Research, The Research

Process, Research
Methodology
LECTURE 2 (BIOLOGY 199)
MARILEN M. PARUNGAO
 RESEARCH

viewed as a problem-solving activity

follows a logical series of steps
(research process) which makes it
different from other problem-solving
activities
 Research Methodology
(Leedy, 1997)

the core concept underlying the research process

the methodology controls the study itself and the processes needed to
realize the study

the methodology controls and dictates the acquisition of data,

arranges them in logical relationships, sets up a means of refining the
raw data, contrives an approach so that meanings that lie below the
surface of those data become manifest, and finally issues a
conclusion or series of conclusions that lead to an expansion of
knowledge

the entire process is a unified effort as well as an appreciation of its

component parts
 The Process of Research:
Logical Steps
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION (LOOKING FOR A TOPIC)

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

RESEARCHABILITY OF THE PROBLEM

FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

THE HEART OF THE RESEARCH

PROJECT

REQUIREMENT: TO STATE THE

PROBLEM WITH UNWAVERING
CLARITY, PRECISION

WHAT IF I SIMPLY CANNOT FIND A

GOOD PROBLEM?
IDENTIFICATION OF THE
PROBLEM
WHERE TO FIND INTERESTING PROBLEMS...

JOURNALS, BOOKS, ABSTRACTS (LIBRARY/TRUSTED LINKS)

RECOMMENDATION SECTIONS OF THESES AND DISSERTATIONS/JOURNAL

ARTICLES

IDEAS FROM YOUR MENTOR OR PROFESSOR

IDEAS FROM SEMINARS, RESEARCH COLLOQUIA AND CONFERENCES

PERSONAL/FAMILY EXPERIENCES

RARE/INTERESTING OCCURRENCES WHICH NEEDS TO BE EXPLAINED

TOP TEN CAUSES OF MORTALITY/MORBIDITY IN YOUR LOCALITY

 CHARACTERISTIC OF A
RESEARCH PROBLEM
SHOULD BE OF GREAT INTEREST TO YOU

USEFUL FOR THE CONCERNED PEOPLE IN A PARTICULAR FIELD

POSSESS NOVELTY

LAYS FOUNDATION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH IN THE FIELD

CAN BE COMPLETED IN THE ALLOTTED TIME DESIRED

MUST USE APPROPRIATE AND UP-TO-DATE TECHNOOLOGY

DOES NOT CARRY ETHICAL OR MORAL IMPEDIMENTS

 A GOOD RESEARCH
PROBLEM SHOULD BE
SMART
SPECIFIC, MEASURABLE, ACHIEVABLE,
REALISTIC, TIME-BOUND
IS MY PROBLEM WORTHY
OF RESEARCH?

EXTERNAL FACTORS
NOVELTY AND AVOIDANCE OF
UNNECESSARY REPETITION
PRACTICAL VALUE OF THE
PROBLEM
IS MY PROBLEM WORTHY
OF RESEARCH?
PERSONAL FACTORS

TRAINING AND PERSONAL QUALIFICATIONS

TIME REQUIREMENTS

AVAILABILITY OF SUBJECTS AND EQUIPMENTS

SPECIALIZED WORKING CONDITIONS

HAZARDS TO BE ENCOUNTERED

RESEARCH FUNDS (COST)

STATING YOUR RESEARCH
PROBLEM

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM MUST

BE STATED IN A CLEAR AND
COMPLETE GRAMMATICAL
SENTENCE IN AS FEW WORDS AS
POSSIBLE!
 WHAT’S WRONG WITH
THESE RESEARCH

BUSING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN

RETIREMENT PLANS OF ADULTS

EFFECT OF PHARMACEUTICALS ON EMBRYO

E. COLI AND WATER QUALITY

 FORMULATION OF
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

REFLECT THE QUESTIONS WHOSE ANSWERS THE

INVESTIGATOR WANTS TO STUDY YIELD TO

CAN BE EXPRESSED EITHER IN THE FORM OF A STATEMENT OR

A QUESTION

SERVES AS THE STEERING WHEEL IN THE CONDUCT OF A

RESEARCH PROJECT

SERVES A S AGUIDE IN SPECIFYING VARIABLES TILL

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
 SAMPLE OBJECTIVES

TO DEVELOP AN OPTIMIZED PROTOCOL TO DETECT

FLAVIVIRUSES IN SERUM SAMPLES USING PCR

TO DETERMINE THE EFFICACY OF ORAL ADMINISTRATION

OF PROBIOTICS IN MANAGING OBESITY

TO ESTABLISH THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLANT

HEIGHT AND FERTILIZER CONCENTRATION IN CORN
 IMPORTANT
CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
PHRASED CLEARLY, UNAMBIGUOUSLY AND SPECIFICALLY

STATED IN MEASURABLE TERMS AND DO NOT INVOLVE

VALUE JUDGEMENT
GENERAL VERSUS SPECIFIC

GENERAL OBJECTIVE

a generic statement which describes in broad terms

what the study wishes to accomplish

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

contain indicators on how to accomplish the stated

objectives and therefore, gives direction to the research
process; identifies in detail and measureable terms
the aims of the research study
 EXAMPLE

General Objectives:

To investigate the histological effects of neem seed kernel extract on

mouse testis

Specific Objectives

To determine/identify the changes in testes histology due to neem seed

kernel extract (NSKE) exposure

To determine the relationship between neem seed kernel extract (NSKE)

and occurrence of abnormal sperm morphology

To provide a feasible physiological basis for the anti-libido property of neem

extract
 REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
After the research problem has been identified and the objectives
formulated, a review of related literature needs to be done.

Two Important Uses:

• To get acquainted with the existing studies related to the

research to be conducted relative to:

- who have done the work on the problem area

- what has been found
- research design utilized
- statistical analysis applied
- problem met and how were they resolved

• To establish a rationale or a theoretical or conceptual

framework based on previous research studies done.
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

Researcher must be shrewd in narrowing the

scope of his study without becoming concerned
with a trivial problem
Assumptions, restrictions and limitation must be
explicit with respect to the coverage of the
study
Helps focus attention on valid objectives, &
helps minimize the dangers of over
generalization
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN
DELIMITING THE PROBLEM
the scope of the problem

time allotted for the conduct of the study

cost and funding

cooperation/coordination needed from other institutions or

researchers

availability of research subjects

availability of equipment needed

ethical considerations
 EXAMPLE

Impact of continuing education for health workers

The effect of continuing education activities conducted by the

Department of Health (DOH) for its staff on their performance

The effect of workshops/seminars conducted by the DOH for

its staff on their ability to manage the different programs of the
DOH in the field

To determine the effect of the Master Trainor’s Course

conducted by the DOH on the capabilities of the participants to
plan, implement, monitor, and evaluate the training programs
they conduct in the field
FORMULATION OF A
TESTABLE
HYPOTHESIS
 DEFINITION

A tentative explanation for certain phenomena, or

events which have occurred or will occur (Gay,
1976)

States the researcher’s expectations concerning

the relationship between two or more variables in
the research problem

Testable statement of a potential relationship

between two or more variables (McGuigan, 1978)
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A
GOOD HYPOTHESIS

Stated in declarative form

Stated in definite terms, the relationship between

variables

Should reflect the theory or literature that it is

based on

Should be brief and to the point

Should be testable
 TWO TYPES OF
HYPOTHESIS
“RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS AND THE NULL HYPOTHESIS”
 THE NULL HYPOTHESIS

Ho

Never true or established but can be possibly

disproved in the course of the experimentation

No difference relationship between the variables we

want to study

May act as a starting point and as a benchmark

against which the researcher will measure the actual
outcome of the study once the researcher has
collected the data
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

HA
Alternative hypothesis
Relationship is always
positive
 EXAMPLES

Ho : Vitamin C does not inhibit chromosomal lagging

HA : Vitamin C does inhibit chromosomal lagging by 50%

compared to placebo

Ho : Cerebral artery bypass is as effective as standard

medical therapy

HA : Cerebral artery bypass is more effective than standard

medical therapy
TWO TYPES OF RESEARCH
HYPOTHESIS

Non-directional – reflects a difference

between groups, but the direction of the
difference (unequal) is NOT specified

Directional – reflects a difference

between groups and the difference is
specified
 IDENTIFICATION OF
RESEARCH VARIABLES

Variable – any trait/characteristic that

manifest differences irrespective of whether
the differences are qualitative or quantitative

Qualitative – eye color, shape of teeth, sex

Quantitative – weight, height, length, light
intensity, temperature
 TYPES OF VARIABLE
Independent – the treatment variable

variables in the course of an experiment in an effort to understand the effects of

this manipulation on some outcome (which you know as the dependent variable)

the variable which is presumed to cause, effect, influence, or stimulate the

outcome

Dependent – outcome variables in a research study

refers to the outcome or response variable

Extraneous Variable – by themselves produce changes which may be mistaken to be

the effect of the independent variable being considered

Controlled, held constant or randomized – so the effects are neutralized, cancelled

out or equated for all conditions
 TRY THIS...

PROBLEM: the effect of carbon dioxide

loading on plant morphology
Identify the:
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Intervening/extraneous variable
 CONSTRUCTION OF A
RESEARCH DESIGN
represents the “plan of attack” of the researcher

in answering the research objectives

in obtaining all the relevant data in relation to objectives and hypothesis

the specific areas of concern in the choice of a research design are the
following

selection and number of subjects

control and manipulation of relevant variables

establishment of criteria to evaluate outcomes

instrumentation

maximization of internal and external validity

 FACTORS TO CONSIDER

research objectives
feasibility
ethical considerations
economy and efficiency
internal and external validity
 INTERNAL VALIDITY

refers to extent to which investigator is able to

control the different biases affecting the study
and in the end, measures what he really intends
to measure

Did the experimental treatment really bring about

a change in the dependent variable?

Did the independent variable make a significant

difference?
 EXTERNAL VALIDITY

refers to the extent to which the

investigator is able to generalize the
results of his study
Are the results applicable to groups
and environment outside of
experimental setting?
DESIGN THE TOOLS FOR
DATA COLLECTION

Experimentation
Questionnaire
Interview schedule and forms
 DESIGN THE PLAN FOR
DATA ANALYSIS

A number of researchers think about data analysis only

after all data has been collected

Consequences:

Some very important variables in study are either not

measured at all or collected using a measurement
scale which is inconsistent with desired mode of data
analysis

Objectives are too ambitious or non-measurable,

given the nature of the data that were collected
 THE SOLUTION...

A good practice is to construct a dummy

table

Dummy Tables – skeleton tables drawn

to help the investigator conceptualize how
the data is going to be organized and
presented after it has been collected
 COLLECTION OF DATA

Essential phase of the research process

Researcher employs specialized tools,
instruments and procedures depending
upon the method designed for such
activity
 DATA PROCESSING

Process the information gathered to

prepare for and facilitate analysis and
interpretation of data.
Editing of data collection forms and
coding of responses are procedures
usually done in this stage
 DATA ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION

Involves quantification, description, and

classification of data
Statistics play a major role
Researcher must be familiar with basic
statistical concepts and procedures and must
know their limitations as well as the areas
where they may be appropriately applied
DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Researcher summarizes the discussion

on the research findings and make a
clear concluding remarks
Researcher identifies major points that
were not raised in the present study and
could lay the framework for future
undertakings
 WRITING OF RESEARCH
REPORT

Researcher prepares report of different

activities he has undertaken together with
his findings
Report must be well-organized and
presented in proper form and style
The basic principles of technical report
writing are followed
 REPORT OF RESEARCH
FINDINGS

Publish findings in scientific journals and

news releases

Presentation of results in scientific

meetings
SO...READY TO DO
YOUR RESEARCH???