). According to Togonon (2011), strategic intervention material

is an instructional material prescribed by the Department of Education to

improve students’ performance in Entrepreneurship and in other learning

areas.Bunagan (2012) defined SIM as meant to reteach the concepts and skills

(least mastered). It is a material given to students to help them master

competency based skills which they were not able to develop during a regular

teaching.

Strategic Intervention Materials (SIM) refers to a strategy or instructional

material that is used to increase the academic achievement of students in

science. Also, it aims to develop mastery on the least learned concepts in the

learning competency and also Strategic Intervention Material refers to

teaching aid introduced into the teaching methods to stimulate the activity of

the students and thereby increasing their level of understanding.

Traditional/Conventional Approach. In this study, it means delivering

lesson using the lecture-discussion method and traditional work exercises.

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Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ANS STUDIES

There are various perspectives in the entrepreneurship literature with a

large body of this literature focusing on the psychological and functionalist

perspectives framing much of the earlier discussion on entrepreneurship. The

psychological perspective plays a part in understanding entrepreneurs’

motivations while the functionalist perspective is interested in the utility of

entrepreneurship performance. The sociological perspective concentrates on

meanings and interpretations in interaction. This study draws heavily on the

sociological frame to assist in underpinning the investigation into what

entrepreneurs do to gain support and legitimation during their interactions.

Recent years have witnessed a growing change in how entrepreneurs are

perceived with rising value placed on individuals perceived to be

entrepreneurs (Gibb, 2002). The entrepreneurship literature presents much

insight into what is needed to be entrepreneurial. However, as already noted,

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there is a limited view of the sociology of emotion as a feature of

entrepreneurs’ performance that’s why today the Senior High School Students

needs to understand what the importance of studying Entrepreneurship is.

Entrepreneurship subject play as an important role in our daily life it’s either

in school, home and our society. Through the use of learning materials are

called SIM-MODs. SIM-MOD is a combination of strategic intervention

materials and modular instructions. These SIM-MODs were evaluated by the

experts and the respondents themselves and the impact of these SIM-MODs

to some Grade 8 students were likewise investigated.

Bunagan (2012) defined Strategic Intervention Material (SIM) as meant

to reteach the concepts and skills (least mastered). It is a material given to

students to help them to master competency-based skills which they were not

able to develop during a regular classroom teaching. It consists of both

learning strategies (for students) and content enhancement (for teachers). It

is multifaceted approach to help students to become independent and

successful learners. He further differentiated SIM and modules. This

intervention material (SIM) focuses on the skill not mastered by students

during regular class. It does not involve pretest and posttest and includes fun

activities. Module, on the other hand, contained different topics included in a

given chapter and intended for regular classroom teaching and distance

learning. Module requires pretest and posttest and also includes fun activities.

A SIM may have six parts and these are: title card, guide card, activity card,
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assessment card, enrichment card and reference card. On the other hand, a

module may contain the following parts: statement of purpose, desirable

skills, instructional objectives, pretest, learning activities, posttest, and

answer key.

The combination of Strategic Intervention Material (SIM) and Module

otherwise known as SIM-MOD is a two-in-one packet of learning materials

used for remediation and enhancement purposes, consisting of cognitive

objectives, a sequence of activities, and provisions for evaluation. These

packets of materials aimed at enhancing poor achievements of the learners,

are learning materials developed by the researcher. This contribution of his

which he considered to be one of the latest innovations in the field of

Mathematics education has combined features that of a SIM and a module.

The objectives are written in cognitive terms and are specific. The sequence

of learning activities is designed to: a. Provide instant feedback to the learner

on his achievement; b. Proceed from lower to higher cognitive levels; c.

Contain relevant materials with intrinsic interest for the learner; d. Provide

optional and recycling paths to achieve the objectives; e. Be self-continuative

to the conclusion of the learning materials; and f. Equip the learner to achieve

the stated cognitive objectives. SIM-MOD has many purposes. Some of them

are:

1. To individualize (or to permit use of teams of learners in) instruction;

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2. To provide a conceptual model for learning that minimizes the need

for conventional, verbalized, instructional techniques;

3. To enable (or require) teachers to analyze the learning process;

4. To improve instruction through improved evaluation, resulting from

the formulation and measurement of learning outcomes expressed in

measurable terms;

5. To permit learning to occur outside the presence of the teacher.

There had been a number of conducted researches that proved the

effectiveness of intervention materials and other related strategic and modular

approach. Some of them are as follows:

Dutt (1998) conducted a research on Effect of Self-Learning Modules

on Achievement of Senior Secondary Students in Relation to their Sex and

Place of Residence. It was found that sex accounted for differential

achievement in Economics. Male students got significantly higher mean post

achievement test scores than female students. Students belonging to both

rural and urban places of residence achieved almost identical mean post

achievement scores. Kohal (1999) conducted a research on the Effectiveness

of Self- Learning Modules on Achievement in Geography in relation to Mastery

and Non Mastery Teaching Strategies, Intelligence and Study Habits. The

objectives of the study were to develop self-learning modules in Geography

as a subject at 10+1 level in arts stream and to study the effectiveness of

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self-learning modules in Geography in terms of achievement. It was found

that the students taught through Mastery Teaching Strategies attained more

Geographic concepts than the students taught through Non-mastery Teaching

Strategy. So Mastery Strategy proved more superior to Non-mastery strategy

in teaching Geographic concept.

Additionally, Aggabao (2002) conducted a study aimed at developing

Individualized Self Instructional Modules on Selected Topics in Basic

Mathematics for instructional use at the Teachers College in Isabela State

University. After making use of the experimental method, it was concluded

that the students as well as teachers have a positive attitude towards the use

of self-instructional materials as a mode of instructions in Basic Mathematics.

Rastogi (2003) developed Self-Instructional Material on Educational Statistics

for B. Ed. Students. In this experimental research, a comparison was seen

between two strategies as Traditional Classroom Teaching and Self-

Instructional Material. The statistical analysis revealed that a significant

change in level of knowledge regarding Educational Statistics was obtained in

both the groups. Also, learning in both the groups was enhanced to a

significant level and there was more retention through Self-Instructional

Material Strategy. This indicated that Self-Instructional Material Strategy was

more effective than Traditional Classroom Teaching Strategy.

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Moreover, Arora and Singh (2005) conducted research on Development

and Evaluation of SelfLearning Modules to Enhance the Traditional Physiology

Class at CMC Ludhiana. The results (posttest average of 84%) indicated that

Self-Learning Modules to enhance were an effective method of studying and

reinforcing learning. Comparison with other teaching methods indicated that

the students would prefer Self Learning Modules as an additional method of

learning but not a replacement for lectures and textbooks. Students

recommended that SLM experiment should continue and suggested an SLM

library for self - study. Soberano (2010) mentioned that Strategic

Intervention Materials were effective in mastering the competency based skills

in chemistry based on the mean gain scores in the posttests of the

experimental and control groups. He found out that there was a positive

transfer of learning in both the groups. However, the higher mean was

observed from the experimental group after the presentation of the

intervention materials.

The study conducted by Togonon (2011) on the development and

evaluation of ProjectBased Strategic Intervention Materials (PB-SIMs), PB-SIM

is a valid instructional material in teaching high school chemistry. Results

showed a significant difference between the achievement of the students

before and after being exposed to PB-SIMs.

Furthermore, Escoreal (2012) on Strategic Intervention Material as a

tool to reduce least mastered skills in Grade 4 Science, concluded that SIM
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provides baseline information and should be implemented to avoid

marginalization of pupils. Her study also indicated that there is a significant

reduction in the pupils’ mean number of least mastered skills after SIM

implementation. In addition to this, Salviejo, Edwin I, Arcanes, F. and

Espinosa, A. (2014) on their study on Strategic Intervention Material – Based

Instruction, Learning Approach and Students’ Performance in Chemistry

revealed that the use of SIM-BI is effective in terms of improving students’

performance and learning approach. The surface learners performed equally

well as the deep learners when SIM-BI was used. The positive result of the

survey suggested that the SIM was appreciated and appealed to both types of

learners.

The traditional curriculum focused on the teacher rather than the

learner. However, in recent years, there has been a paradigm shift taking

place, moving the emphasis from teaching to learning a more student-

centered curriculum. This change has impacted on the curriculum design

process with a greater emphasis on the learning in terms of knowledge, skills

and competencies within intervention/ learning materials. The focus is on how

learners learn and the design of effective learning environment.

Even the best designed intervention/learning materials, with very

worthwhile defined learning outcomes, can fail if the teaching strategies

employed are inappropriate to encourage and support the learners towards

meeting the desired learning outcomes (Ramsden, 1992).

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Toohey (1999) defined a teaching strategy as “a plan for someone

else’s learning, and it encompasses the presentations which the teacher might

make, the exercises and activities designed for students, materials which will

be supplied or suggested for students to work with, and ways in which

evidence of their growing understanding and capability will be collected.” This

definition is very helpful as it emphasizes that a teaching strategy is

fundamentally about supporting student’s learning. In giving consideration to

how, as academics, one can teach in order to ensure that students are

engaging with the learning process, it is necessary to focus on the type of

teaching strategies one can employ to achieve this end. The question remains

when designing modules for learning, why is it important to be aware of the

theories the underpin learning? A theory should make explicit the underlying

psychological dynamics of events related to learning. Each theory is based on

different assumptions about the nature of learning and it is suggested that

one should identify his own theory of learning because the strategies one

might use to enhance learning will directly follow from one’s orientation.

In addition to taking cognizance of different learning theories, it is also

important to take into account that there is no universal way of learning.

Brown and Atkins (1991) state that differing students will use different

strategies on different tasks. They stress the importance of ‘learning-

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forunderstanding’ and ‘learning-for-knowledge’ orientations, with learning

being a continuous process of development back and forth between the two.

When designing intervention/learning materials, it is important for

teachers to be aware of concepts of deep and surface approaches to learning.

Much research has previously been conducted on the relationship between

courses and the approach students take to learning (Marton and Saljo 1976;

Entwistle 1981; Gibbs 1992; Ramsden 1992; Biggs 1999), Arising from these

studies, there are implications in terms of intervention/learning materials

design. Seeking to incorporate the following one’s intervention/learning

material design can offer a greater likelihood of fostering a deep approach to

learning: a. sustained interaction with content and others; b. relating new

ideas to previous knowledge; c. providing explicit explanations and a clear

knowledge base to students; structuring in a reasonable student workload; d.

providing opportunities for students to pursue topics in depth so that they can

understand the material for themselves; e. ensuring an appropriate formative

and summative assessment strategy. These ideas resonate with teachers in

today’s secondary education environment and have implications both for

choice of learning and teaching strategies and how one assess learning. An

awareness of these approaches to learning is fundamental to the entire

intervention/ learning material design process. Constructive alignment is an

approach to curriculum design that maximizes the condition for quality

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learning by ensuring alignment through the process, from the forming of

learning outcomes, to the choice of teaching methods to assessment.

The fundamental principle of constructive alignment is that a good

teaching system aligns teaching method and assessment to the learning

activities started in the objectives so that all aspects of this system are in

accord in supporting appropriate student (Biggs 1999:25). There are three

elements involved in the process of constructively aligning a module: 1.

Defining the learning outcomes; 2. Choosing the learning and teaching

methods that can lead to attainment of outcomes; 3. Assessing student

learning outcomes. The following approach will help one to think through and

decide on appropriate teaching strategies for developing learning materials.

First, take time to read over the materials aims, learning outcomes and

content material. Then, focus on how best one can involve students in making

sense of the material through active engagement and application.

According to Blair (1998), students achieve at a higher level in their

work if they are directly taught by their teachers. In the Direct Instruction

(DI) model, the teacher assumes the major responsibility for the lesson’s

progress and practice flexibility by adapting the class activities and lessons to

their students’ age and abilities.

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Education as a source for knowledge production and skilled personnel is

very influential in 19 the economy of any country. There is a need in South

Africa to address the employability of school leavers in the development of

innovative entrepreneurship education by educational institutions. In order to

promote skilled opportunity-oriented entrepreneurs, learners must be

exposed to entrepreneurship activities in schools (Govender, 2008:90).With

entrepreneurship education, individuals and entrepreneurs alike will be able

to acquire innovative problem solving skills, become more flexible and open

minded, become more selfreliant and also become more creative in their

thinking (Henry, Hill & Leitch, 2005:101). These can be considered essential

elements for a viable economic development in any country. Hence there is a

need for a well-structured and resolute approach on the enhancement and

development of entrepreneurial skills.

The activity theory is based on five major principles. Engeström (2001)

explains these principles as follows: firstly, there must be a subject and an

object through which the activity is being mediated. Secondly, there is the

division of labour among the various participants in the activity. Thirdly, the

activity is based on historicity; the activity is being shaped by the theoretical

history of the tools and ideas. Contradictions is the fourth principle, which

serves as a point of departure; and finally, the fifth principle entails expanding

learning by finding solutions to the contradictions. Culturally new patterns of

an activity are as a result of the extensive learning activity (Engeström,

 29

2001:139). The design of the research questions was formulated in

accordance with the research objectives as well as the principles of the

activity.

First generation activity theory was introduced by Vygotsky (1987) in

response to the lack of stimulus-response behaviourism. He argued that

human behaviour is facilitated through objects and is not simply prompted by

motivation or stimuli (Bakhurst, 2009). The tool mediated, artefact-oriented

activity systems as developed by Engeström (1987:1999) dwells on bringing

together the subject and the societal structure. The second generation activity

theory makes a clear distinction between an activity and an action. Individual

groups in the community carry out certain actions in order to achieve

particular goals, purposes or outcomes. The second generation activity theory

highlights that an action is considered as an individual form while an activity

is considered as a collective form. The third generation activity theory

discourses issues with regard to emotions, identity and differences and

focuses on the relationship between the activity systems (Bakhurst, 2009).

In this study the second and third generation activity theory were used

because they focus on the relationships of all members of the community in

obtaining the outcome of the activity. This means that all stakeholders,

learners, educators, parents and business owners, all have a role to play in

the transfer of entrepreneurial knowledge and skills to the learners. The

activity theory was used in the evaluation of the entrepreneurship education

 30

programme; where the subject is the teachers, the object is enhancement of

entrepreneurial knowledge and skills among learners and tools are the course

content, learning and teaching methods. In the activity theory the main idea

is the notion of mediating the tools and artefacts within the context of the

culture and history (Kuutti, 1991).

In the activity theory the group in community have a common purpose

(Engeström, 2001) which in this case is to transfer entrepreneurial knowledge

and skills to learners. For this study, the community includes the educators,

the learners, the entrepreneurs as well as the parents. The school policies on

teaching as well as some resolutions that limit actions are regarded as the

tools in the activity. The role of each member in the community which includes

the task division and the division of power is considered as the division of

labour in the activity system (Engeström, 2001).

Learning as a form of knowledge creation is regarded as a transmission

by management theorists (Nonaka, 1995). Activity theory portrays learning

as an activity which has goals to achieve (Engeström, 2001). The approach to

solving difficult problems of learning such as tacit knowledge, is well described

in the activity theory, for example, the main aim of the formation of a learning

activity is for learners to understand what they need to acquire or learn.

Multiple motivations in an activity are considered another principle of

activity theory. For example, an educator may want to align the lesson goals
 31

or outcomes to reflect the multiple motives or desires which include wanting

the learners to be more attentive during the lesson, or to participate more in

class activities, or to get feedback from learners as well as contributing to the

transfer of entrepreneurial knowledge and skills to learners.

In 2005, the new curriculum introduced entrepreneurship education as

Business Studies for Grades 10 to 12. This is as an optional subject and the

subject content includes entrepreneurial ventures, business principles,

sustainable enterprises and economic growth (The National Curriculum

Statement: Business Studies). Business studies deals with the attitudes, skills,

knowledge and values needed for learners to become useful and responsible

citizens (Isaacs et al., 2007:614). Learners are introduced to entrepreneurial

enterprises through case studies and cover topics on the definition of an

entrepreneur, the characteristics of a successful entrepreneur, business

success factors and reasons why businesses fail (The Department of

education, (DoE) Provincial Government of the Western Cape, 2013).

Entrepreneurship education should be able to develop a calibre of

entrepreneurs who will create employment and enhance economic growth

(Gouws, 2002:45). In this regard the teachers too should be trained to teach

entrepreneurship education effectively, the focus should be outcomes based

and experiential (Gouws, 2002:46). Gouws (2002:47) explains that teachers

cannot continue teaching in the old rote memorization style and that an

outcomes based approach is required. The outcomes based learning approach

 32

of Curriculum 2005 requires teaching entrepreneurship to involve the

following: thinking critically, active learning; on-going assessment as well as

reasoning and reflection.

The outcomes based learning approach of Curriculum 2005 requires

teaching entrepreneurship to involve the following: active learners; on-going

assessment; critical thinking; reasoning; reflection; and action. In Curriculum

2005, the teacher acts as a facilitator using group work; the learning is more

learner-centred; and the learning must be reflective of real life situations.

Gouws (2002:45) also suggests the following approaches for teaching

entrepreneurship: teachers must not insist on a single definitive answer and

a variety of teaching styles should be used. He also adds that teachers use

the case study approach to link theory to reality and that familiar information

should be presented in unfamiliar ways. Another approach suggested by

Gouws is that teaching entrepreneurship should: surprise students by

presenting the unexpected and challenge the status quo. The teaching of

entrepreneurship should focus on better integration with communities which

entails activities and approaches that enhance self-confidence.

Entrepreneurship education should also highlight common pitfalls threatening

the success of ventures as well as focus on opportunities. Teaching

entrepreneurship should involve practical application of learners’ knowledge

and skills.
 33

The Learning Programme Guidelines for Business Studies as stipulated

by the DoE provide activities that encourage active learner involvement

through case studies, assignments and projects. Some of these activities

involve learners doing SWOT analysis, creating ideas, developing business

plans and participating in market days. The Subject Assessment Guidelines of

Business Studies also provide assessment programmes for Grades 10-12 that

require that learners are assessed on whether they can practically apply

entrepreneurial knowledge by doing case studies (Subject Assessment

Guidelines: Business Studies).

Strategic Intervention Materials (SIMs) are aimed to help teachers

provide students the needed reinforcement to make progress in their

respective subjects. Various studies have particularly pointed out the

effectiveness in the utilization of SIMs in their respective science lessons.

SIM increases and deepens students’ skills in manipulation, knowledge

or thinking, understanding, and observing the microscopic into macroscopic

representation of matter like atoms, molecules, and ions which students

believe as a vague symbolism of what they know about matter and other

related concepts in Entrepreneurship subjects. Strategic Intervention

Materials (SIM) is an instructional material that is prescribed by the

Department of Education (DepEd) to increase the level of proficiency of

students in Entrepreneurship subjects Strategic Intervention Materials SIM

making and part of the teacher’s innovation for ranking purposes.

 34

However, it is through this same activity that Strategic Intervention

Materials (SIMs) have been used for levelling up the achievement in

Entrepreneurship subject of the learners, rather for personal pursuit. But

regardless, in preparing this tool, entrepreneurship educators are encountered

by another predicament, that is in the selection and development of

assessment methods in crafting science SIMs, which are appropriate, suitable

and strategically-designed for students’ learning. Assessments in SIMs include

a variety of methods that allow students to demonstrate evidence of learning

such as performance of tasks and applying to real-life situations. Gone are the

days that assessments are confined to paper and pencil, thus, authentic

assessments have to be encouraged in the making of Strategic Intervention

Materials SIMs.

Based on the abovementioned information, the utilization of an

intervention material can significantly increase the performance of the

students in the least mastered skills in entrepreneurship subject. These

studies revealed that the use of SIMs plays a pivotal role in elevating the

memory level of the students, in grasping the different concepts in

entrepreneurship , and with the integration of various strategies in the

implementation of the material, the teaching-learning process becomes

interesting.

Instructional material is a learning tool that helps the learners to learn

faster and better. Dahar explained that the use of appropriate instructional
 35

materials has a strong relationship to the academic performance of senior high

school students. Togonon clarified that strategic intervention material (SIM)

is a type of instructional material that deepens students’ skills in manipulation,

thinking, understanding and observing. It’s a user-friendly instructional

material that can be used inside the four corners of the classroom or it can be

given as a take home activity of students. SIM can be answered solely by a

student or by a group of students through cooperative learning.

Entrepreneurial education is often categorized into three approaches,

see figure 1 (Johnson, 1988, Heinonen and Hytti, 2010, O'Connor, 2013).

Teaching “about” entrepreneurship means a content-laden and theoretical

approach aiming to give a general understanding of the phenomenon. It is the

most common approach in higher education institutions (Mwasalwiba, 2010).

Teaching “for” entrepreneurship means an occupationally oriented approach

aiming at giving budding entrepreneurs the requisite knowledge and skills.

Teaching “through” means a process based and often experiential approach

where students go through an actual entrepreneurial learning process (Kyrö,

2005). This approach often leans on the wider definition of entrepreneurship,

and can be integrated into other subjects in general education, connecting

entrepreneurial characteristics, processes and experiences to the core subject.

While the “about” and “for” approaches are relevant primarily to a subset of

students on secondary and higher levels of education, the embedded approach

 36

of teaching “through” entrepreneurship can be relevant to all students and on

all levels of education.

The varying definitions of entrepreneurship and resulting variations in

pedagogical approaches have made it difficult to give teachers firm advice on

how to approach entrepreneurial education (Fayolle and Gailly, 2008). If a

useful definition could be agreed upon, the field and the teachers could benefit

significantly. For the purpose of this report, Bruyat and Julien’s (2001)

definition grounded in the concept of value creation is outlined more in detail

below and constitutes the basis of many of the resulting recommendations in

this report. This does not mean that it is the only suitable definition, merely

that the author of this report has judged it to be particularly useful for

entrepreneurial education.

Bruyat and Julien (2001) state that studying the entrepreneur (or team)

in isolation is inherently wrong, as it is not solely from the entrepreneur that

entrepreneurship occurs. Entrepreneurship is as much about the change and

learning that the individual entrepreneur experiences by interacting with the

environment as the change and value creation the entrepreneur causes

through his/her actions. Learning and value creation are thus seen as two

main aspects of entrepreneurship. This view aligns better with the learning

focused aims of educational institutions than many other definitions of

entrepreneurship. It forms the basis of a resulting definition of entrepreneurial

education leaning on value creation as a main goal for students. Letting

 37

students try to create value to outside stakeholders will then result in

development of entrepreneurial competencies, 11 regardless of whether

successful value creation is being achieved or not. Alluding to famous

educational philosopher John Dewey’s notion of “Learning-by-doing” the

author of this report has proposed to label this a “Learning-by-creating-value”

approach grounded in the field of entrepreneurship (Lackéus et al., 2013).

According to this definition of entrepreneurial education, if a pedagogical

intervention lets students learn to create value for other people (own group

and teachers excluded), it is indeed entrepreneurial education. It could be

done by actual value creation for other people as formal part of the curriculum

(a preferred teaching “through” approach), or by learning about how to create

value to other people (a less effective teaching “about” approach).

A definition of entrepreneurial education in line with this has been

proposed by Danish Foundation for Entrepreneurship (Moberg et al., 2012,

p.14): “Content, methods and activities supporting the creation of knowledge,

competencies and experiences that make it possible for students to initiate

and participate in entrepreneurial value creating processes”. This definition of

entrepreneurial education leans on the following underlying definition of

entrepreneurship: “Entrepreneurship is when you act upon opportunities and

ideas and transform them into value for others. The value that is created can

be financial, cultural, or social.”

 38

Implicit in these definitions is the notion of entrepreneurial value

creation, i.e. that the value created should be novel, but also that it requires

some kind of initiative on behalf of the value creator, that it involves

acquisition of resources needed to create the value, that the value creation

process is managed and owned by the initiator of the process (i.e. the student)

and that this initiator also assumes the risk of failure (Shapero and Sokol,

1982, Okpara and Halkias, 2011). Value creation occurs extensively in society,

and is tightly connected to people’s happiness since helping others results not

only in making a living but also in feelings of meaningfulness, participation,

engagement and life satisfaction (Baumeister et al., 2012).

The main goal of most entrepreneurial education is to develop some

level of entrepreneurial competencies. Entrepreneurial competencies are

defined here as knowledge, skills and attitudes that affect the willingness and

ability to perform the entrepreneurial job of new value creation. This definition

aligns with much of the literature on competencies in general as well as on

entrepreneurial competencies (See for example Sánchez, 2011, Burgoyne,

1989, Kraiger et al., 1993, Fisher et al., 2008).

The most common reason that researchers and experts promote

entrepreneurial education is that entrepreneurship is seen as a major engine

for economic growth and job creation (Wong et al., 2005). Entrepreneurial

education is also frequently seen as a response to the increasingly globalized,

uncertain and complex world we live in, requiring all people and organizations
 39

in society to be increasingly equipped with entrepreneurial competencies

(Gibb, 2002). Besides the common economic development and job creation

related reasons to promote entrepreneurial education, there is also a less

common but increasing emphasis on the effects entrepreneurial activities can

have on students’ as well as employees’ perceived relevancy, engagement and

motivation in both education (Surlemont, 2007) and in work life (Amabile and

Kramer, 2011). Finally, the role entrepreneurship can play in taking on

important societal challenges (Rae, 2010) has positioned entrepreneurial

education as a means to empowering people and organizations to create social

value for the public good (Volkmann et al., 2009, Austin et al., 2006).

The strong emphasis on economic success and job creation has indeed

propelled entrepreneurial education to a prominent position on higher

education level, but not as an integrated pedagogical approach for all students

on all levels. So far primary focus has been on elective courses and programs

for a few secondary education and university students already possessing

some degree 18 of entrepreneurial passion and thus self-selecting into

entrepreneurial education (Mwasalwiba, 2010). The emphasis on economic

effects has so far hampered a widespread adoption of entrepreneurial

education in the remaining parts of the educational system. Instead it is often

viewed as a “dark threat” by teachers, stating that the “ugly face of capitalism”

is now entering educational institutions (Johannisson, 2010, p.92). The stated

necessity of all people to become more entrepreneurial due to globalization

 40

and increasing uncertainty on the market has spurred significant activity on

policy level, but has not yet transferred into wide adoption among teachers

on all levels of education.

A more viable starting point in education could be to perceive

entrepreneurial education as a means to achieve more interest, joy,

engagement and creativity among students (Johannisson, 2010, Lackéus,

2013). A few scholars have recently put forward the potential of

entrepreneurial education to spur increased perceived relevancy of subjects

taught among learners, increasing motivation and school engagement and

alleviating problems of student boredom and dropout (Deuchar, 2007,

Surlemont, 2007, Mahieu, 2006, Nakkula et al., 2004, Moberg, 2014a). This

is however a very unusual approach so far in practice.

The positive outcome of the the strategy intervention can be explained

by a number of factors, including characteristics of the nature of instruction

itself, as well as systemic aspects of its implementation. With respect to

characteristics of the strategy instruction, SIM students were taught a flexible

strategy for gaining meaning from text while reading. They began learning the

strategy using text written at their reading level, and were provided

scaffolding to apply the same strategy to text written at grade level. They

were given many opportunities to practice the strategy. Thus students spent

much more time engaged in reading and in successfully comprehending what

they read than they would have without this intervention. They also learned
 41

how to adapt the strategy to related tasks and contexts including: listening,

reading different text genres, viewing movies and documentaries critically,

and composing expository writing. Finally, we believe that classroom

management and communication approaches used by the team teachers were

important in creating a positive classroom climate, along with a level of

behavioral support and achievement expectations that motivated the students

to try (McWhirter, McWhirter, McWhirter, & McWhirter, 1998).

Systemically, students were encouraged, with the assistance of some

teachers of other subject areas, to apply the reading comprehension and

writing strategies they had learned to texts and writing tasks in other

curricular areas. As SIM students participated in regular inclusive

programming in their other seven subjects, they experienced the social and

academic benefits of inclusion, along with the support of explicit intervention

targeted to remediating their Reading Intervention 26 identified reading

disability. A number of instructional, classroom, and school variables in

combination create an effective learning environment, and may be important

in the successful implementation of strategy instruction (Mothus, Lapadat,

Struthers, Fisher, & Paterson, 2002; Lapadat, Mothus, & Fisher, 2002).

Prior research suggests that identifying and nurturing potential

entrepreneurship throughout the education process could produce many long-

term economic benefits (McClelland & Winter, 1969; Hatten & Ruhland, 1995

& Hansemark, 1998). Specifically, a venture support system based on

 42

entrepreneurship education designed to stimulate and facilitate

entrepreneurial activities, could result in a lower unemployment rate,

increased establishment of new companies, and fewer failures of existing

businesses. Entrepreneurship education can also be an important component

of economic strategies for fostering job creation (McMullan, Long, & Graham,

1987). More specifically, effective youth entrepreneurship education prepares

young people to be responsible, enterprising individuals who become

entrepreneurs or entrepreneurial thinkers and contribute to economic

development and sustainable communities (Consortium for Entrepreneurship

Education).

Entrepreneurship education generally refers to programs that promote

entrepreneurship awareness for career purposes and provide skill training for

business creation and development (Vesper, 1990; Bechard & Toulouse,

1998). It is distinguishable from other forms of business education when its

purpose is creating a new product or service that results in higher economic

value (Hanesmark, 1998). An inherent assumption in entrepreneurial

education is that entrepreneurship characteristics and skills can be developed.

Research suggests that the propensity towards entrepreneurship has been

associated with several personal characteristics that can be influenced by a

formal program of education (Gorman, Hanlon, & King, 1997; Bechard &

Toulouse, 1998). Education can prepare for new venture initiation by

transferring knowledge and developing relevant skills that improve the self-
 43

efficacy and effectiveness of the potential entrepreneur (Gorman et al., 1997).

However, a consensus on when educational intervention is most effective in

developing entrepreneurial potential has not been clearly established.

Entrepreneurship literature has considered the effectiveness of

education at various stages of adulthood. For example, entrepreneurial

education has been linked to the propensity toward entrepreneurship for

adults (Gorman et al., 1997). Vesper (1990) suggested that university

entrepreneurship educators facilitate the entrepreneurial process by creating

awareness among collegiate 8 students. Studies by Hanesmark (1998),

Hatten & Ruhland (1995), and Ede, Panigrahi, & Calcich (1998) support the

value of formal entrepreneurial education at the university level, but only in

terms of affecting the attitude toward entrepreneurship as a career

alternative. Gasse (1985) recommended that entrepreneurial potential should

be identified and developed at the secondary school level, when the possibility

of self-employment as a career option is still open.

There are indications that the formal education system is not particularly

supportive of entrepreneurship and possibly suppresses entrepreneurial

characteristics (Chamard, 1989). Kourilsky (1990) found that 25% of

kindergartners demonstrate important entrepreneurial characteristics (need

for achievement and risk taking) compared to 3% of high school students.

Singh (1990) concluded that traditional pedagogy should be reoriented to

emphasize and value entrepreneurship in order to cultivate an enterprise

 44

culture. Kourilsky and Walstad (1998) suggested that stimulating

entrepreneurial attitudes through education at the pre-collegiate level could

encourage entrepreneurship as a career choice.

Entrepreneurial education based on solid learning theory can develop

entrepreneurs by increasing business knowledge, and promoting

characteristics associated with entrepreneurs (Krueger & Brazeal, 1994;

Kourilsky & Walstad, 1998; Walstad & Kourilsky, 1999). Learning styles that

include active experimentation, balanced with concrete experience and

abstract conceptualization, enhance entrepreneurial propensity (Gorman et

al., 1997). Stumpf, Dunbar, and Mullen (1991) also argued for the benefits of

behavioral simulations in teaching entrepreneurship. McMullan and Long

(1987) proposed that entrepreneurship education should include skill-building

components such as negotiation, leadership and creative thinking, exposure

to technological innovation and new product development. Entrepreneurship

program should also teach skills in detecting and exploiting business

opportunities, as well as incorporate detailed and long-term business planning

(Vesper & McMullan, 1988). Plaschka and Welsch (1990) introduced the

concept of transition stages of entrepreneurship education suggesting

programs geared toward creativity, multi-disciplinary and process-oriented

approaches, and theory-based practical applications. Consistent with these

pedagogical criteria, teachers in this study used KidsWay, a popular youth

entrepreneurship curriculum. This curriculum uses active learning techniques,

 45

which encourage students to absorb course materials by completing tasks that

demonstrate reflection and elaboration on course content (Hammer, 2000).

This learning style is distinguishable from traditional and 9 experiential

methods because it includes mini-lectures of approximately 10 minutes in

length, interspersed with group activities and games to reinforce learning

objectives. In contrast, semi-structured experiential techniques involve

completing a group task or project that uses real business situations as the

context for learning (Hammer, 2000). In this study the experiential learning

component was incorporated in some of the entrepreneurship classes where

students developed and implemented a class-based enterprise.

The literature on entrepreneurial characteristics has included a number

of variables that address psychological attributes, personality, attitudes, and

behavior. Some of these variables are loosely coupled elements of the

individual, but not necessarily interchangeable. To avoid a lengthy theoretical

discussion to make these finer distinctions, this study groups them generically

as entrepreneurial characteristics. Although prior research has debated

whether entrepreneurial characteristics are innate, recent findings support the

idea that psychological attributes associated with entrepreneurship can be

culturally and experientially acquired (Gorman et al., 1997). Based on prior

research, this study presumes that these are universal and ageless

characteristics that can be nurtured and developed at earlier stages of the

education process (Kourilsky, 1990; Kourilsky & Walstad, 1998; Walstad &
 46

Kourilsky, 1999. Individuals can be predisposed to entrepreneurial intentions

based on a combination of personal and contextual factors (Boyd & Vozikis,

1994). Personal factors such as prior experience as an entrepreneur and

contextual factors such as job displacement have limited applicability to

entrepreneurial propensity among youth. Other personal and contextual

factors attributable to entrepreneurs have generally been categorized as

demographic characteristics and psychological attributes. According to

Robinson, Stimpson, Huefner, & Hunt (1991) demographic circumstances do

not enhance our ability to predict entrepreneurial tendencies. Psychological

attributes, on the other hand, have produced good results for predicting

whether a person will pursue entrepreneurship (Stewart, Watson, Carland, &

Carland, 1999).

A number of psychological attributes have been suggested as predictors

of entrepreneurial behavior in the entrepreneurship literature, with some

degree of consensus. Kourilsky (1980) suggested the following are the most

relevant: need for achievement; creativity and initiative; risk-taking and

setting 10 objectives; self-confidence and internal locus of control; need for

independence and autonomy; motivation, energy and commitment; and

persistence. According to Gorman et al. (1997) propensity toward

entrepreneurship is associated with several personal characteristics: values

and attitudes, personal goals, creativity, risk-taking propensity, and locus of

control. Of the personal characteristics, McClelland (1961) proposed

 47

achievement motivation, risk taking and locus of control as important

characteristics. However, Robinson, Stimpson, Huefner, and Hunt’s (1991)

argued that self-esteem and innovation are more prominent in entrepreneurs

than the need for achievement. Sexton and Bowman (1983) concurred with

Brockhaus (1980) that risk-taking propensities are not good predictors of

entrepreneurial behavior. In subsequent work Stewart, et al. (1998)

disagreed, finding that entrepreneurs had higher achievement motivation,

risk-taking propensity, and preference for innovation than corporate

managers and small business owners. Risk-taking may not apply to youth who

have not undertaken significant economic risk and opportunity cost due to the

loss of wages, or wealth risk associated with business failure. Following

Robinson’s et al. (1991) conceptualization of the prominent characteristics of

entrepreneurial propensity, this study considers whether achievement

motivation in business, personal control of business outcomes, perceived self-

esteem in business, and innovation in business can be effected by educational

and enterprise intervention at the intermediate grade level.

Nowadays there are many definitions of “entrepreneurship” and

“entrepreneurial activity”. The contents of these two concepts has changed

over time, with the development of scientific-technical progress and society

as a whole. For example, an American scientist, Professor R. Hizrich (2002)

talks about entrepreneurship as “the process of creating something new that

has value”, respectively, of the entrepreneur as “a person who spends time

 48

and energy, takes on 7 the burden of psychological, financial and social risk,

in return for money and the desired result”. According to Goncharova,

Kartashov and Gavrilova (2009), entrepreneurship is presented as activity of

people, carried out at their own risk with a view to profit. It is possible to

consider the process of entrepreneurship on the other hand. For example, Acs

(2004) wrote that entrepreneurship should be considered as “the realization

of the special abilities of the individual, which is expressed in a rational

combination of factors of production based on the innovative approach of risk.”

It is worth noting that in all cases highlights risky nature of the above

activities.

Entrepreneurship plays a principal role in the development of any

country. Joseph Schumpeter (1934), an Austrian scientist, stated that the

entrepreneur is “the economic entity whose function is just the

implementation of new combinations.” In the competitive environment, the

entrepreneurs can be considered as the main actors, as their competition

leads to a reduction of costs, reduction of not only economic losses, but also

the value of goods and services. It also leads to many modernization

processes through the introduction of advanced technologies. For a long time

the European Society considered entrepreneurship as a secondary activity,

unworthy for people with high social status.

Entrepreneurship has an impact both on the social and on the economic

systems of the country. The solution of many socio-economic problems of

 49

unemployment and low income (possibility of forming a middle class among

the economically active population) is the result of the implementation of the

functions of entrepreneurship in general. It also gives the possibility of forming

a new production of different functional orientation, which in turn leads to the

creation of a favourable business and investment environment of the regional

or national economic system.

As an assessment of entrepreneurial activity, it is common to use the

economic indicator as “entrepreneurial activity”. It is a reflection of the

intensity of this process in a specific economic region. Entrepreneurial activity

is a separate conditional indicator by which it is possible to study the situation

in entrepreneurship in the specific conditions for each region (economic,

social, institutional-legal etc.) Entrepreneurial activity is a concept that defines

a dynamic process of entrepreneurial development.

The effectiveness of SIM as a strategy needs to be explored to measure

its relevance in teaching workplace it contributes greater gain on the part of

the students. Thus, it can be used as intervention strategy in making the

lesson easy to understand and mastery was achieved on the part of the

students. This idea was supported by the findings of Ceballos (2000) which

says that collaboration is a shared act by each member of the group and allows

each member to collectively gain knowledge and learn on their own. This

statement is in line when SIM was employed in the teaching process. Since

SIM entails collaboration on the part of the students. Thus, students learned
 50

best if there is collaboration among the members of the group. Bandura in

1986 introduced the term self-regulation to describe the process of human

behaviour in controlling oneself by engaging in self-observation, self-

judgment, and self-response activities (Schunk, 2008). Based on the work of

Bandura, Zimmerman and colleagues proposed that people are consciously

directing their cognition, motivation, and behaviors to attain a goal when

learning (Schunk, 2008). Darmayanti’s study (2005), the CERDAS learning

strategy was developed and implemented to examine the effects of the

learning strategy intervention in combination with modeling intervention on

students’ self-directed learning and achievement. The intervention on the

learning strategy was intended to teach students about how to plan their study

smartly, by learning the importance of using time effectively as well as the

importance of setting realistic, attainable, accurate, and specific learning

goals.

Bartz (1989) conducted a study in the use of writing and self-monitoring

strategies by learning disabled eighth graders. Strategies in capitalization,

punctuation, sentence completion and self-monitoring were introduced and

practised. Results revealed significant improvement in vocabulary, thematic

maturity and handwriting during the period of strategic instruction. Cole

(1992) investigated the effectiveness of an instructional intervention which

was designed to teach students with learning disabilities to write a sequential

 51

expository paragraph through strategic instruction and the use of a set of

instructional writing framework.

Kim (1998) compared two instructional methods for teaching spelling to

elementary students with learning disabilities to find out the mosi. Effective

and expedient way to increase the overall spelling performance. The treatment

group was taught using ride-based strategy instruction focussing on teachng

students in spelling rules. The control group was taught in the traditional way

that provided an array of spelling instructions. The overall performance

indicated that rule-based strategy instruction focussing on teaching students

in spelling rules was significantly effective in increasing the spelling

performance. Xin (1993) investigated the effects of using video-technology as

a tool for facilitating disabled students' vocabulary learning and reading

comprehension.

Butler (1994) investigated the effectiveness of an intervention

programme designed to promote self-regulated learning, strategic content

learning. In strategic content learning, rather than teaching students specific

cognition strategies, instmction focuses on supporting students to approach

learning tasks strategically. Brown (1989) studied the effect of mnemonic

instruction upon retention of vocabulary with learning disabled children. Three

methods were used (a) semantic mapping, (b) semantic mapping keyword,

and (c) self-selection which allowed students to choose their own memory

strategies. It was revealed that semantic mapping key word recalled more
 52

vocabularies and the other groups improved in their vocabulary. Mehring

(1981) investigated the interaction among three cognitive styles and aptitude

variables. (vocabulary, field dependence-independence and locus control) and

a learning strategy that employs self-questioning to teach main ideas and

relevant details of reading passages, written and reading achievement . The

self-questioning strategy was effective at improving the ability to recall the

main ideas and details regarding reading achievement.

Soberano (2010) mentioned that Strategic Intervention Materials were

effective in mastering the competency based skills in chemistry based on the

mean gain scores in the posttests of the experimental and control groups. He

found out that there was a positive transfer of learning in both the groups.

However, the higher mean was observed from the experimental group after

the presentation of the intervention materials. Salviejo, Edwin I, Arcanes, F.

and Espinosa, A. (2014) on their study on Strategic Intervention Material –

Based Instruction, Learning Approach and Students’ Performance in

entrepreneurship revealed that the use of SIM-BI is effective in terms of

improving students’ performance and learning approach. The surface learners

performed equally well as the deep learners when SIM-BI was used. The

positive result of the survey suggested that the SIM was appreciated and

appealed to both types of learners. The traditional curriculum focused on the

teacher rather than the learner. However, in recent years, there has been a

paradigm shift taking place, moving the emphasis from teaching to learning a
 53

more student-centered curriculum. This change has impacted on the

curriculum design process with a greater emphasis on the learning in terms of

knowledge, skills and competencies within intervention/ learning materials.

The focus is on how learners learn and the design of effective learning

environment.

Even the best designed intervention/learning materials, with very

worthwhile defined learning outcomes, can fail if the teaching strategies

employed are inappropriate to encourage and support the learners towards

meeting the desired learning outcomes (Ramsden, 1992). Toohey (1999)

defined a teaching strategy as “a plan for someone else’s learning, and it

encompasses the presentations which the teacher might make, the exercises

and activities designed for students, materials which will be supplied or

suggested for students to work with, and ways in which evidence of their

growing understanding and capability will be collected.” This definition is very

helpful as it emphasizes that a teaching strategy is fundamentally about

supporting student’s learning. In giving consideration to how, as academics,

one can teach in order to ensure that students are engaging with the learning

process, it is necessary to focus on the type of teaching strategies one can

employ to achieve this end. The traditional curriculum focused on the teacher

rather than the learner. However, in recent years, there has been a paradigm

shift taking place, moving the emphasis from teaching to learning a more

student-centered curriculum. This change has impacted on the curriculum

 54

design process with a greater emphasis on the learning in terms of knowledge,

skills and competencies within intervention/ learning materials. The focus is

on how learners learn and the design of effective learning environment.

SIM or Strategic Intervention Material refers to teaching aid introduced

into the teaching methods to stimulate the activity of the students and thereby

increasing their level of understanding. Strategic Intervention Material is used

to mediate teaching and learning. Specifically, this helps students learn and

perceive difficult lessons as exciting yet achieving activity. This teaching

intervention tool in science comes in varied forms. It can be an animated book,

attractive video presentation or an interactive computer presentation.

Strategic intervention material is believed to be an effective strategic teaching

aid for teachers in carrying out objectives on least learned lessons. It is a

module that contains puzzles, games, vivid illustrations, concept map used to

motivate and stir up the attention and interest of the pupils.

Guilot (2000) stresses that the prototype instructional materials based

on Effective Reading Instruction in the Content Area (ERICA) Model developed

in her study can aid the teacher in helping and teaching students become

effective readers in the different disciplines. Moreover, the developed

prototype materials based on ERICA strategies are promising instruments for

attaining reading-to-learn objectives. The materials appear suitable,

acceptable, and effective, as evaluated by a number of teacher-experts and

students. Also, reading materials in the content areas call for a specialized
 55

knowledge on how to unlock information from the texts, which is what

teachers do as students undergo series of exercises to develop reading

strategies until such time that the use of these materials becomes automatic

and self-imposed whenever needed.

Strategic Intervention Material (SIM) refers to a teaching aid introduced

into the teaching methods to stimulate the activity of the students and thereby

increased their level of understanding (Dy, 2011). It is strategically prepared

and designed for teaching remediation for low achievers in the subject. It is

given after the regular classroom instruction to students who were not able to

grasp the concepts of the subject matter.

Teachers use teaching methods to convey entrepreneurship knowledge,

skills and attitudes to learners. Research has established that entrepreneurs

learn differently from others (Fredrick, 2007; Gatchalian, 2010). They “require

active and concrete pedagogical interventions … through deepening learning

in theory, process and practice of entrepreneurship” (Fredrick, 2007:1).

Empirical studies have recommended a vast array of pedagogies for delivering

entrepreneurship education. They include lectures, team teaching, group

assignments, field tours/visits, internet search, telemedia, print media,

business plan, case study, problem-based learning, student presentations, use

of role models/success stories, seminars/workshops, decision-making

exercises, attachment, internship, consulting assignments, actual running of

a small business, research project on an existing business, etc. (Jones &

 56

English, 2004; Fredrick, 2007; Sherman et al, 2008; Gatchalian, 2010;

Mansor & Othman, 2011). Despite the plethora of alternatives, the

entrepreneurial mindset orientation in TTI graduates still seems to be elusive

(Maina, 2006; Pihie & Bagheri, 2011).

Empirical evidence shows that using traditional methods, such as the

lecture and its variant “chalk and talk” to teach entrepreneurship education,

merely results in a knowledgeable person (Smith & Paton, 2011), as these

methods lack initiative for application. While studies vindicate their

effectiveness in maximizing the efficiency of teacher-learner knowledge

transfer on one hand (Sherman et al, 2008), on the other they demonstrate

them to be static, and fail to respond to the naturally dynamic business

environment (Sherman et al, 2008; Smith & Paton, 2011). Their utility

remains in creating entrepreneurial awareness. Mere entrepreneurial

awareness cannot develop entrepreneurial practice. To develop

entrepreneurial practice requires methods capable of instilling transversal

entrepreneurial skills. In tandem with Kolb’s experiential learning model (Kolb,

1984), different learning opportunities for optimum development of the

various students’ entrepreneurial capabilities have to be designed into

curriculum delivery. Gatchalian (2010) found that both teachers and students

strongly supported experiential methods. Basing his findings on the grounded

theory approach, Fredrick (2007) concluded that entrepreneurs require

experiential pedagogical interventions. Experiential methods transport

 57

learners to the defining experience of deciding whether or not to choose

entrepreneurship as a career option after training (Sherman et al, 2008). This

is the object and philosophy of entrepreneurship education.

Assessment of entrepreneurial learning outcomes is integral to

educational practice, as it measures the extent of achievement of the

objectives of an educational activity (Pittaway et al, 2009). Assessment

outcomes justify expenditure of resources on entrepreneurship educational

efforts. The Typology of Entrepreneurship Education and Assessment Practice

(Pittaway & Edwards, 2012) is important in discussing assessment of

entrepreneurial learning outcomes. The typology shows that assessment

should demonstrate not only the knowledge, but also the skills, attitudes and

the transversal entrepreneurial competencies that operationalise

entrepreneurship in the economy. Empirical studies show that assessment

predicts the methodologies selected to deliver entrepreneurship content

(Tranchet & Rienstra, 2009; Pittawayet al, 2009). At the same time, other

empirical studies show that assessing entrepreneurship learning outcomes is

a big challenge (Pittawayet al, 2009; Tranchet & Rienstra, 2009; Pittaway &

Edwards, 2012). There are critical concerns about the use of conventional

methods, such as written tests and examinations, to measure practical

entrepreneurial skills and attitudes, because they do not bring out the results

that educators expect (Sherman et al, 2008; Pittaway et al, 2009).

 58

Regrettably, there is a paucity of research on entrepreneurship education

assessment (Pittaway & Edwards, 2012).

Entrepreneurship educators’ networks with entrepreneurship

practitioners and stakeholders play an important role in delivering

entrepreneurship education to students (Gatchalian, 2010). Through networks

educators accumulate tacit knowledge, which enhances their teaching

competence. Networks also facilitate a coordinated approach for teaching

entrepreneurship education. The manifold benefits of networks to students

include accessing attachment opportunities in real enterprise environments;

contributing to the development of human resource management skills

(Thompson et al, 2009); enhancing the relevance of entrepreneurship

education (Mansor & Othman, 2011); activating social links and interactions

(Pittawayet al, 2004); and facilitating opportunity recognition, entrepreneurial

orientation, the vocational decision to become an entrepreneur, and

entrepreneurial intention. Network resources include foundations, private

companies, entrepreneurs, government agencies, science parks/incubators,

business development service (BDS) providers, and other bodies specialized

in entrepreneurship training (Klyver et al, 2007).

Entrepreneurial activity, referred to as a process centred on

opportunity-seeking (Schendel & Hitt, 2007), has traditionally been associated

with innovation (Schumpeter, 1934), risk (Knight, 1921), and returns

(Hawley, 1901); and considered particularly appropriate for dynamic and

 59

hostile environments (Miller, 1983). From the mid-1980s however,

management research began to increasingly focus on combining

entrepreneurship and strategy, examining a more structured approach to

entrepreneurial activity. In particular, strategy and strategic management,

seen as fields concerned with value creation and competitive advantage,

represent an important balance for entrepreneurship; a “natural relationship”

(Schendel & Hitt, 2007, p. 1).

The increasing acceptance of entrepreneurship as an activity or process

applying broadly to all forms of business is noted (Alvarez & Barney, 2007;

Drucker, 1985; Gartner, 2001; Low & MacMillan, 1988; McMullen & Shepherd,

2006; Van de Ven & Engleman, 2007; Venkataraman & Sarasvathy, 2001)

and effectively addresses much of the debate and inconsistencies within the

literature regarding the appropriate manner in which to explain this

phenomenon (Gartner, 2001). Thus, the roots of this term entrepreneurship:

entreprendre – to undertake, resurface. In particular, Gartner (2001)

questions the diversity of entrepreneurship when characterised as a single

discipline, referring to the “elephant of entrepreneurship”, and suggests the

analysis of specific areas such as small and medium enterprises, new business

creation, and family businesses in the context of entrepreneurship may be a

study of “different topics with no underlying connection. There is, simply, no

theoretical way to connect all of these disparate research interests together”

(p. 30). Rather, Gartner identifies the need for a framework to address the
 60

vagaries and inconsistencies of prior research, and suggests the study of

entrepreneurship as a process provides that framework, while still

accommodating the diversity of entrepreneurship in different contexts (e.g.

individuals, small and large firms, society, and government).

The view of entrepreneurship as a process is also consistent with

established definitions of entrepreneurship such as that by Shane and

Venkataraman (2000), who refer to entrepreneurship as the discovery,

evaluation, and exploitation of opportunity to create future goods and

services. Similarly, Stevenson and Jarillo (1990) refer to entrepreneurship as

the 14 pursuit of opportunity regardless of the resources controlled. In

particular, McMullen and Shepherd (2006) note entrepreneurship requires

action, and suggest that many of the different perspectives of

entrepreneurship within the literature are essentially studies of action

characterised as entrepreneurial, in various contexts.

Burgelman (1983) further develops the notion of entrepreneurship

within strategy, by presenting a model of the strategic process for

entrepreneurial activity. Similarly, Miller (1983) explores variables within

entrepreneurial and strategic processes of firms with different profiles (e.g.

simple, planning, and organic firms). An important concept put forward by

Miller is that an entrepreneurial strategic process is not specific to one type of

organisation, but rather may take various forms for different business profiles
 61

(e.g. firms of different sizes). Hence, a brief review of strategy reveals a

distinct segment of the literature which incorporates an entrepreneurial focus.

Entrepreneurship is the practice of starting new organizations or

revitalizing mature organizations, particularly new businesses generally in

response to identified opportunities. Entrepreneurship is often a difficult

undertaking. Howorth, Tempest, Coupland (2005) and Jack, Anderson (1999)

state that a solid definition of entrepreneurship or an entrepreneur continues

to generate debate and a single definition has not yet been embraced across

the various paradigms. This study uses the common working definition put

forth by Jones (2002) that an entrepreneur is an individual who establishes

and manages a business for the principles of profit and growth. Entrepreneurs

known as taking at least moderator level of risks such as: economic, social,

carrier, psychological and health.

Entrepreneurship is a dominant factor in the economy; researchers have

examined a number of factors that may explain entrepreneurial activity,

though a good deal of recent research has tended to focus on the

characteristics of the business and industry environment or the characteristics

of the entrepreneurial opportunity itself . Beside this, corporate ecosystem

and entrepreneurial substructure that is legal issues are important detrimant

on entrepreneurship. Our understanding of entrepreneurship will not be

complete unless we understand the motivation of the individuals involved.

Recent research suggests that motivational traits and creativity are important
 62

factors in entrepreneurial activity and success. Research on the motivational

traits of entrepreneurs seems especially promising for helping to identify those

individuals that might be best suited for identifying and exploiting

entrepreneurial opportunities in the market place. McClelland's theory that

achievement motivation is significantly related to both occupational choice and

performance in an entrepreneurial role. Baron has defined motivational factors

of entrepreneurship as self-efficacy positive affectivity, specific skills and

competencies, and situation-specific motivation. Despite the potential

importance of individual characteristics, there are still many unanswered

questions regarding the role that motivation and personal characteristics have

on entrepreneurial activity. And also personal initiative is one of the major key

to success on entrepreneurship; entrepreneurs with high personal initiative

will naturally overcome the disadvantages or weaknesses in them with their

self-starting and proactive attitude.

Bruce, et al (2001) pointed out that the development of positive

attitudes towards any school subject is fundamental for several reasons. First,

attitude is related to achievement and may enhance cognitive development

directly. Second, positive attitude toward a subject makes students more

likely to engage in lifelong learning both formally and informally.

According to Bretz (2001), Novak’s Theory of Human Constructivism

states that “a meaningful learning underlies the constructive integration of

thinking, feeling, and acting, leading to human empowerment for commitment

 63

and responsibility”. Meaningful learning will only occur when education

provides experience that requires students to connect knowledge across the

three domains either cognitive, affective, or psychomotor domain. Students

must not only read concepts, but must also design and carry out experiments

in the laboratory which will allow them to connect these abstract concepts to

choices they must make in their daily lives.

According to Town (2000), experiential learning theory uses personal

experience as the focal point for learning because it gives meaning to abstract

concepts. It characterizes learning as continuous process grounded in

experience. Concepts are derived from and continuously modified by

experience throughout life. Learning is a process where knowledge is created

through the transformation of experience. Thus, learning requires both

perceiving and transforming an experience. Perception alone is not enough

because something must be done so that experience brings about learning.

Collette and Chiapette (1994) said that, “there is a good match between

student’s developmental stage and the cognitive complexity of the

instructional materials. Students have a greater chance to achieve the desired

learning outcomes”. However, they continue when the materials are too

abstract and complex, many students may fail to comprehend the subject

matter. If science teachers and curriculum writers which to identify learning

outcomes that students can attain, they must be aware of the cognitive
 64

operations, scheme, or reasoning patterns required to learn a given amount

of materials.

Bednar, et.al. (1995)in analysis of content of the Instructional Design,

one system would see components as facts, principles, concepts and

procedures, while the goals would be to remember, use, or find; and the other

is the analysis of specific prerequisite learning. In essence, the analysis pre-

specifies all of the relevant contents and the logical dependencies in between

the components of the content. They anticipated that the development of a

validated self-learning system, in almost every content area, will be a major

challenge for educational technologies during the coming decade.

The reviewed foreign literatures of Bednar (1995), Bruce (2001), Bretz

(2001) and Town (2001) were found relevant to the present study since they

dealt on the improvement of the curriculum through the use of the

comprehensive instructional materials which is the central focus of this study

that reinforced the findings and conclusions. They provided theories and

concepts on the science teaching, more importantly on providing the students

concrete experiences on the use of effective instructional materials for a better

school’s achievement of the students. Collette and Chiapetta (1994) has the

same line of thinking, they said that “there is a good match between students’

developmental stage and the cognitive complexity of the instructional

materials. Students have a greater chance to achieve the desired learning

outcomes. The foreign related studies conducted by Wheatley (1995), and

 65

Dechsri, et al. (1997) were all related to the present study since they are

focused on the development and validation of instructional materials.

The strategic intervention materials are effective in mastering the

competency based skills in chemistry based on the mean gain score in the

posttests of the experimental and control groups. Intervention material

contributed to better learning of the concepts among students. Posttests are

maintenance test indicated that students who were taught with material

employing the causal style of discourse had significantly better retention of

facts and concepts and were superior in applying this knowledge in problem

solving exercises. According to the study of Dy, the achievement of the

students in the experimental group who were exposed to the SIM is higher

and better compared to the students taught in the traditional approach both

in the first and second grading periods. The 75 percent

proficiency/performance level required in any subject area has been

attained/reached in the experimental group.

According Rosario T. Rodrigo (2015) Strategic Intervention Materials

are conceptualized and designed to aid the teacher provide the pupils the

needed support to make progress in studies. These will increase and deepen

the skills, knowledge and understanding of the child in various subject areas

not only in science and math but also including various learning areas in the

curriculum. SIM can give the opportunity to explore various ideas and
 66

concepts that would enrich their understanding of varied subject matters that

sharpen their competencies.

Furthermore, the strategic instructional materials tend to reteach the

lessons which are not so much clear to the learners and to help them gain

mastery of the skills. Each intervention material contains five parts such as

the guide card, activity card, assessment card, enrichment card and reference

card. The guide card stimulates the pupil’s interest on the topic discussed and

gave a preview of what they would learn. The activity card translates the focus

skills in at least three activities. The assessment card provides exercises, drills

or activities that allow pupils to assess their understanding of what they have

learned correct errors when appropriate and monitor their learning and use

feedback about their progress. The enrichment card provides activities that

reinforces the content of the lesson and provides opportunities for the pupils

to apply what they have learned to other subject areas or in new contexts.

Finally, the reference card provides further reading to the pupils.

Moreover, the strategic intervention materials guarantee alignment of

activities with the tasks/objectives, keep the activities short and simple,

provide a variety of activities to cater to the diverse learners; provide number

of activities so that the learner can have enough practice in developing the

skill and focus on the least mastered skills. In addition, the designs of the
 67

strategic intervention materials are attractive and eye-catching that is why a

lot of teachers are encouraged to use them in the teaching-learning process.

The benefit of the strategic intervention materials is not only for the teacher’s

convenience and system in teacher but also for the easy grasp of the learners.

The Philippine Educational System undergoes major changes brought

about by the Kindergarten to Grade 12 or K-12 Basic Education Curriculum.

Challenges come along with these changes. One of the issues faced by the

present curriculum is the dearth of learning materials. This issue became an

inevitable problem that haunts the country’s new curriculum in the three years

of its implementation. Admittedly, the Department of Education agreed that

there have been delays in the delivery of learning materials such as activity

sheets and modules for the pupils (Legaspi, 2014).Even before the change of

the curriculum, elementary public school teachers had already several

complaints on the shortage of learning materials particularly textbooks which

is a predicament that still exists at present. The unavailability of instructional

materials and also teachers’ lack of knowledge on material development

become prevalent and lingering problems among educational institutions.

Moreover, instructional materials (IMs) such as textbooks, workbooks,

modules, et cetera are essential learning tools for they allow learners to

interact with words, images and ideas in ways that develop their abilities in
 68

multiple skills such as reading, listening, speaking, writing and viewing. SIMs

are instructional materials designed for remediation purposes and are

considered one of the solutions employed by DepEd to enhance academic

achievements of pupils performing low in class. SIMs are commonly used

instructional materials in teaching Science but not that common in the

language arts. They are carefully made and thought of in order to stimulate

the pupil’s interest on the certain skill and thereby increasing their level of

understanding and master the concept of the subject matter by using

Strategic intervention materials are instructional materials that meant to

teach the concept and skills. Materials are given to students to help them

master a competency based skill which they were not able to develop during

the regular classroom teaching. The ultimate aim of SIM is to make students

master the least learned concepts in science. In doing so, once they mastered

the concept they can easily comprehend questions and answer it correctly,

thus, better academic gain is achieved.

 69

Chapter 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Methodology

This study deals with the research design, locale of the study,

respondents of the study, the sampling technique, data gathering instrument,

data gathering procedure and the statistical tools to be used in the study.

Research Design

The descriptive and experimental methods of research were employed

in this study. Descriptive research is a purposive process of gathering,

analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data prevailing conditions, practices,

beliefs, processes, trends, and cause-effect relationships and then making

adequate and accurate interpretation about such data with or without the aid
 70

of statistical methods (Calderon, 1993). This method was used in determining

the curricular validity of the Strategic Intervention Materials (SIM).

The experimental method of research was employed in this study using two

groups of subjects as the control and experimental group, respectively.

Experimental method of research is a method or procedure involving the

control or manipulation of conditions for the purpose of studying the relative

effects of various treatments applied to members of a sample, or of the same

treatment applied to members of different samples (Calmorin, 1995) It is a

problem solving approach that embraces studies of an experimental nature in

which the systematic study of social life is carried out under conditions of

control and experiment.

According to Aquino (1993), this is a design to investigate possible cause-and-

effect relationship by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or

more treatment conditions and comparing the results to one or more control

groups not receiving the treatment, random assignment being essential.

This study follows a Research and Development (R&D) paradigm. The

variables are Traditional Method in Technology and Livelihood Education and

the Development of Strategic Intervention Material (SIM). These needs and

problems were used as inputs to the proposed Strategic Intervention

Material to enhance the learning performance of Senior High School

students in the Pre-Test and Post-Test related to Technology and Livelihood

 71

Education. After administering and scoring the Pre-test, item analysis

was made in order to determine what competencies were least mastered.

The least mastered competencies were the basis for constructing the

SIM and it was utilized as an intervention material. The SIM undergo

content validation before it was finally given to the students ready for use.

Sampling Techniques

The Eighty (80) Senior High School students of Aceba Systems

Technology Institute. Extension were the samples of the study. The identified

least mastered competencies in the Pre-Test for the Second Grading period

was the basis of developing the SIM based on the result of the item analysis.

Research Instrument:

The following research instruments used in this study were Pre-Test/Post-

Test, and the Strategic Intervention Material designed to help teachers provide

the students who need support to make progress. It tries to increase and deepen

skills, knowledge and understanding from concrete to what is more abstract. It

gave students the opportunity to explore their understanding and make sense of

these new ideas. Furthermore, an intervention material meant to recall the

concepts and skills to help the learners master a competency-based skill which

they were not able to develop during classroom discussion. The Strategic

Intervention Material has five parts: the guide card, activity card, assessment
 72

card, enrichment card, and reference card. The guide card stimulated the

students of interest on the topic discussed and gave a preview of what they would

learn. Activity Card, Assessment Card, and Enrichment Card are series of

activities with different level of difficulties to excite their interest as they answer

the SIM.

The following were the research instruments used in the study.

Strategic Intervention Materials

They were intervention materials which designed to help teachers provide the

students a needed support to make progress. They tried to increase and

deepen their skills, knowledge and understanding from concrete science to

what is more abstract. They gave the students the opportunity to explore their

understanding and make sense of these new scientific ideas. They helped the

students what they know and understand from the teacher to formalize their

thinking. Furthermore, they were instructional materials meant to reteach the

concept (s) and skill (s) to help the learners master a competency-based skill

which they were not able to develop during classroom teaching.

Each intervention material has five parts such as the guide card, activity card,

assessment card, enrichment card and reference card. The guide card

stimulated the students’ interest on the topic discussed and gave a preview of

what they would learn. It presented the skill focus that mentioned the learning
 73

competency, the three subtasks or activities and the concrete outcome or

product students are expected to demonstrate or produce. This cited the

activities and challenged the learner in performing the tasks which were

competency-oriented and can be done individually or per group. The activity

card followed the guide card where it translated the focus skills in at least

three activities. It provided activities that were organized based on the

sequence of the focus skills written in the guide card and included examples

to concretize the concepts, particularly those drawn from real life experience.

The activities included in the activity allowed students to make discoveries and

formulate ideas on their own, guide and challenge their thinking and learning

and use local data and situations like interacting with people in the

community. It also provided transition statements that reorganized students’

accomplishments. Likewise, the intervention materials provided questions that

guided students to develop concepts and focus skills, elicited the message or

meaning that a student can take away from an activity and established the

relationship between the topic/lesson and what students already know or are

familiar to them. The assessment card provided exercises, drills or activities

that allowed students to assess their understanding of what they have learned

correct errors when appropriate and monitor their learning and use feedback

about their progress. This card was formulated standard test formats to give

students practice in test taking techniques. It therefore has a separate card

that includes the answer key. The enrichment card provided activities that
 74

reinforced the content of the lesson and provided opportunities for students

to apply what they have learned to other subject areas or in new contexts. It

.also encouraged students to work independently or in a group to explore

answers to their own questions. The reference card provided reading to

students. It related the content with the students’ life experiences. It included

a carefully and well-researched list of resources that helped students reinforce

concepts and skills that they learned. It also included additional useful content

not found in the books.

In a nutshell, the strategic intervention materials ensured alignment of

activities with the tasks/objectives, kept the activities short and simple,

provided a variety of activities to cater to the diverse learning styles; provided

number of activities so that the learner can have enough practice in developing

the skill and lastly focus on the least mastered skills, simple, easy to

understand and reproduce.

Pre-Test/ Post-Test

It was a 20-items teacher-made test which was designed to measure

the mastery level of the students on the lesson chosen by the researcher. The

items in the test were analyzed and the difficulty/discrimination indices were

taken to discard or reject the item. Items which were not within the range of

0.20 to 0.80 difficulty index and 0.30 to 0.80 discrimination index were

discarded and items fall within the prescribe limit were retained. Furthermore

the validated test was finalized and a pilot pretest was administered to two
 75

groups of respondents before the experiments. The experimental group was

exposed to the use of SIM while the control group used the traditional way of

teaching. Likewise, a pretest was given to both groups before the introduction

of the lesson and a posttest after the end of the lesson. Both pretests and

posttests given to the experimental and control group were the same.

Research Procedure

The statistical evaluation was necessary to determine the effectiveness

of the Strategic Intervention Materials (SIM). A pre-test and post-test were

given to the respondents for the first and second grading period. It must be

made clear that the test given to the experimental class was also given in the

control class. Further, the questions given in the pre-test were the same

questions given in the post-test.

The pre-test and post-test results of each group for each of the two

grading periods were treated separately. However, to determine whether the

achievement of the experimental class was better than the control class, the

post-test results of both groups were computed using the t-test.

Statistical Treatment of Data

The statistical tools used in the study were the following:

Mean. This was used to determine where most of the scores of the students

clustered. Since the number of students in each group was less than 30, then
 76

the ungrouped data was used. This was done by adding all the scores of the

students and the sum was divided by their number.

Weighted Mean was used to determine the curricular validation of the

Strategic Intervention Materials (SIM).

Standard Deviation. This was used to determine the variability of the

students’ abilities or scores. The mean was subtracted from the students’

scores. The difference was squared after which the summation was obtained.

T-test. This was used to find out whether the students who used the Strategic

Intervention Materials performed well and achieved better than those who did

not.

The data for the t-test were arrived at after determining the mean standard

deviations of the two groups for the first and second grading periods.

Data Gathering Procedure

The SIM utilized in this study was made by the researcher. Skill in this

SIM focuses on the Activities included to meet the objective were designed

suited within the students’ comprehension through text, pictures and

illustrations. The researcher reproduced the copies of SIM. The Pre-test was

conducted with 10 test items paper-pencil test and 10 students (not

respondents) were requested by the researcher to answer the SIM for

 77

improvement purposes before SIM were distributed for student consumption

and the Post –test was conducted after the SIM was administered.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

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