ETPaper 2

134 Electrical Technician
UNIT 1
Introduction
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able
• To know about Atomic Structure, Interatomic bonds
• To learn about classification of Engineering materials
Introduction
Materials which are used in the field of Electrical Engineering are called
Electrical Engineering Materials.
Selection of the right type of material for a particular engineering application
and the proper use of these materials are the responsibility of an engineer. To
fulfil this requirement he should have a through understanding of the most important
properties of the materials like mechanical, electrical, magnetic, thermal, chemical
and physical. The properties of a material are its qualities which define its specific
characteristics or behavior. Those properties of a material which define its
behavior under applied forces of loads are called as mechanical properties. The
strength of a material may have to withstand a load. While in use a material may
have to withstand tensile, compressive or shear forces.
To understand how materials behave as conductor, semiconductor insulator
or magnetic, it is necessary to refer to atomic structure of materials. It is due to
the internal bounding of atoms in a material which causes it to behave as;
conductor, semiconductor or insulator.
Paper - II Electrical Engineering Materials and Wiring 135
1.1 Structure of Atom

All matter whether solid, liquid or gas, is made up of minute particles
called molecule which can further be sub-divided into atoms. Elements are
composed of molecules containing atoms of one find only. Compounds are
composed of molecules containing atoms of different kinds.
An element is defined as a substance that can neither be broken up into
other substances nor be created by ordinary chemical means. So far 105 elements
have been discovered out of which 13 are man-made. The elements which are
found in nature are gold, silver copper, aluminium, mercury, hydrogen, oxygen
etc. Examples of man-made elements are curium, lawrencium etc.
Metals have a microscopic grain structure because their particles can be
seen only through a microscope. On the other hand wood and concrete have
macroscopic grain structure because their particles are visible to the unaided
eye.
A substance that is composed of combination of elements is called a
compound eg. water is a compound having symbol H2O which means it is
composed of two elements namely hydrogen (2 parts ) and oxygen (1 part).
According to modern atomic theory the central part of the atom is called
‘nucleus’ and contains protons and neutrons. A proton is a positively charged
particle and neutron has no charge. Thus, nucleus of an atom bears positive
charge. The neutron is electrically neutral i.e., it carries no charge though it is as
heavy as proton. The protons neutrons are very closely held together with
tremendous forces.
The nucleus is surrounded by a number of tiny particles called electrons.
The electrons are spinning around themselves and also are revolving around the
nucleus in orbits or shells. The electrons carry the smallest negative charge and
have a negligible mass. The mass of electron is approximately 1/1840 that of a
proton, but is three times the diameter of the proton. The charge on each electron
is 4.8 x 1010 e.s.u.
Under ordinary conditions the number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons in an atom. Therefore, an atom is electrically neutral as a whole. This
explains why a body does not exhibit any charge under ordinary conditions.
Electrons have negative charge exactly equal in magnitude to the positive
charge of the proton. Electron is the light particle known. The radius of the
atom is 10-8 cm, the radius of electron is 10-18 cm, whereas the radius of the
nucleus is 10-12 cm.
The electrons are kept in the atom by the attraction exerted on them by the
positive nucleus. In fact the electron can be regarded as arranged and revolving
in successive orbits or levels around the nucleus. The electrons in each orbit or
level are associated with a definite amount in each orbits are referred with a
definite amount of energy. The energy levels are denoted by the letters K, L, M,
N, O, P etc. The K level is nearest to the nucleus.
To remove the electron from its orbit some definite amount of energy is
required. To remove the electrons from the first orbit, the energy required is
maximum and to remove the electrons from the outermost orbit the energy
required is minimum.
The number of electrons that can be accommodated in any orbit or level is
given by the formula 2N2 , where N is the number or orbit or level.
Therefore, K level or first orbit has 2 x 12 = 2 electrons
L level or second orbit has 2 x 22 = 8 electrons
M level or third orbit has 2 x 32 = 18 electrons
N level or fourth orbit has 2 x 4 2 = 32 electrons
and so on. But there is some limitation to the above formula that the
outermost level or orbit of any atoms cannot have more than 8 electrons and the
last but one orbit of the atom cannot have more than 18 electrons.
It is the atom and its internal structure that help in determining the nature of
each element.
1.2 Atomic Number
An atom is identified by its atomic number which indicates the number of
protons in the nucleus (or the number of electrons in the orbits). An oxygen
atom has eight protons and eight neutrons in the nucleus and eight orbital electrons,
therefore, its atomic weight is 16 and its atomic number 8.
The number of protons or electrons partial flow of electrons takes place
i.e., some of them can be detached from the atom and some cannot be detached
and hence the conduction is partial. Such substance are known as semi
conductors. Hence the properties of semi conductors are in between those of
conductors and insulators.
Valence Electrons
The electrons in the outermost incomplete orbit called the valence orbit or
the valence ring the called the valence electrons. The number of valence electrons
is always less than 8. If electrons are added to the outermost orbit (called valence
orbit) to bring the total to 8, the atom becomes stable. In the case of Helium,
Neon, Argon and Radon the outermost orbit is complete and hence these atoms
are stable and therefore inert.
It is the valence electrons that determine most of the properties of the
electrons and form bonds to hold the material together. The valence electrons
are comparatively loosely bound to the rest if atom and may be removed by
various means e.g. by applying electrical voltage to the material.
It is found that those substance whose atoms have their outermost orbits
incompletely and act as good conductors of electricity. i.e. they permit an easy
detachment of their outermost electrons and offer very little hindrance to their
flow through their atoms. Such substances are known as good conductors e.g.
copper, aluminium, silver etc.
In substances whose electrons are rigidly held to their atoms are termed as
bad conductor, or insulators. In their case, a very large force (i.e. potential
difference) is required to detach their electrons and even then the number of
electrons detached and set drifting is comparatively small. Examples of insulators
are wood, paper, cloth, rubber etc.
In other substances like germanium, selenium, uranium etc. if a potential
difference is applied across the ends of the material.
1.3 Inter Atomic Bonds
The bond between atoms make it possible to combine to form a solid.
Inter atomic bonds are of three main types:
i) Metallic Bond
ii) Covalent Bond
iii) Ionic Bond
The attractive forces in all the three types of bonds are due to the valence
electrons. The outermost orbit, which contains the valence electrons is
comparatively unstable. In can become stable either by acquiring more electrons
to bring the total upto 8 or by losing all its electrons to another atom. This is
how atomic bonds are formed.
i) Metallic Bond
The outermost orbit should have eight electrons in order to be stable.
Elements which have one, two or three valence electrons are very unstable.
Atoms of such elements give up their valence electrons to form an electron

could throughout the space occupied by the atoms. After giving up their valence
electrons, positive ions are left. The material is now held together by the
electrostatic force between the positive ions and electron cloud. This type of
bond is found in elements having small number of valence electrons which are
loosely held so that they can easily be released to join the common electron
cloud. Solids which are held together by this type of bond have properties like
ductility and good electrical conductivity e.g silver, copper, aluminium.
If a potential difference is applied across such a material the electrons are
easily attracted towards the positive terminal due to the following two reasons:
i) Electrons are far removed from the positive ions.
ii) Electrons are subjected to force or repulsion from other electrons.
The deficiency of the electrons thus created is made good by the inflow of
the electrons through the negative terminal. The metallic bond act between
identical atoms, as in pure metals or between chemically similar atoms, as in
alloys.
ii) Covalent Bond
A covalent bond results from sharing of pairs of valence electrons by two
or more atoms of the same element. The atoms of materials having 4 or more
than 4 electrons revolving in their outermost orbits must share electrons with the
neighbouring atoms as shown in fig 1.7. This is because an atoms must have at
least 8 electrons in the outermost orbit in order to the stable.
Fig. 1.1 Covalent bond of Germanium atoms

In Fig. 1.1 the covalent bonding for Germanium atoms is shown. In this
case the electrons revolve around the atoms in such a manner that each atom
has alternately 8 and zero electrons instead of 4, in its outermost orbit. Therefore,
each atom is charged alternately positive and negative. Due to unlike charge the
two atoms attract each other with an electrostatic force. The atoms of such
materials behave as if they had full outer orbits. In this way each electron is
locked in its place. This gives greater strength to such material and also provides
very low electrical conductivity because no electrons are available for movement.
The electrons are so tightly bound in their orbits that a large amount of
energy is required to remove them from covalent bonding. Such materials are,
therefore, insulators in varying degrees. In an ideal insulator, all valence electrons
are occupied in bond formation and none are available for conduction.
Certain materials normally behave a insulators but allow for more valence
electrons to be made available by thermal energy. These elements are known a
semi conductors and have 4 valence electrons. Such elements include carbon,
silicon, germanium etc. They are insulators at zero degree kelvin (-2730 C) but
develop significant conductivity at room temperature.
Semi-conductors produced by thermal energy alone are called Intrinsic
semiconductors. The conductivity of such elements is small due to relatively
few free electrons at room temperature, but it increases exponentially with
temperature.
The conductivity of semiconductor materials is considerably changed by
adding impurities to them. If, for example, a few Antimony atoms having 3
valence electrons are introduced into the structure of a semiconductor material
like Germanium which has 4 valence electrons, there will be a local excess of
electron in each covalent bond between Germanium and Antimony. One extra
electron, not needed for bonding, is provided by each atom of Antimony. The
extra electrons are free for movement and are, therefore, available for conduction.
Conduction resulting from addition of impurities to semiconductors are called
Extrinsic semiconductors.
iii) Ionic Bond
In Ionic bond atoms of different elements (unlike covalent bonds which
exist between atoms of the same element) transfer electrons from one to the
other so the both have stable outermost orbits. At the same time both become
ions, one positively and other negatively charged. The electrostatic forces
between the two gives rise to the bond.
For example, ionic bond exist between sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl). In this
case the sodium atom gives up its one valence electron and chlorine atom takes
up this electron to complete its outer shell so that both become stable.
Material behave as conductors, semiconductors or insulators depending
on their internal structure. The order of the values of resistivity for these three
types of materials are
Conducting Material : 10-8 to 10-8 ohm.m.
Semiconducting Materials : 100 to 102 ohm.m.
Insulating Materials : 1012 to 1018 ohm.m.
1.4 Classification of Electrical Engineering Materials
Electrical Engineering Materials can be classified into the following three
categories:
i) Conductors
ii) Semi-conductors
iii) Insulators
Conductors
These are those materials which offer such a small resistance that they
allow the electric current to flow through them easily. All metals and their alloys
are good conductors of electricity. Carbon in solid form and powder form is
also a good conductor. Pure water does not conduct electricity, but acidic
water conducts electricity. When a charge is given to a conductor, it spreads all
over material.
Metals like silver, copper, aluminium, alloys like brass, bronze and carbon
are commonly used conducting materials. Silver is the best conductor of
electricity, then copper and at third place is aluminium.
Silver being costly is rarely used for conductors. Copper and aluminium
are used for making cables and wires. These days copper is being replaced by
aluminium because it is cheap and available in plenty.
Semi-conductors
They occupying intermediate position between conductors and insulators
e.g. Uranium, Germanium, Silicon, Thorium etc. These are commonly used for
electric devices. Semi-conductors are used in different fields of electrical
engineering e.g. telecommunication and radio communication, electronics and
power engineering. They also render their services as amplifiers, rectifiers, diodes,
transistors etc.
Insulators
Those materials which offer such a high resistance that they do not allow
current to pass through them. Their resistance is usually in M If a charge is
given to a point on an insulator, it does nor spread over its body.
A few example of insulating materials are rubber, cotton, silk, paper, mica,
glass, porcelain, P.V.C., insulating varnish, mineral wax, synthetic wax, varnish,
cloth, wood, bakelite, asbestos, marble, insulating oil such as transformer oil,
air, nitrogen, freon et. But there is no such material in this universe which is a
perfect insulator.
The insulating materials may be of three types:
i) Solid e.g. mica, rubber, glass etc.
ii) Liquid e.g. insulating oil such as transformer oil.
iii) Gaseous e.g. air, nitrogen, freon etc.
Model Questions
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Define Atomic number.
2. Name the types of atomic bonds.
3. How electrical engineering materials are classified?
4. Wht is valence electrons?
Activity
• Collect samples of different electrical engineering materials available and
paste them in your notebook as a Project work.
UNIT 2
Conducting and
Semiconducting Materials
Learning Objectives
• To learn about conducting materials
• To know the applications of conducting materials
• To learn about semiconducting materials and applications
2.1 Concept of Conducting Materials
The knowledge of electrical engineering materials and their properties helps
to an electrical engineer to choose the correct material for a particular application.
The materials which are used to conduct electricity are known as conducting
materials. Gold, Silver, Copper, Aluminum etc., are some of the conducting
materials.
All the conducting materials have less than for valence electrons in the
outer most orbit
2.2 Factors Affecting Resistivity of Electrical Conductors
a. Temperature
The resistance of most of the conducting materials (mostly pure metals)
increases with the increase in temperature.
The change in resistance of a material per ohm per degree centigrade change
in temperature is called the temperature coefficient of resistance of that material
and is represented by the 
Rt = R0 (1+0 t)
b. Effect of temperature on the resistance of pure metals alloys and
insulators, electrolytes and carbon
a) Pure metals increase in resistance with rise in temperature and are said
to have positive temperature coefficients of resistance.
b) Most alloys increase very slightly in resistance with rise in temperature.
The resistance of alloys used in electrical work has a practically constant resistance
at all temperatures.
c) Carbon, Insulators and Eloectrolytes decrease in resistance with rise in
temperature. (An electrolyte is a solution which conducts electricity e.g. water
containing sulphuric acid).
The resistance of an insulator decreases considerably with rise of
temperature. i.e. it becomes very much worse as an insulator. Such materials
are said to possess negative temperature coefficients of resistance.
x2
3x
x
Resistance
Ro
0 1o 2o 3o 4o 5o
Temperature
Fig. 2.1 Resistance - Temperature graph
c. Alloying
Alloying is another factor which affects the resistivity of a material. By
adding some impurity to a metal its resistivity can be increased. Alloys have
higher resistivity than pure base metals. When a metal is alloyed it also acquires
higher mechanical strength which is needed for certain applications e.g. when
copper is alloyed with zinc (copper 60%, zinc 40%), it is called brass.
By alloying copper with zinc resistivity is increased about 4 times but tensile
strength is also much also than that of copper and, therefore, may be used for
making products like rods, shafts, heavy plates, pulg points, socket outlets,
knife switches etc. where high strength and hardness are required.
d. Comparison of Copper and Aluminium
Comparison of copper and aluminium as conductors
S.No. Copper Aluminium
1. It is costly It is cheap
2. 100 percent conductivity 75 percent conductivity
3. Good resistance to corrosion Good resistance to corrision
4. Heavier as compared to aluminium Lighter as compared to copper
5. Good ductility and malleability Good ductility and malleability.
6. Excellent soldering and welding Poor Solderability and weldability.
capacity.
7. Less suited for low temperature Well suited to cold climated
8. Very small cross-section can carry Cross section should be 50 percent
heavy current. more to carry the same current as
that of copper.
9. Because of softness and flexibility, Due to brittleness, cannot be
it can easily be twisted repeatedly. twisted.
10. The wind pressure and weight of The wind pressure and weight of
snow is less because of smaller snow is more because of higher
cross section. cross section.
11. The tensile strength and permissible The tensile strength and permissible
tension is more. tension is only 0.53 times that of
copper
e. Properties Applications and Advantages of ACSR

ACSR stands for Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced. ACSR conductor
is having a central core of galvanised steel wire surrounded by layers (s) of
aluminium wires as shown in fig. 2.2. The reinforcement is done to increase the
tensile strength of aluminium conductor. Steel wire is galvanised to prevent
rusting and electrolytic corrosion. The cross-section of two metals are in the
ratio of 1: 6 and 1:4 for high strength. ACSR has lower sag and longer span
than the copper conductor of same size. ACSR conductor has larger diameter
than any other conductor of same resistance which helps to reduce corona. For
all practical calculation purposes, it is assumed that the current is passing through
aluminium conductor only.
1 + 6 = 7 Strands
1 + 6 + 12 = Strands
Fig. 2.2 ACSR Conductor
f. Advantages of ACSR
1. High mechanical strength due to central steel wire.
2. Long spans are possible.
3. Reduces the number of poles and other equipment.
4. No skin effect.
5. Longer life is possible.
6. Cost is less.
2.3 Low Resistivity and High Resistivity Materials
The conducting materials are broadly classified into the following two categories.
- Low resistivity materials
e.g: Gold, Silver, Copper, aluminium etc.
- High resistivity materials
e.g: Brass, Bronze, Tungsten, Nickel, Nichrome, Manganin, Eureka etc.
Requirements of low resistivity materials are:
1. Temperature coefficient should be low.
2. Voltage drop should be low.
3. It must have high mechanical strength.

4. Power loss should be minimum.
5. It must have high ductility and malleability.
6. It should not have brittleness.
7. Contact resistance should be low.
8. Anti corrosive.
9. Solderability.
10. Specific resistance should be low.
Low resistivity materials are used for house wiring, transmission and
distribution of power and windings of generators, motors and transformers.
2.4 Properties and Applications of Copper and Aluminium
The choice of a conductor material depends on the following factors:
1. Resistivity of the materials.
2. Temperature coefficient of resistance.
3. Resistance against corrosion.
4. Oxidation characteristics.
5. Ease of soldering and welding.
6. Ductility.
7. Mechanical strength.
8. Flexibility and abundance.
9. Durability and low cost.
10. Resistance to chemicals and weather.
Copper
Properties
1. Pure copper is one of the best conductors of electricity and its
conductivity is highly sensitive to impurities.
2. It is reddish-brown in colour.
3. It is malleable and ductile.

4. It can be welded at red heat.
5. It is highly resistance to corrosion.
6. Melting point is 10840 C.
7. Specific gravityof copper is 8.9 at 200.
8. Electrical resistivity is 1.682 micro ohm cm.
9. Its tensile strength varies from 3 to 4.7 tonnes / cm2.
10. It forms important alloys like bronze and gun-metal.
11. It alloys with many metals.
12. Boiling point 25950 C.
13. Temperature coefficient of resistance 0.00427/0 C.
14. It is non-magnetic.
15. It has low contact resistance.
16. It oxidases above 1800.
Applications
Copper is used for Wires, cables, windings of generators and transformers.
overhead conductors, busbars.
2.5 High Resistive Materials
a) High Resistive Materials
The requirements of high resistive materials are:
1. Specific resistance should be high.
2. Brittleness should be minimum.
3. It must be ductile and malleable.
4. It’s melting temperature should be high.
5. Temperature coefficient of resistance should be low.
6. Able to dissipate more heat/ unit volume.
7. Should not easily oxidised on heating.
High resistivity materials are mostly alloys of different materials. They are
used for standard resistance, measuring instruments, rheostats and heating
elements etc.
b) Types of High Resistive Materials
The different types of high resistive materials are:
1. Manganin
2. Eureka
3. Platinum
4. Nichrome
5. Tungstan
6. Mercury
7. Carbon
8. Brass
c) Properties and Applications of High Resistive Materials
Contantan
This is an alloy of copper (60%) and nickel (40%). It is silver-like in
appearance.
1. Very stable alloy with very high working temperature.
2. Heat resisting properties are poor.
3. It does not rust or corrode due to air, heat and moisture.
4. Resistivity is 49 micro ohm cm.
5. Specific gravity is 1.9.
6. Melting point is 13000 C.
Applications
It is used to making different types of rheostats, resistance wires, resistance
boxes, arc lamps, motor starters, and supporting wires for electric filaments.
Nichrome
It is an alloy of nickel (75 to 78% ), chromium (20-30%), manganese
(1.5%) and iron (balance).
Properties
1. Its resistivity is high.
2. Temperature coefficient of resistance is low.
3. Withstands high temperature for a long time without melting oxidising.
4. It is silver-white in appearance and has good ductile, mechanical and
thermal properties.
Applications
In making electric iron, tubular heating elements, furnace and heating
elements.
Tungsten
Properties
1. Resistivity is about twice that of aluminium.
2. It is a hard metal.
3. It can be drawn into very thin wires.
4. High tensile strength.
5. Melting point 33000 C.
6. Working temperature is 2000 C.
7. It is an excellent magnetic material.
Applications
1. Is commonly used as filaments in incandescent lamps and in heater in
electron tubes.
2. Used as a constituent in magnetic and high-speed steels.
3. Copper tungsten is suitable for all immersed motor starters.
Properties of Eureka
It is an alloy of 60 to 65% of copper and 35 to 40% Nickel. Temperature
coefficient is nearly zero. Thermo e.m.f. is 39 micro V/0C with respect of copper
and therefore it is suitable for measuring temperature upto 7000C . Its working
temperature is about 5000C. Some of the properties of Contantan is given below:
a) It can be drawn into thin wires.
b) Its maximum permissible temperature is about 5000C
c) Its melting points is 13000C
d) Its specific gravity 8.9.
e) Its temperature coefficient of resistance is 0.00002 to 0.00005
f) It is rust proof and does not corrode in the presence of air or moisture.
It is used inmaking resistance elements for items like loading rheostat and
starters for electric motors, resistance boxes and thermocouples. It is also used
for resistance elements in field regulators used for regulating the generated voltage
of a generator.
2.6 Semiconductors
A semiconductor is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator. A
semiconductor is solid crystaline material whose electrical conductivity is
intermediate between that of a conductor and an insulator. Typical semiconductor
materials are Germanium and Silicon and each has four valence electrons i.e.
four electrons in their outermost orbit.
2.7 Atomic Structure of Silicon and Germanium
The electrical properties of semiconductors materials are between those of
insulators and conductors.
Fig. 2.3 Atomic structure for silicon and Germanium

A semi conductors has four electrons in the valence ring while the best
insulator has eight electrons in the valence ring and the best conductor has only
one electron in its valence ring.The atomic structure of silicon and germanium,
the two most widely used semiconductor materials is shown in fig.2.3(a) and
Fig.2.3(b). Each one of them has got four electrons in its outermost orbit which
are very important from the electrical and chemical point of view.
2.8 Applications of Semiconducting Materials
Semiconductors are used in the following devices:
1. Rectifiers.
2. Transistors.
3. Temperature sensitive resistors or Thermisters.
4. Varistors.
5. Strain gauges.
6. Hall effect generators.
7. Photoconductive cells.
8. Photovoltaic cells.
Use of Semiconductors in Measuring Instruments
The following measuring instruments use the semiconducting materials.
1. Flux meter.
2. Galvanometer.
3. Modulator.
4. D.C. meter.
5. A.C. power meter
6. Magnetometer.
7. Hall effect multipliers.
8. Measurement of torque in electric motors.
9. Compass.
10. Multiplier as computer elements.
Model Questions
1. How does temperature effect the resistivity of an alloy?
2. State the advantages of ACSR.
3. Give the applications of Copper and Aluminium.
4. What is semiconductors.
5. What are the applications of semiconducting material.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. List the requirement of low resistivity material.
2. List the requirement of high resistivity material.
3. State the properties of copper.
4. State the properties of Aluminium.
5. Compare copper and aluminium is six aspects.
Activities
1. Collect different conductors of various sizes as project work and note
its applications.
2. Collect varieties of semiconductors as project work and note the
applications
UNIT 3
Magnetic Materials
Learning Objectives
• To learn the importance of magnetic material and applications.
• To know the characteristics of magnetic materials.
3.0 Introduction
Material which provide a path to the magnetic flux are known as magnetic
materials.
Magnetic materials are those materials which can be magnetised and which
are attracted to a magnet. When magnetised, such materials create a magnetic
field around them. Iron, cobalt and nickel are highly magnetic materials.
Many alloys like cobalt steel, cadmium steel etc. have useful magnetic
properties. The number of magnetic materials found in nature are very few.
Magnetic materials play an important role in the field of electrical engineering.
They are used for making magnetic circuits in electromagnets, machines, relays,
transformers and many instruments. They are also used for making permanent
magnets in the instruments. Magnetic flux is useful for the transformation of
energy in a transformer and in electrical rotating machines.
3.1 Classification of Magnetic Materials

Magnetic materials are broadly classified into two categories namely:
- Strongly magnetised materials
i. Ferromagnetic materials
- Slightly magnetised materials
i. Diamagnetic materials
ii. Para magnetic materials
Ferromagnetic Materials
The relative permeability of these materials are much higher than unity and
varies with the magnetic field strength.
e.g. iron, cobalt, nickel and their alloys.
Paramagnetic Materials
The relative permeability of these materials is slightly greater than unity
though low compared to the ferromagnetic material and does not depend on the
magnetic field strength. Paramagnetic materials can be slightly magnetised.
e.g. oxygen, cobalt, nitrogen oxides, salts of iron, nickel and or rare earths,
alkali metals, aluminium and platinum.
Diamagnetic Materials
The relative permeability of iron is less than unity and its value does not
depend upon the external field strength.
Both para and diamagnetic materials find limited applications in industry
because of their low permeability.
e.g. hydrogen, inert gases, most of organic compounds, rock salt and such
metals as copper, zinc, silver, gold, mercury and also bismuth, gallium and
antimony.
3.2 Permeability - Susceptibility
The property of a substance due to which it allows more magnetic lines of
force to pass through is called permeabiltiy.
The ratio of flux density ‘B’ in a medium to the magnetising force ‘H’ is
called the permeability of the medium (or B H).
i.e. permeability = flux density / field strength

m = B/H
or B = H
Where  = 0r
Therefore B = 0r H
Where 0 = absolute permeability of the space or vacuum
or air.
= 4x 10-7 H/m.
r = relative permeability of the medium flux
density in the medium.
= flux density in vacuum or free space.
= 1 for free space or vacum or air.
Susceptibility
It is the ratio of intesity of magnetisation(I) produced in a material to the
magnetising force(H) produced in it and is denoted by letter K.
I
K= -------- Henry/meter
H
Curie Point
The temperature at which the ferromagnetic materials looses their magnetic
property is known as curie point. This temperature is a characteristic of magnetic
materials and differs from material to material. At its curie point, iron ceases to
be ferromagnetic and becomes paramagnetic. Beyond the curie point, the domain
structure tends to disrupt; domains lose their alignment and become arranged in
a random fashion. Hence the material looses its ferromagnetic property. Curie
temperature of some of the magnetic materials are given below:
Silicon iron - 6900 C
Super silicon - 7000 C
Super alloy - 4000 C etc
Magnetostriction
Ferromagnetic mono crystal when placed in a magnetic field (or mangnetised)
are liable to shrink or expand. There is a small extension with corresponding

reduction of cross-section of the crystals, when subjected to rapidly alternating
magnetic fields, there is a rapid and continuous extension and contraction of the
materials. This is called magnetostriction this is the major cause of hum in
transformers and fluorescent lamp chokes.
3.3 Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials
1. Soft Magnetic Materials
The commonest soft magnetic materials are wrought iron, silicon steel, nickel-
iron alloys and soft ferrites. They have the following properties:
1. High permeability and low coercive force.
2. Mangnetised demagnetised easily.
3. Low residual magnetism.
4. Small area of hysteresis loop
5. High resistivity
Applications
They are used for the construction of core plates of transformers,
electromagnetic electric machines, reactors etc.
2. Hard Magnetic Materials
The hard magnetic materials are carbon steel, tungsten steel, cobalt steel,
alnico, hard ferrites. They have the following properties:
1. Gradually rising magnetisation curve.
2. Large hysteresis loop area and large energy losses.
3. High value of B-H product.
4. High retentivity.
5. High coercivity
6. Low permeability
7. High magnetising force is required to attain magnetic saturation.
8. Have rectangular hysteresis loop.
9. Strong magnetic reluctance.
Applications
Hard magnetic materials are used for making permanent magnets.
3.4 Soft Magnetic Materials with Properties and Uses
Pure Iron
It is ferrous material with very low carbon content.
(i) It has low resistivity and hence gives rise to large eddy currents when
operated at high flux densities in alternating magnetic fields.
(ii) It has high permeability.
(iii)Its magnetic properties can be improved by reducing traces of carbon,
oxygen and hydrogen to the minimum.
(iv) It has low hysteresis loss.
(v) It is not suitable for alternating currents.
(vi) It is quite cheap and suitable for commercial purposes.
(vii) To reduce eddy currents it is rolled into sheets but its permeability
decreases.
(viii) Its application is limited only to use in weak magnetic fields.
Silicon Steel
When silicon is alloyed with steel, it is called silicon steel. Silicon content in
electrical steel varies from 0.2% to 6%. Silicon steel materials have narrow
hysteresis loops which keep the hysteresis loss low and heat produced is also
less. Silicon content in steel also increases electrical resistance by which eddy
current loss is reduced. The armature cores of D.C. generators, transformer
cores, poles of motors and dynamos are made of thin silicon sheet steel laminations
of thickness 0.3 to 0.5 mm. (depending upon the frequency of A.C supply) and
insulated from each other by varnish. Silicon content in steel improves its magnetic
properties, imparts hardness and raises its elastic limit. It is suitable in dynamos
and cores of transformers.
Alnico
(i) It contains 18% nickel, 10% aluminium, 5% copper, 15% cobalt and
remaining iron.
(ii) It is costlier than Alni.
(iii)It is known as one of the best magnetic materials.

(iv) Coercivity = 105 AT/m.
(v) Saturation flux density = 1.22 Wb/m2.
(vi) Its magnetic properties are even better than Alni.
(vii) It is very hard and brittle.
(viii) It cannot be machined and is finished by grinding after casting to shape.
(ix) The permanent magnets formed from this alloys are smaller in size and
lighter in weight as compared to those made from cobalt or tungsten steel.
(x) It is available in many grades, each possessing varying properties.
(xi) It has more rectangular hysteresis loop and a high value of remanence.
(xii) It is suitable for sensitive measuring instruments and is a good substitute
for Alni.
Cobalt Steel
It contains 34% cobalt, 5% chromium, 3.5 to 6% tungsten and the rest
iron. It is adequately hard and strong and an efficient magnetic material. Its
saturation flux density is 2.4 Wb/m2 104 AT/m. It is expensive due to the presence
of cobalt. It can be forged and machined after annealing and is used in motors,
fans and heavy-duty instruments.
Hard ferrites with properties and use
Hard magnetic ferrites like BaO-6Fe2O2 are used for the manufacture of
light weight permanent magnets due to their low specific weight. Chrome steel is
less magnetic and requires more magnetising force to lift the same weight.
3.5 B-H Curve and Hysteresis Loop
The relation between the magnetic flux density (B) and field strength (H) is
referred to as B-H curve or magnetisation curve.
Consider an unmagnetised bar of iron PQ and magnetise it by placing it
with in the field of a solenoid as shown in Fig 3.1 (a). The field strength
(H=NI/l) can be increased from zero upto a certain maximum value and the
corresponding values of flux density (B=0rH) be noted. If we plot the relation
between B and H, a curve like oabc is obtained as shown in fig. 3.1 (b).
Fig. 3.1 B-H. Curve

The B-H curve can be divided into four regions and can be explained in
terms of the magnetic domains in the ferromagnetic materials.
Initial Portion (0-a)
During the region oa, the magnetic field strength H is too weak to cause
any appreciable alignment of domains. Consequently the increase in flux density
B is small.
Middle portion (a-b)
For further increase in value of H, more and more domains get aligned.
Thus B increases almost linearly with H.
Top portion (b-c)
During the region bc fewer and fewer domains remain available to be aligned.
Therefore the increase in flux density is small.
Beyond Top portion (Beyond C)
Beyond the point C (or knee of the curve) no more domains are available
for alignment and the material is said to be saturated in this region.
B-H curves for some varieties of iron rare shown in fig 3.2(b).
Model Questions
1. How magnetic materials are classified?
2. Define permeability.
3. What is curic point?
4. What is Magnetostriction?

1. Explain properties and applications of soft magnetic materials.
2. Explain the properties and applications of hard magnetic materials.
3. Explain the properties of pure iron.
4. Explain the properties of Silicon steel.
5. Explain the properties of Alnico.
Activities
1. Collect door bell, Refrigerator, relay etc and observe the
magnetic effects
UNIT 4
4 UNIT
Insulating Materials
Learning Objectives
• To understand the importance of Insulating materials as solids, liquids
and gases
• To learn the properties, classification and applications
4.0 Introduction
Insulating materials are those which offer very high resistance to the flow of
electric current. They require extremely high voltage of the order of kilo or
mega volt to send a few milli-ampere of current in them.
Classification of the available elements into insulators or conductors can be
explained by their atomic structure. Ideal instlators are those substances into
which static electric field penetrates uniformly.
Insulators when used primarily for storage of electrostatic energy, as in
capacitors, are known as dielectrics, but when used to prevent leakage of current
toany undesired conducting medium, they are known as insulators. The insulators
provide mechanical strength as well as insulation to the conductors.
Some important electrical properties of insulators are
i) Resistivity ii) Dielectric constant and iii) Breakdown voltage, the voltage
above which the material ceases to act as insulator, typical examples of solid,
liquid and gaseous insulators are
Solid: 1. Sulphur
2. Polysterene
3. Rubber
4. Porcelain
Liquid: 1. Petroleum oils
2. Halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons
3. Silicon oils
Gaseous: 1. Air
2. Sulphur-hexa-fluoride (SF-6)
3. Carbon dioxide(Co2)
Gases at high pressure behave as excellent instulators with higher breadown
voltages than most solid or liquid insulators.
Under the influence of ordinary voltage, the insulation has extremely high
value of resistance to current flow. When the voltage exceeds a certain value,
the rearrangement of atomic structure results in a sudden decrease of resistance
of the material as to allow high current flow in local regions.
Such a change is permanent in a solid insulator and is called “Puncture”. In
other words, the insulation property is absent after the change. Whereas in liquid
and gaseous insulators , through breakdown may occur at very high potential.
The original condition of insulating property is restored when once the offending
voltage is brought to normal value.
4.1 Properties of Insulating Material
Before selecting an insulating material, it is quite essential to know the various
electrical, mechanical, thermal and chemical properties of insulating materials
and their effects on insulation.
Electrical Properties
Insulation Resistance
It is the property of an insulating material by virtue of which the material
resist the flow of electric current. It should be as high as possible. It is two
types namely:
1. Volume resistance and

2. Surface resistance
Volume Resistance
It is the resistance offered to the current which flows through unit cube of a
material. It is measured in ohm cm or ohm m.
Surface Resistance
It is the resistance offered to the current flow over the surface of the insulating
material. Surface resistivity is numerically equal to the resistance of a unit square
over the surface of the insulating material.
4.2 Factors Affecting the Insulation Resistance
i) Temperature: Insulation resistance decreases with the rise of
temperature and is very much affected by temperature variations.
ii) Moisture: Surface resistance of the insulation decreases if exposed to
moisture.
iii) Voltage: The value of insulation resistance is also affected by the voltage
applied and to a small extent by the direction in which the voltage is applied.
Insulation resistance decreases with the increase in applied voltage.
iv) Age: Insulation resistance decreases with age.
Dielectric Strength
In the field of electrical engineering, every electrical apparatus is designed
so as to work within a definite range of voltage. If the operating voltages is
increased gradually, then at some value of voltage a breakdown will occur spoiling
the insulation permanently. The dielectric strength or electric stregth or break-
down voltage, is therefore, the minimum voltage which when applied to an
insulating material will result in the destruction of its insulating properties.
Dielectric strength is expressed in volts or kilo-volts per unit thickness of
the insulating material. Breakdown potential is that value of voltage which when
applied acorss one cm or one mm thickness of dielectric medium or insulating
medium will breakdown potential of air is 30 kV/cm which means that the
maximum potential difference with 1 cm thickness of air can with stand is 30 kV.
If the voltage increases this value then air insulation will breakdown.
Factors Affecting Dielectric Strength

Temperature
In case of air dielectric, the dielectric strength decreases with the rise of
temperature. In case of liquid dielectric, the effect varies with the type of oil and
its viscosity.
Factors Affecting Dielectric Loss
i) Temperature rise increases the dielectric loss.
ii) Moisture increases the dielectric loss.
iii) Voltage increases causes increased dielectric loss.
iv) The loss increases in direct proportion with the frequency of applied
voltage.
Dielectric loss plays an important role in high voltage applications. Dielectric
loss involves heat generation and heat dissipation. Every application of insulation
requires proper understanding of the balance between the heat generation and
heat dissipation. The rate of heat dissipation should be nearly equal to the rate
of heat generation.
4.3 Classification of Insulating Materials
Insulating materials are classified into three categories:
a) Solid insulating materials: e.g . mica, micanite, porcelain, asbestos,
slate, marble, backlite, rubber, PVC polythene, glass, cotton, silk, wood,
vulcanised fibre, ceramics.
b) Liquid insulating materials: e.g. varnish, transformer oil, cable oil,
viscous vaseline, synthetic liquids, silcon fluids, fluoro-organic fluids.
c) Gaseous insulating materials: e.g. air, hydrogen, nitrogen, halogens,
sulphur hexa flouride.
A classification of insulating materials used in electrical engineering
applications as is follows:
a) Gaseous insulating materials.
b) Liquid insulating materials.
c) Fibrous insulating materials.
d) Impregnated fibrous insulating materials.
e) Plastic insulating materials.

f) Rubber insulating materials.
g) Mineral insulating materials i.e. mica, micanites, marble, slates.
h) Ceramic insulating materials.
i) Glass insulating materials.
j) Non-resinous insulating materials.
k) Laminates and adhesives; Enamels and varnishes.
4.4 Fibrous Insulating Materials

Fibrous insulating materials are either derived from animal origin or from
cellulose which is the major solid constituent of vegetable plants. Most of the
fibrous insulating materials are from cellulose. They consist of elongated particles
called fibres in their structure. In certain materials the cellulose fibres are clearly
visible as in cloth, tape yarn, thread etc. Fibrous insulating materials are
machanicallly very stron and cheap. Following are the different fibrous materials.
i) Wood
It is frequently used for low voltage installations. It is light in weight having
density 0.5 to 1.0 gm/cm3. Depending on the type of wood, its tensile strength
varies from 700 to 1300 kgm/cm3 along the grain. However, a cross the grain
the tensile strength is low. Temperature is obviously a limitation. Wood is very
hygroscopic and after absorbing mositure tends to lose markedly its mechanical
properties. Because of the above limitations wood in rarely used as such.
Whenever it has to be used as an insulating material it is impregnated in oil.
Because the wood is cheap, easily available and easily fabricated, it is used as
structural material for transmission and distribution poles. It is also used for
switch boards, round blocks, casing and capping and handles of tools.
ii) Paper and card-board
The paper is manufactured from coniferous wood. The organic
contamination like lignin and pantosans must be properly removed. Some
reagents are added in the crushed wood which is then boiled. The material is
then formed into papers. The process is called sulphate process. The specified
composition of typical paper used in capacitors.
The use of unimpregnated paper is very limited because of certain major

limitations which are
i) Hydroscopicity.
ii) Thermal instability.
iii) Reaction with oxygen.
Unimpregnated paper is used in telephone cables and capacitors.
Cardboards are sheets of short fibres. They are either resilient or still.
They are used for slot liners in electrical machines, coil frames and as insulation
in oil immersed transformers.
iii) Insulating textiles

Textiles are woven from fibred material like cotton, jute and hemp.
Sometimes silk from animal origin is also used for special purposes. This class
of material is mechanically strong in tensile and tear strength. These strengths
do not get affected markedly even after getting wet and hence these materials
are used for insulation purposes. Cloth materials are impregnated with oils or
varnishes.
Jute is similar to cotton cloth but cheaper. Silk material is extra of improved
properties such as high mechanical strength, heat resistance. low hydroscopicity,
stability in the presence of chemical agents etc.
4.5 Asphalts and Bitumens
Asphalt is black or brown in colour. It is obtained under ground near oil
fields. When mined it is found to contain mineral impurities. It is hydro-carbon
in composition. It is insoluble in water and chemically inert. Its softening
temperature is about 600 . Its melting points is about 1000 C. In its natural form
it is a hard substance.
Bitumens are solid or semi solid materials obtained by refining crude
petroleum. Pitch, asphalt, naphtha, tars etc. all are known as bitumens. They all
are hydro-carbons in composition. They possess good insulating materials and
are resistant to moisture. They are inflammable materials and readily catch fire.
Note
The two terms asphalt and bitmen are used synonymously. The former is natural
product and the later is the refined product. These ae also sometimes called as
sealing compounds.
Uses
i) Bitmens are used to in under ground cables for protection of lead and
steel armour against corrosion.
ii) Bitmens compounded paper, hessain and cotton tapes are widely used
in the manufacture of underground cables to provide bedding and serving for
steel armour.
iii) Bitmen compound is used in cable joint boxes.
4.6 Ceramics
Ceramics are clay products which are sintered and fused at high temperature
of about 15000 C. They are widely in their chemical compotition. Their main
characteristics are resistance to heat, low water absorption, low thermal expansion
and good electrical properties. As they cannot be machined, they are to be
moulded.
Ceramics used in electrical engineering are broadly classified as:
1. Porcelain
2. Steatite
3. Alumina
4. Titanite
Mica
Mica is an, inorganic mineral material having natural cleavage and electrical
splits. It has excellent insulation properties. It releases water when heated.
80% of the total world requirement of mica if found in India in parts of Nellore
district of AP and Bihar. There are two important varieties of electrical mica,
namely.
1. Muscovite (KH2 Al3) (SiO4)3
2. Phlogopite mica KH (MgF)3 Mg Al (SiO4)3
4.7 Glass
It is termoplastic inorganic material obtained by fusion of different oxides
and cooling in such a way that it does not crystallize but remains in amorphous
state. The different raw materials used are sand (SiO3). boric acid (H2BO3),
soda (Na2CO3), potash (K2CO3), chalk (CaCO3), magnesite (MgCO3),
dolomite (CaCO3 MgCO3), red lead (Pb3O4), kaoline and feldspar.
Glasses are normally transparent, brittle and hard. They are resistant to
most of the chemicals. They are fragile and heavy. They have low dielectric
loss, high dielectric sterngth (25kV/mn to 50kV/mn). Their resistivity is 106 to
1015 ohm m and relative permittivity is 3.8.
In electrical engineering, glass is widely used as moulded insulating devices
such as bushings, line insulators, fuse bodies, etc. It is also used as dielectric in
capacitors. It is used in vacuum tubes, lamps.
Differnet types of glasses are:
1. Quartz or silica glass
2. Borosilicate glass or firex
3. Fibre glass.
Polyvinyl Chloride(PVC)
It is obtained by combination of acetylene and hydrogen chloride in the
presence of a catalyst at a temperature of 500 C. It can also be produced by
polymerization of ethylene dichloride and sodium hydroxide in the presence of
a catalyst. The properties can be improved by adding the following materials.
The characteristics of PVC are:
i) Immunity to corrosion, abrasion and moisture.
ii) Less weight and reduced size.
iii) More flexible.
iv) Low joining cost.
v) Fire retarding.
vi) High resistance to chemical action.
vii)Resistance to ultraviolet rays and ozone.
Due to its good electrical and mechnical properties, PVC is widely used
for cable insulation, PVC film tapes, sheets conduit pipes, insulation for dry
batteries etc.
Natural and Synthetic Rubbers
This is a natural material which is soft and platic and is obtained from latex
of some trees. It is one of the best insulation known and used. It is quite flexible
but its insulation resistance fails rapidly with increase in temperature. Its mechanical
properties also deteriorate with temperature and due to thermal fatigue it develops
cracks or become brittle loosing its insulation properties permanently. To increase
its resistance to heat sulphur is added and the rubber thus obtained is called
Vulcanised rubber. Sulphur addition make the product hard. If sulphur is added
to an extent of 30% Vulcanite or ebonite is obtained which is a hard material
with excellent properties. The operating temperature is about 500C. It perishes
under the action of air and oil. Pure rubber is hygroscopic in nature and melts at
about 2500C. It gets softened, if heated beyond 1600C.
4.8 Thermosetting Resins
Thermosetting materias undergo a chemical change when moulded. They
cannot be softened by heating to re-shape them. The moulding temperature for
these materials are higher than for thermoplastic materials.
The various types of thermosetting resins are:
1. Bakelite (Phenol Formaldehyde)
2. Silicon resin
3. Epoxy resin.
4.9 Insulating Gases
Most of the gases used are insulators and are also coolants like liquids.
The common insulating gases available are Air, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Sulphur
hexaflouride. They are available freely in abundance. They are useful for most
of the rotary machinery because they are ideal and easy to handle. Any dry and
un-ionised gas is a very good insulator. It can be used without any difficulty
upto its dielectric strength. Gases in the presence of strong ray like X-rays and
ultraviolet rays, strong fields and high voltages become ionised. Ionised gases
are conductors and hence current leaks throgh them. Gases do not change
properties due to variations in frequency, temperature and pressure. Breakdown
occurs in various form like corona, arc etc.
Insulating gases are:
1. Air
2. Nitrogen
3. Hydrogen
4. Sulphur hexafluoride
Model Questions
1. What are the electrical properties of insulating materials?
2. How are the insulating materials classified?
3. What factors effect the insulation resistance?
4. What is dielectric strength.
5. Stater the properties of ceramics.
1. What are the factors effect the dielectric loss of a material?
2. State the properties of paper.
3. State the properties of wood.
4. List the properties and applications of PVC.
Activities
1. Collect different insulating materials as project work and note down the
applications.
2. Visit substation and learn the applications of liquid and gases insulation.
UNIT 5
Dielectric Materials and
Special Purpose Materials
Learning Objectives
To know about dielectric materials, bimetals and its uses
To learn about Fuse and Fuse materials
5.0 Understand the Dielectric Materials
Basically a dielectric materials is an insulator. The distinction lies in its
application. A dielectric material is used to store electrical energy whereas an
insulating material should resist the flow of electric current. Dielectric materials
is defined as a “Material which is an insulator and in which and electric field can
be sustained with a minimum dissipation or power”.
5.1 Dielectric Strength
The maximum voltage that the dielectric can withstand without rupture is
called dielectric strength. It is not affected by the area of a homogeneous insulating
materials, but does increase with increased thickness. It usually measured in kV
per mm or kV per cm.
Break Down Voltage
The voltage required to puncture a dielectric or insulating material is known
as Break down voltage.
Potential gradient
The potential gradient (g) at any point in an electric field is defined as the
rate of change of potential with distance measured in the direction of the electric
force at that point.
g = dv/dx V/m
or
The electric intensity at a point is equal to the (negative) potential gradient
at that point.
E = g = dv/dx V/m.
Dielectric Constant
Materials which have no free electrons cannot conduct electricity through
it, such materials are known as insulating materials or di-electric materials. They
perform two major functions. The first is to constrain the flow of electric current
in a desired path i.e. to provide insulation. The second is to provide a medium
for the storage of electric energy particularly in electrical systems having significant
capacitances.
Capacitors with mica or paper as the dielectric can store larger amounts of
energy than the capacitors with air as the dielectric.
Thus the dielectric constant may defined as the ratio of capacitance of a
capacitor with dielectric as medium of the capacitance of the same capacitor
with air as dielectric.
Permittivity ( =0r)
It is property of the medium and it palys an important role in electrostatic
phenomenon. Every medium supposed to possess two permittivities.
- Absolute permittivity of free space or vacuum (or air).
0 (<1) and
- relative permittivity or dielectric strength or spacific inductive capacity
or capacitivity of the medium, r.
The permittivity or absolute permittivity of the medium
=0r farad/metre
0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
r = 1 for free space or vacuum or air (dimensinless)

OR
The ratio of the electric flux density or displacement, D to field intensity, E
at any point is called as the permittivity or absolute permittivity,
 = D/E columb/m2/volt /m
or =0r
Polarisation
When two conducting plates of a capacitor are placed face to face and
charged, definite potential will develop between the two capacitor plates.
+ + + +
+ + + +
Fig. 5.1
(a) Non Polar Molecule (b) Electronic Polarization - Electric Dipolie
Electric field is thus formed between the two charged capacitor plated as
shown in fig. If now a dielectric is introduced between the two plates, it will be
noticed that the intensity of the electric field, is developed and potential difference
between the two plates gets reduced. This effect is called plarisation.
Die-Electric Loss
The dielectric material separating the two electrodes or conductors is stressed
when subjected to a potential. When the potential is reversed, the stress is also
reversed. This chage of stress involves molecular rearrangement within the
dielectric. This involves energy loss with each reversal. This is because the
molecules have to overcome a certain amount of internal friction in the process
of alignment. The energy expended in the process is released as heat in the
dielectric.
“The loss appearing in the form of heat due to reversal of electric stresses
compelling molecular rearrangement is known as dielectric loss.
The dielectric loss is not appreciable at ordinary frequency of 50 Hz, but in
communication systems where frequencies of mega hertz are used, the heat
released will be very high and can be observed by the increase in temperature of
the dielectric material. Special plastics, ceramics, and glass exhibiting very low
heat at high frequency have been developed for communication industry.
Dielectric Constant of Some Dielectric Materials
S.No. Material r
1. Vacuum 1
2. Air 1.006
3. Bakelite 4.5-10
4. Glass 4-6
5. Cermaic (low loss) 6-20
6. Ceramic (high r) >1000
7. Fibre 2-5
8. Mica 4-7.5
9. Paper 1.8 - 2.8
10 Paraffin 1.7 - 2.5
11. Quartz 4.2 - 4.7
12. Porcelain 5 - 6.7
13. Rubber 2-3
14. Mineral Oil 2.2
15. Transformer Oil 4
16. Teflon 2-2.2
Factors affecting dielectric loss

It is clear that the dielectric loss is
1. Directly proportional to the frequency of supply voltage (f).
2. Directly proportional to the square of the supply voltage (V).
In addition, it has been observed that the dielectric loss increases
3. With the presence of humidity.
4. With temperature rise.
Applications of Die-electrics
The most common application of dielectric is as a capacitor to store energy.
Capacitors are classified according to the dielectric used in their manufacture.
They can be broadly classified under the following categories:
1. Capacitors using vacuum, air or gases as dielectrics.
2. Capacitors using mineral oil as dielectric.
3. Capacitors using a combination solid-liquid dielectric.
4. Capacitors with only solid dielectric like galss, mica etc.
5.2 Protective Materials
Lead, paints, steel tapes, varnishes bitumens etc are used to protect the
structural materials atmospheric effects like corrosion etc.
Lead
It is a soft material with bluish grey in colour. It is heavy ( specific gravity
11.4 g/cc) malleable and ductile. It’s melting pooint is 3270 C and boiling point
is 15600 C. It alloys with many other meatls which are useful alloys. It is corrosion
resistant to many chemical actions but corrodes with acetic acid and nitric acid.
The addition of arsenic or antimony improves hardness of lead. It is used as
sheathing in cables, battery plates, fuse link wire. It is also used for cable jointing
etc. Various alloys of lead are used for making bearing alloys, solders and
fusible alloys.
Paints
Paints, varnishes, lubricants enamels etc are used to protect the structural
materials (like steel, wood) from atmospheric effects i.e., corrosion. In addition
to protection they provide good apperance to the structures. Red oxide is used
as a primer coating for steel structures and over that aluminimum paint is used as
protective material. By using the primer the life of the structure material increases
because it holds the paint intact with structure. Varnish, enamel. paints are used
as protective coatings for wood. Bitumen also used as prtective coating for
steel and wood when buried in the ground.
Steel Tapes
Minig cables, underground cable are commonly protected by steel tapes
or strips.
5.3 Thermocouple Material

When two wires of different metals are joined at their ends, and the junction
ends the maintained at different temperatures, then an emf exists across the
junction. This emf causes a current to flow from hot junction to cold junction up
to a certain maximum temperature. If the temperature of hot junction is increased
beyond the maximum value, then the current decreases and becomes zero at a
particular temperature. If the temperature of the hot junction is still increased,
then the current reverses and increases.
Current produced in this way by heating junctions to different metals are
known as termo-electric current. The emfs are called thermo emfs.
Thermo emf depends upon the type of metals or alloys and on the different
of temperature between the junctions. The emf produced by a thermocouple is
very small and is measured by a sensitive moving coil millivoltmeter.
Bimetals
A bimetal is made of two metallic strips of unlike metals or alloys with
different coefficients of thermal expansion. At a certain temperature, the strip
will bend and operate a switch or a lever of a switch. The bimetal can be heated
directly or indirectly. When heated, the element bends so that the metal with
the greater coefficient of expansion is on the inside. When cooled, the element
bends in the other direction. Alloys of iron and nickel with low coefficients of
thermal expansion are used as one element of the bimetallic strip. The other
element consists of materials having high value of coefficient of thermal expansion,
e.g., iron, nickel, constantan, brass, etc.
Bimetallic strips are used in electrical apparatus and devices as relays and
regulators. The bimetal element cuts off or regualtes the supply voltage at the
pre-determined value of the current or temperature. The common use of bimetal
element is the protection of the electric motor or the electric circuit against
overloading. In ordr to maintain a constant temperature in a heater, a bimetallic
regulator may be used. Many bimetal deveces are adjustable for a particular
current. If the current rises above its setting value, the strip will be heated enough
to bend and break the circuit either directly or through an intermediate relay.
Soldering Materials
Solder is the name given to several different alloys used for making joints
between pieces of metal. The composition of solder used for different metals
varies depending on the circumstances. It should be more fusible than the metals
to joined together. In hardness and malleability, it should be like the metals.
There are two types of solders; hard solders and soft solders.
5.4 Fuse and Fuse Materials
A fuse is protective device which consists of a thin wire or strip which melts
when a predetermined value of current flowing through it is exceeded. These
are placed in semi-enclosed porcelain holders or totally enclosed cartidges.
Ratings of fuses depend upon the type of load and full-load current. Selection
of fuse is done depending on i) breaking capacity, ii) current rating, iii) minimum
fusing current, and iv) time.
Galvanizing and Impregnation
1. Galvanizing and its Application
The process of coating iron or steel with zinc to protect it from corrosion is
known as galvanizing. In the process, steel or iron is immersed ina bath of zinc
covered with flux, at a temperature of about 5000 C. Zinc can be deposited
directly by electrochemical methods. The part to be galvanized must be clean.
The fluz contains a solution of zinc dhloride and hydrochloric acid. This method
of galvanizing is used for all types ot structural parts, transformer parts, telegraph
wires, transmission tower parts, switch gear equipments and panel boards, etc.
2. Impregnation
Most of the insulating materials are impregnated before they are applied to
the devices. Papers, fibrous material and mineral insulating materials are very
commonly impregnated. The synthetic materials are also impregnated in the
oils or varnishes. The impregnating materials ae called “solidifying insulating
materials”. Resins, bitumens, drying oils, varnishes and compounds are used
for impregnating the insulating materials.
Model Questions
1. What is a dielectric materials?
2. Explain dielectric strength.
3. What is polarisation?
4. Name different protective materials.

1. Explain dielectric loss.
2. What are the applications of dielectric.
3. Explain thermocouple material.
4. Explain Bi-metals and its uses.
5. What is soldering materials.
6. What is fuse and what material is uses for fuse?
Activity
1. Collect the electrolytic capacitor and observe its construction.
2. Collect OLP of mixer, thermostat of electric iron, Refrigerator and see
how it works
3. Collect a open type Fuse/Rewirable fuse and work with different fuse
wires and observe.
UNIT 6
Wiring Accessories
Learning Objectives
• To learn different accessories, used for domestic and commerical wirings.
• To learn about protective devices
6.1 Types of Wires
The following are the various types of wires/cables used in wiring system
and are classified are:
I. According to insulation:
(a) Vulcanised Indian Rubber (VIR) Cables/Wires.
(b) Cab Tyre Sheathed (CTS)/Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS) Cables/Wires.
(c) Poly-Vinyl Chloride (PVC) Cables/Wires.
(d) Lead sheathed cables
(e) Weather proof cables
(f) Flexible cables
II. According to number of cores:
(a) Single core cable (SCC)
(b) Double core or twin core cable (DCC).
(c) Three core cable

(d) Four core cable etc.
III. According to conductor material used:
(a) Copper conductor cable
(b) Aluminum conductor cable
IV. According to voltage grading:
(a) Low Tension/Low Voltage Cables (below 100 V).
(b) High Tension/High Voltage Cables (up to 11 kV)
(c) Super-Tension Cables (up to 33 kV)
(i) H-Type cables
(ii) SL-Type cables
(iii) HSL-Type cables
(d) Extra High Tension Cables (between 66 kV and 132 kV)
(e) Extra Super Tension cables (between 220 kV and 400 kV)
(i) Oil filled type cables
(ii) Gas filled type cables
V. Wires used for winding of machines:
(a) Single cotton covered (SCC)
(b) Double cotton covered (DCC)
(c) Enamel coated wires.
Before entering into the electrical estimation, the study of wiring accessories
or lightening accessories is must. The wiring accessories include different types
of switches, sockets, lamp holders, ceiling roses, wooden batten, screws, round
blocks, switch boards, gutties, conduits, elbows, saddles, etc.
6.2 Switches
A switch is an electrical device used to make or break (i.e. connect or
disconnect) an electrical circuit. A switch essentially consist of two terminals to
which tables of a circuit are connected and by simple motion ( or movement) of
the knob or handle the terminals will be connected together or disconnected. At
the time of making or breaking the switch should break the circuit without forming
the arc between the terminals and blades. Because, the arc damages the contacts.
The switches used in electrical wiring may be classified according to:
1. Types of operation
(i) One –way switches
(a) Surface switches (b) Flush switches
(c) Ceiling or pulling switches (d) Grid switches
(e) Architrave switches (f) Rotatory switches
(g) Push button switches
ii) Two-way switches
iii) Two-way centre-off switch
2. Number of poles
(a) single pole switch
(b) double pole switch
(c) Triple pole switch
3. Types of base material used:
- Bakelite
- Porcelain
- Ivory
- Iron (iron clad switches)
4. Types of shapes used:
- Round
- Square
- Rectangular (oblong)
5. Types of colors:
- White, Black
- Brown, Red
- Green etc
6.2.1 One-way Switches

It consist of two terminals and is always connected in series with the load
i.e. light, fan, radio, TV…etc. The various types of one-way switches are as
follows:
(a) Surface or Tumbler Switches: Switches which are projected from
the wall are known as surface or tumbler switches. These switches are first
fitted on the mounting blocks and then the block is fixed over the surface of the
wall. Surface switches are available in round and oblong base as shown in fig
(6.1). Surface switches are also may be one-way two-way or intermediate etc.
All Black 1-way or 2- Porcelain Base Porcelain Base Porcelain Base

way 6A 1-way or 2-way 1-way or 2-way Hexa 1 way or 2
6A 6A way 6A
Porcelain Base
Porcelain Base Delux push Type 1
Hexa 1 way
Square 1 way 15 A way or 2 way 6A
16A
Fig. 6.1 Surface or Tumbler Switches
(b) Flush switches: The switches which do not project from the surface of
the wall are known as flush type switches. These switches are used where high
quality performance and appearance are desired. In flush type switches all current
carrying parts are mounted on high grade vitreous porcelain base or high grade
ureaformaldehyde enclosed in an iron or wooden box recessed into the wall.
Some times these switches are also called as piano type switches.
Fig 6.2
(c) Ceiling or pulling switches: These switches are fixed on the ceiling
and all live parts are near the ceiling, the on/off knob will be attached to a cord
or a rope which will be happening from the ceiling. The switch has good
mechanical strength and is usually operated with a single pull on the cord for on
or off position. These switches are used in bath rooms and bed rooms.
Fig 6.3 Ceiling or Pulling Switch

(d) Grid switches: Grid switches are smaller in size and lighter in weight
and are similar to that of tumbler switches (oblong switches). These switches
are used in portable machines such as hair drier, hand drill, portable grinder etc.
The operation of such switches makes less noise. The switch contacts are insulated
properly and are available either in one-way or two-way pattern. These switches
also can be used for house wiring as a flush switch for which an iron or decolum
box is required.
Fig 6.4 Grid Switch

(e) Architrave switch: In this type of switch the contacts and its movements
are enclosed in a compact porcelain base to which is fitted a mounting plate
known as architrave.
Fig 6.5
(f) Rotatory switch: Rotatory switch consist of an insulated handle to

which are fixed two metallic blades. As the handle is rotated the metallic blades
also rotate uniformly or in steps and the contacts of the switches are opened or
closed. These switches are used for voltage stabilizers and specially for control
of circuits or electric ranges of heaters etc.
(g) Push button switch: Push button switch contacts are enclosed in a
porcelain or ivory base. The contacts are closed by means of a press button and
is controlled by a spring or a cam. Usually the contacts will be open and is
closed only when button is pressed. Such a switches are used for calling bell
circuits. Refrigerators lighting circuits (i.e. when the door is opened the light
glows and goes off when the door is closed) etc.
Fig 6.6 Push Switches
6.2.2 Two Way Switches

This type of switch with a distribution fuse-board of them being short circuited
inside the switch permits for small lightening and heating used where one point
is to be controlled from two main switch gears wiring etc.
6.2.3 Two-way Centre Off Switches
It is simple for small lighting and heating on main switch gear but many use
it is necessary to switch off all the three operations. In the centre it becomes off.
These are to be operated alternatively etc
6.2.4 Double Pole Main Switch (DP mains)
It switches, which can be operated simultaneously the switches are
connected together by a hand distribution boards of every house wiring.
Surface Type D.P. Switch Surface Type without

(31A) with Neon and Fuse Fuse & Neon
Fig 6.7 D.P. Main Switches
6.2.5 Bakelite or Porcelain Switches
The switches so far discussed are usually made of Bakelite material. Some
of the switch bases are manufactures with porcelain and the covers are of Bakelite
or brass metal. Whether they are one way or two ways. Now a days brass
metal switches are rarely used.
6.2.6 Iron-clad Switches
As per Indian electricity rule 50 a suitable linked switch i.e. a switch operating
simultaneously on phase or line and neutral is to be provided immediate after the
meter board. This rule also states that a suitable fuse or cut-out should be
provided just after the linked switch. The combination of linked switch or fuse is
known as switch fuses. As the switch is made of iron so it is known as iron clad
switch. These sheets are completely enclosed in a sheet-steel or plastic enclosure
and are available in various sizes. The size depends on the rating of the switch.
These switches are generally used in industrial installation. These switches may
be of the following types:
i) iron-clad double pole
ii ) iron cad –triple pole
iii ) iron clad triple pole with neutral link(ICTPN)
iv) Splitter units
v) Distribution Boards
(i) Iron-Clad Double Pole (ICDP): These are used for single phase and
D.C. supply control and are made for 16 A, 32 A, 60 A, 100 A, 250 V. Since
no fuse is to be provided in neutral, so in ICDP one fuse carrier is furnished with
fuse element and second with a thick copper wire.
Slot
Fig 6.8 ICDP
(ii) Iron-Clad Triple-Pole Switch (ICTP): These switches consists of

three poles and are used for three-phase balanced load. The body will be made
of iron. All the three-phases can be either connected or disconnected
simultaneously and are made for 16A, 32A, 60A, 100A, 150A and 200A 500V.
Terminal for outgoing
connection
Cover Slots for
Earth Terminal
Cables
Neutral link
Casting
Spring
Interlocking
mechanism
Insulated
spindle Switch base Handle
ICTP
Switch fues (a) Open view of ICTP (b) Closed view of ICTP
Fig 6.9 ICTP
(iii) Iron-Clad Triple-Pole Switch with Neutral link (ICTPN): These
switches are similar to that of ICTP, the only difference is that ICTP will have an
additional neutral link as shown in fig (6.9). These switches are used for controlling
a 3-phase power with 4-wire system.
(iv) Splitter Units: A splitter unit is a main switch with a distribution fuse-
board combined as shown in fig (6.10). These are suitable for small lighting and
heating installations where it is desired to save expense on main switch – gear,
but many installation engineers prefer not to use them because it is necessary to
switch off all the circuits before it is possible to open the lit to replace a fuse.
Slots for Cables

Slots
Closing Link
Neutral
Frame
Fuses Disconnecting Link
Cover
Rubber Operating Handle
Rings
Fig 6.10 ICTPN Fig 6.10 Splitter Unit
(v) Distribution Boards: The distribution boards are made with cast iron
and getting power from main switch. The distribution board designed for number
of ways according to number of sub circuits in the installations. Generally these
are 2-way, 3-way, 4-way and upto 12-way.
6.2.7 Knife Switches
The function of a knife switch is similar to ordinary which i.e., to make or
break an electric circuit. It consists of knife shaped blade, switch contact, pivots,
lug and an insulated board. The assembled knife switch is shown in fig (6.11).
The switch contact and pivots are fitted to an insulated board and are open (not
closed type as above). The connections are given to both these parts beneath
the board and the conductor is held between nuts.
Auxillary Blade
Main Blade
Spring
Insulating board
DPDT
DPST
SPDT DPDT (Double Pole Double

SPST Throw) Knife Switch
Fig 6.11 Knife Switches

For making the switch a quick break, the main blade is provided with an
auxiliary blade and both these blades are connected by means of a spring. For
breaking the circuit as the handle is moved out the main blade comes out while
the auxiliary blade remains the clip and maintains connections, but as handle is
moved further out it put a tension in the spring which brings out the auxiliary
blade out of the switch contact quickly. Thus the spring provides a quick break
action.
Knife switches are available as single throw and double throw switches. In
case of double throw the blade is hinged at the middle and the two contacts are
provided on both sides of the hing as shown in fig (6.11).
6.2.8 Lamp Holders
A lamp holder is used to hold the lamp required for lighting purposes. Lamp
holder electrically connects the lamp to the supply. Earlier brass holders were
durable and quite popular but, now-a-days these have been superseded by the
all insulated pattern. A lamp holder has either moulded or porcelain interior with
a solid or spring plunger and easily wired terminals.
The lamp holders may be classified as:
1. Bayonet Cap (BC) lamp holders: which can be further sub divided into:
a. Batten holder
b. Bracket holder
c. Pendent holder
d. Water tight pattern
2. Switched bayonet cap lamp holder: These holders have a push bar and
is used only to carry a load not exceeding 2 ampere. The push bars are non-
detachable.
3. Small bayonet cap holders: These holders posses all the features of
larger patterns. They are designed for carrying miniature lamps.
4. Goliath Edison Screw (GES) lamp holders: These holders are used for
lamps having wattage beyond 300-W. The maximum range of the lamps with
which they can be used is 1500-W, 250V.
5. Medium Edison Screw (ES) lamp holders (Brass): Such holders are
used with screwed type lamps upto 200 Watt, 250 volt.
6. Swivel lamp holders: These are designed for controlled wide angle
directional lighting of shops, windows, show cases etc. It consists of a ball and
socket-joint fitted between back plate and lamp holder.
7. Fluorescent lamp holders and starter holders: The fluorescent lamp
holders are either of bi-pin or of bayonet cap type, but pin type holders are
generally used for ordinary fluorescent tubes. There is a separate holder for the
starter or it can be combined with the holder of fluorescent tube.
Now we will discuss some of the lamp holders in detail.
(a) Batten Holders: Batten holders are employed where the lamp is to be
fitted to the wall or roof. These are directly fitted either or batten or on wooden
boards. Such lamp holders are bayonet type i.e. in such lamp holder the bulb is
forced in, turned slightly in clockwise direction and then left in that position.
Now-a-day Bakelite batten holders are popular than the brass ones as these
are cheaper and safer
3 - Holes equally
2 Holes equally
Interior of Standard 3 - hole

batten holder Strap two hole
Lamp holder batten holder
Home office Type

Angle Holder batten holder
Fig 6.12 Batten holders
(b) Bracket Holders: Such holders are used to give direct light on working
area or in the room. These can not be fixed on the roof or made to hung. Usually
these are fixed on walls and may be used in table lamps. The brackets used with
such holders are usually made of brass.
Threads
Round Block
Bracket
Bracket
Holder
Fig 6.13 Two Types of screwed Entry Bracket holders (b) Bracket Holder with Bracket
(c) Pendent Holders: Pendent lamp holders are used when the lamp is to
be suspended from the roof. Such a lamp holders is hanged vertically downward
from the ceiling with the flexible cord. One end of the cord makes electrical
connection with the ceiling rose and other with the lamp holder and thus with
lamp. These holders, are also known as “Cored Grip Holders” and are available
in brass as well as Bakelite types.
Brass (Bakelite)
Fig 6.14 Pendent Holders
(d) Water-tight Holders: These are used for street lights or flood lights
where the lamps are exposed to (atmosphere) falling of water over it. These
lamp holders are provided with tubular glasses fixed with water tight cover.
(e) Angle Holders: These lamp holders are used when the lamps are to
be fixed up directly on the walls and to give light at an angle. Such a lamp
holders are available in various fancy designs and colours as shown in fig 6.12(d,e)
and fig 6.15
H. view of holder
Fig. 6.15 Angle Holder Fig. 6.16 Goliath Edison Screw Lamp Holder
(f) Goliath Edison screw Lamp Holders: As mentioned earlier these

holders are used for lamps having wattage beyond 300W and upto 1500W at
250-V as shown in fig (6.16).
(g) Swivel Lamp Holders: These lamp holders mainly consists of a back
plate, lamp holder and ball & socket joint as shown in fig (6.17). Swivel lamp
holders are available in bayonet cap type, small bayonet cap type similar to fig
(6.17a) but small size holder, and Edison screw type. These holders are used
for lighting show cases and can be fixed to the wall or ceiling.
(h) Starter Holder: Fluorescent starter holder is shown in fig (6.18). The
fluorescent tube starter will be placed over the starter holder and rotated
clockwise so that it will hold in the holder. The starter terminals will be connected
to the tube.
(i) Fluorescent Tube Holders: Fluorescent tube holders may be either
bi-pin type or bayonet cap type but bi-pin type holders are generally used, fig
(6.19). Every fluorescent tube require two holders one at each end of the frame.
Back Place
Ball and Socket Joint
Holder
Screw Type Holder
Fig 6.17 Swivel Lamp Holders
(j) Lamp Holder Adopter: The lamp holder adopted is used to tap the
power temporarily from a lamp holder. Lamp holder adopters preferably used
for extension of lamp connection only but not for any other domestic appliances
like electric iron, refrigerator etc.
Fig. 6.18 Fluorescent Starter Holders
Combined
Tube and
Starter - Holder
Fig 6.19 Flourescent Tube Holders Fig 6.20 Lamp Holder Adapter
6.3 Ceiling Rose

Ceiling roses are used to connect the pendent lamps, fans, fluorescent tubes
through flexible wire. It consists of base and cover. The base may be of Bakelite
or porcelain and is fitted with two or more terminal plates separated from each
other by a Bakelite or porcelain bridge. The number of terminal plates fitted to
ceiling rose base depends upon the number of ways of the ceiling rose i.e. 2-
way ceiling rose is fitted with two terminals and 3-way ceiling rose is fitted with
three terminals and so on.
Terminals
Bridge
Base
Holes Cover
Threads Closed Open View
Open View
(a) View (b) (c)
Fig 6.21 Ceiling Rose
Fixing holes are provided to the ceiling roses to fix on round blocks. Each
terminal plate is provided with the metallic sleeve and a binding screw on one
side to connect the circuit wire. The insulating bridge is provided with two holes
through which flexible wire is passed first before making connections to the
terminal plate. This is done with the object of taking off the weight of the lamp
holder, shade lamp etc. The cover is fixed to the threaded base.
6.3.1 Socket Outlets: The socket outlets are provided to supply the
electrical appliances / loads like radio’s, TV’s, table fans, electric iron’s,
refrigerators etc. when required.
2-Pin Sockets (a) Surface socket outlets 2-Pin Sockets
Neon
Flush type sockets 3 in 1 socket

3-Pin Socket
Fig 6.22 Socket Outlets
There are two types of socket outlets (i) two-pin socket and (ii) three – pin
sockets for both 5A and 15A current ratings. In a two-pin socket that two
terminal sleeves are connected to phase and neutral of the supply into which a
two-pin plug sockets. In three pin sockets the small two terminal sleeves re
connected to phase and neutral and the third bigger terminal is connected to
earth.
Switch
Neon Fuse Neon
Open View
Fig 6.23 Socket Outlet
Only one appliance may be connected to a socket-outlet, it is usual practice,

in house holders, attaching two or more appliances to one socket outlet by
means of adopters and long flexible cords. It is not healthy practice.
6.3.2 Plug-Pins: Plugs are used to tap the power from socket outlets for
electrical appliances. Similar to sockets, plugs are also of two types (i) two-pin
plugs and (ii) three-pin plus for both 5A and 15A current rating. In two-pin plug,
both the pins are of same size and are connected to the phase and neutral of the
supply, which in turn connects to the winding or element of the electrical appliance
or device.
(a) Gun Type (b) 2 - Pin Plugs with Neon

Plug base
Plug Cover
(c) 3 - Pin Plugs
Fig 6.24 Plugs
In three-pin plug, the small two-pins are connected to the appliances

terminals which are connected to the winding or element, where as the third
larger pin is connected to the earth wire from the body of the appliance. In case
leakage of current or insulation failure in the appliance or device, the current
passes through earth wire and protects the person who comes in and touch with
the appliance.
6.4 CTS Wiring Accessories
The following are the CTS wiring accessories:
(a) Wooden batten (b) Wire nails
(c) Screws (d) Link clips
(e) Wooden gutties (f) Round blocks
(g) Switch boards.
(a) Wooden batten: Teak wooden batten should be used for CTS/TRS
wiring system. But now a days knot free wood country wood is used because
teak wood is very costly. The wooden available in different sizes of 1.27 cm
(half inch) onwards with a uniform thickness of about 6mm.
cm
50
Head
Tip
cm
30
Fig 6.25 Fig 6.26 Wooden Gutty
(b) Wire nails: Small size nails of about 1 cm are used to fix the link clips
to the batten.
(c) Screws: Wooden screws are used to fix the wooden batten to the
gutties.
(d) Link clips: These are first fixed to the batten with the help of nails then
the wiring cables will run over the link clips and wooden battens then the clips
will be folded so that the cable will be tightly held with wooden batten. More
number of clips will be used if the width of the wooden batten is large or more
number of cables are to be run.
(e) Wooden gutties: Wooden gutties are fixed to the wall with cement.
The smaller face will be exposed outside on which the wooden batten is screwed.
The wooden boards and wooden blocks are also fitted on these gutties.
(f) Round blocks: All surface mounting accessories like ceiling roses, batten
lamps, holders, surface switches etc are fixed centrally over the round or mounting
block. The cables are drawn in through about 6mm holes made in the block.
The round blocks also fixed to the wooden gutties on the walls with screws.
Fig 6.27 Round Block

(g) Switch board: All switches sockets, bed lamps etc, are fixed on the
switch boards. The switch boards are available in various sizes (e.g 10x10cm,
10x20cm etc) made of wood or decolum. The switch boards are fitted to the
gutties (already fixed to the wall) with the help of screws. Now a days steel or
country wood base and decolum top boards are famous due to the attractive
colours of decolum sheets availability.
6.5 Conduit Accessories
The following are the conduit wiring accessories:
(a) P.V.C conduit (b) Elbows
(c) Couplings (d) Saddles
(e) Conduit boxes (2-way, 3way) (f) Bends
(g) Conduit reducers (h) Junction Box.
(a) P. V.C conduit: A conduit may be defined as “a tube or channel”. Conduit
plays an important role in electrical installation work. Conduits are classified as:
- Steel rigid conduit (may be light or heavy gauge)
- Steel flexible conduit
- PVC rigid conduit
-PVC flexible conduit.
Steel conduits are usually used for surface conduit wiring system and are
available with an external diameter of 12mm, 16mm, 25mm, 50mm etc.
Flexible conduits are made of light gauge galvanized steel strip spirally wound
to form a tube. It is available in sizes of 19mm and 50mm. These conduits are
used for protecting the final connection to motors and as coupler for ordinary
conduits. Flexible conduits are costlier than the rigid conduits.
(a) PVC conduits: Now a days replacing the conduits in electrical
installation work particularly in concealed wiring because it is light in weight,
high insulation, shock proof, acid and corrosion resistant and cheap. These
conduits may be joined by the plain type or screwed couplers depending upon
whether the conduits are of plain or screwed type.The use of PVC conduits in
ambient temperature beyond 60 degrees centigrade is prohibited by IS.
Conduits wiring system is well suited for domestic, commercial and industrial
installations. It provides proper protection to the installation against fire hazards,
shocks, mechanical damage, dampness etc, VIR or PVC insulated cables can
be used in this system. The conduits are first installed on the surface of the walls
or concealed in the walls and the concealing. Modern practice is to conceal the
conduit in the plaster of the walls at the time of house construction. A number of
inspection boxes and draw boxes are provided along the run of the conduit in
order to inspect and to draw in the wires. Metal conduit must be solidly earthed
by running an earth wire by its side. After erecting the conduit, the insulated
wires are drawn in to the conduit with the help of a spiring of GI wire.
(b) Elbow wires: Elbows are made of PVC conduit material and are used
when sudden right turn(or 90 degrees turn) is required as shown as in fig 4.30
(a). Elbows are of two types one is plain or solid elbow and the other is inspection
elbow. Inspection elbows are provided a detachable lid for inspection and facilitate
pulling cables as shown in fig 6.28(b). Elbows are used at sharp ends of near by
walls or roofs and walls.
Plain Elbow
(a) Plain Elbow (b) Inspection Elbow (c) Grip Elbow

Fig 6.28 Elbows
(c) Couplings: Couplings are used for joining two conduits. Screwed
couplings are used for heavy gauge screwed conduits and grip couplings are
used for light gauge conduits as shown in fig 6.29 push type of couplers are used
particularly for PVC conduit systems. The conduits shall be pushed right through
to the interior of the fittings. Couplings are usually used for straight runs.
Conduit (a) Screwed Coupler

(a) Screwed Coupler
(b) Grip Coupler (b) Grip Coupler
Fig 6.29 Coupling
Conduits also can be joined with the bushings, these bushings are of two
type’s namely, male and female bushings as shown in fig 6.32. Male bush is
provided threads on the outside surface and female bush is provided threads on
inner surfaces.
(d) Saddles: Saddles are most commonly
used for securing the conduits to the wall.
Saddles are fixed to the gutties (which were
already fixed to the wall) by means of two
screws not nails. They provide a very secure
fixing and should be spaced at not more than
1.2m apart. Male Bush Female Bush
(a) (b)
Fig 6.30
Conduit boxes to which fittings are to be fixed should be drilled

otherwise a saddle should be provided close to each side of the box.The
conduits also can be secured to the walls or girders with the help of pipe,
hooks, clip or half saddles, distance saddles etc. as shown in fig 6.32(a). The
applications of the saddles are also shown in fig 6.32 (b) & (c).
(a) A Saddle
(b) Conduits on a Concrete Celing
Angle Iron Truss
4 cm 20 V Bolt
cm
Iron
Clip
V Section
Fig 6.31
(e) Conduit boxes: Conduit boxes are used in wiring installations to serve
the following purposes.
- Provides connections to switch boards, ceiling roses, light, fans, etc.
- Facilitate the pulling of cables into the conduit.
- Easy inspection of cables by opening the detachable lid in case of fault.
Clip or Half Saddle Spacer bar Distance

Saddle
Pipe Hook (a) Fixing for saddle saddle
Conduit
SGrider Clip
U Bolt Angle
Iron
Truss
(b) Girder Clip 2.5x0.3 cm Flat Iron Clip

(c) ‘J’ Bolt Fixing
Fig 6.32
(b)
2 way at 90o Turn
(a) 2 way
Lid
Screws
(c) 3 Way Grip Tee Box (d) Tee Box 4 Ways
Fig 6.33
Two-way through box with two outlets in one line are used for straight run
of conduits instead of couplers or bushing due to their advantages mentioned
above. Two-way angle box with two outlets at right angles are used in place of
a bend or elbows. Three way, four way conduits boxes are employed where
distribution in 2 or 3 directions takes place from horizontal runs. The conduits
boxes are available in different sizes to suit the various sizes of conduits.
(f) Bends: These are usually used for change in direction of conduit. Sharp
bends are not be used in wiring system. Inspection bends provide the added of
inspection of cables by opening the lid in case of faults.
Fig 6.34 Bends

(g)Conduit reducer: Conduit reducers are used to connect two different
size conduits together.
(h) Junction boxes: Thin fillets are provided at four points of entry, these
are a cut way to the required width of the incoming cables. Back entry can also
be obtained by removing two thin fillets in the base of box. Where necessary
protection of connections form moistures and corrosive fumes can be obtained
by filling box with weather-proof plastic compound, a layer being pressed down
before wiring connections are made.
Large Size Small Size

Conduit Entry Conduit Entry
Through box
Grip Conduit Reducer

Fig. 6.37 Fig. 6.38 Angle box
(I) Tees: Tees are used to tap the power from the horizontal run. Inspection
TEE’S are also can be used which will help for inspection in case of any fault or
other requirements.
(a) Solid Tee (b) Inspection Tee

Fig. 6.37
6.6Fuses
A fuse is a device for the purpose of protecting a circuit against damage
from excessive current flowing from it, by opening the circuit on the melting of
the fuse-element by excessive current.
OR
A fuse is a simplest current interrupting device for protecting against
excessive current .
IS: 732-1983 DEFINES A FUSE THUS:
“A device that, by fusion of one or more of its specially designed and
proportional components, opens the circuits in which it is inserted when the
current through it exceeds a given value for sufficient time. The fuse comprises
all the parts that form the complete device.
Materials used for fuse elements are:
The fuse element is generally made of materials having the following
characteristics:
(i) Low melting point e.g., tin, lead, zinc.
(ii) High conductivity e.g., silver, copper.
(iii) Free from deterioration due to oxidation.
(iv) Low cost
The most commonly used materials for fuse elements are lead, tin, zinc,
and copper. For small current ratings upto 10A, tin or an alloy of lead and tin
(lead 37% and tin 63%) is used for making the fuse element. For larger currents,
copper or silver is employed. To protect the copper elements from oxidation, it
is usually coated with tin. Zinc in the form of strip is good. If a fuse with
considerable time lag is required.
Types of Fuses
In general the various types of fuses can be classified as follows:
Fuses
Open fuses Semi-enclosed Cartridge liquid fuses (HV)

(LV & HV) Or or
Expulsion fuses HRC fuses
(LV) (LV&HV)
In other words fuses also can be classified as
(i) Low voltage fuses and
(ii) High voltage fuses
1. Open type fuse: A open type fuse consist of a plain wire between two
supports as shown in fig 6.38. These types of fuses are usually used on pole
mounted transformers (sub-stations).
2. Rewirable fuses: The most commonly used fuse in house wiring and
small current circuit is the rewirable fuse or semi-enclosed or sometimes called
as expulsion fuse. Whenever the fuse wire blows off due to over load or short
circuit, the fuse carrier can be pulled out, the new wire can be placed and the
supply can be restored. This looks simple and is really very simple, only if the
wire is replaced by the correct size.
Horn Gap Fuse
(c)
(a)
Fig 6.39 Rewirable Fuses
Beside the fuse wires, since is exposed at atmosphere. It is effected by

ambient temperature. The time current characteristics if such fuse get deteriorated
with time and hence are not reliable for discrimination purposes. The rewirable
fuses are standardized for rated currents upto 200A. Rewirable fuses are also
referred to as kit-kat fuses.
3. Cartridge fuses: Performance of a fuse can be improved by enclosing
the fuse wire in a sealed cartridge packed with a filler material which will
prevent deterioration in normal circumstances. Such fuses are called cartridge
fuses and are of two types.
- Diazed fuse, often called D-type cartridge fuse.
- Link-type often called HRC fuse link.
Link type or HRC fuse link: These are fuses with high rupturing
capacity(HRC) and are available in two types (i) knife blade type (ii) bolted
type. A HRC fuse consist of a fuse base link. It consist of a ceramic body having
metal end caps (brass) to withstand very high pressures. The fuse element is a
flat strip which is perforated which is completely packed with a filling powder
usually quartz which has excellent arc extinguishing properties. The strip is made
flat to provide for better cooling.
When a fault or short-circuit occurs, the current increases and the fuse
element melts before the fault current reaches the first peak. The heat produced
in the process vapourises the melted silver element. The chemical reaction
between the silver vapour and the filling powder results in the formation of a high
resistance substance which helps in quenching the arc.
Brass End Cap Ceramic Body Knife Blade Type
Contact
Blade
Outer
Element
Fuse Ware or Element
HRC Fuse Bolted Type
Fig 6.40 HRC Fuses
Advantages
1. They are capable as high as well as low fault or short circuit currents.
2. They are quite reliable.
3. They do not deteriorate.
4. No maintenance is needed.
5. They are comparatively cheap.
Disadvantages
1. The fuse must be replaced after each operation.
2. Subjected to relatively high temperature and may effect the associated
switches.
6.7 Miscellaneious Accessories
The following are some of the accessories which we come across in our
daily life.
a) Iron connector or appliance connector: It is usually used to connect the
domestic appliance like electric iron, electric kettle, electric stove, percolator
etc. The connector is provided with two-pin socket and the earth connection.
The cable entry has a rubber protection tube. The connectors are either flat or
round with side entry or straight as shown in fig 6.41.
Straight Entry
Rubber
Tube (Side
Entry)
Earth
Connection
Porcelain Extension
Fig 6.41 Connectors
(b) Multi plugs: These are used to connect two or three appliances at
a time from a single socket. It is common practice but which is not recommended.
The best course is to re-wire the installation with outlets of suitable ratings. If it
is not fusable it should be remembered that rating of a flexible cord must not be
less than the fuse protecting it. Multi plugs are also known as ‘adopters’.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
15 Amp
Socket Outlet
1000 w 150 w
650 w
Fig 6.42 Multi-Plugs


1. What is a switch?
2. State different types of switches?
3. What is the function of D.P function?
4. What is an ICTP? List the applications of it?
5. Explain briefly about the knife switch?
6. Classify the various lamp holders?
7. Explain batten holders with a diagram?
8. What are the applications of ceiling roses?
9. Briefly explain socket outlets?
10. Describe with diagram about plug in?
11. Lists the CTS wiring accessories?
12. List the conduit wiring accessories?
13. What is the difference between elbow and bend?
14. Define ‘fuse’?
15. What are the materials used for fuse element?
16. Classify the fuses?
17. Describe the rewirable fuse?
18. Expand the following abbreviations of switches?
(a) SPST (b) DPST (c) DPIC d) DPDT (e) SPT
Activities
1. Collect different accessories used for domestic wiring
2. Collect HRC/Open typ/ Rewirable fuse and MCB. Connect it to a wiring
circuit.
UNIT 7
Wiring Tools and Wire Joints
Learning Objectives
• To identify various tools used in wiring and know their applications.
• To learn about preparation of Joints
7.0 Introduction
Electrician tool kit is the most simple and brief among other servicing
engineers tool kits. As the electric wiring is a specialized job, so it requires a
special kit. Some of the tools used for wiring are common with other trades.
Overall the trades are not expensive and are available at almost all hard ware
and electric shops.
7.1 Wiring Tools
7.1.1 Screw Drivers
A screw driver is a hand tool that is designed to loosen or tighten or to
keep the screws in a position. It has two parts one is blade and shank made of
high carbon steel or chrome-Vanadittan steel and the other is plastic or wooden
handle. The tip of the blade is hardened. Screw drivers are made in many sizes.
Its size usually varies from 4.0mm to 600mm.
A standard or common screw drivers as shown in fig 7.1 (a) is used to
meet different types of jobs when plenty of room is available and the head of the
screw is out in the open.
A thin blade screw driver in fig 7.1 (b) is used for screwing and unscrewing
the screws of switches, lamps, holders etc.
A heavy duty screw driver, fig 7.1 Blade or Handle

© is of average length but is made with a
heavy blade, the shank of which is square
in cross-connection.. It may be required
to augment hand pressure by using plier
for turning stubborn or heavy screws. The (a) Standard Screw Driver
shape of the bank permits the use plier
or wrench to assist on turning a screw.
A helical or spiral ratchet screw (b) Thin Blade Screw Driver
driver is used to turn screws, when there
is a large opening and the head of the
screw is in the open. It can be locked (c) Heavy Duty or Square
rigid and used as common screw driver, Blade Screw Driver
fig 7.2(a).
7.1 Types of Screw Drivers
Offset screw drivers are used where
it is impossible to use a common screw driver, such as in places only where a
small opening is available to remove the screw and where the head of the screw
is hidden, fig 7.2.
Fig 7.2 Other Types of Screw Drivers

A Phillips type screw driver as shown in fig 7.2 (e) is specially designed to
fit the heads of Philip screws. It differs from other screw drivers in that the end
of the blade is fluted instead of flattened. It is made in several sizes from 75mm
to 200mm.
The screw drivers will not usually slip or burr the head of the screws if a
proper size of screw driver is selected for a particular screw.
On some of the screw drivers handles, voltage rating or grading will be
mentioned, which represents that the screw driver can be used on the live line
up to the specified voltage.
7.1.2 Pliers
Pliers are used for holding or gripping small screw or bolts in position where
it is inconvenient or unsafe to use hands They are also used for bending and
cutting the wires. They are made in various types to suit different applications.
The following are the most commonly used pliers:
(a) Slide cutting plier or cutting plier: This plier is used for cutting wires,
gripping operation by hand, holding jobs, twisting wires and a number of
operations in electrical wiring. It is usually provided with snub-nosed jaw and
have a cutting edge only one side as shown in fig 7.3. An insulated plier is used
in lines of electricity.
Insulated Handle Pivot
Insulated Plier
Plier
Fig. 7.3
(b) Nose plier: pliers are made as the name implies, with a nose or jaws.
These tools are used for bending and holding thin wires.They are also used for
forming eyes of the wires which are to be used where they are held fast under
the screw. It is also preferred for electrical radio and tv repair works for placing
and removing small items in narrow place.
(c) Diagonal cutting: Diagonal cutting pliers or diagonals are special types
of pliers and are exclusively used for cutting and stripping of electrical wires,
where the wire terminates into holders, switches, sockets, etc.Fig 7.4 shows the
diagonals.
(a) Long Nose Plier (b) Round Nosed Plier (c) Half Nose Plier
(d)
Fig. 7.4 Diagonals
Fig. 7.5 Slip Joint Plier
(d) Slip joint pliers fig 7.5 shows the common slip joint or combination
plier. They are used for holding and gripping small articles in situations where it
may be inconvenience or unsafe to use hands. It is not good practice to use plier
in place of a wrench.
7.1.3 Hammers
A hammer is of the man’s earliest tools. They have been improved since the
day when the stone-age man fashioned one by tying a stone to branch torn from
a tree, but they still consist of major parts: head and handle. Several varieties of
hammers are made that it would be impossible to mention them all in a limited
space. This discussion therefore will be limited to the hammers which are used
in electrical works are:
(a) Ball pen hammer and
(b) Claw hammer:
(a) Ball pen hammer: The ball pen hammer is shown in fig 7.6. It consist of
a hammer face which is used to drive in nails into wooden batten or for general
work and a ball peen (or cross peen or straight peen) end for cutting wall plaster
and bricks when it is necessary to take wiring from one room to another and to
drive the gutties etc. The eye is the name for the hole that receives the handle.
The post is the portion between the face and the eye. The middle portion of the
hammer head is known as cheek. The weight of the hammer is stamped on this
cheek.
(b) Claw hammer: It is dual purpose hammer. It has a hammer face which
is used to drive in nails or general purpose or claw at the other end for pulling
out nails from the wood as well as can be inserted behind, beneath or between
boards to be removed.
Claw
Cheek
Handle
Eye
Face
Fig. 7.6 Claw Hammer
Hammers or engineer hammers are designed by their weight and they varies
from 375 gram to 675 gram. The use of a claw hammer is shown in fig 7.7.
Fig. 7.7
7.1.4 Hack Saw and Wooden Saw

Hack saw is especially designed for cutting metals like conduit cables etc.
It consist of a metal frame, in the ends of which are metal clips to hold the cutting
blade. One clip is threaded on one end for a wing nut which is used for tightening
the blade in the frame. Only two types of hack saws are used in ordinary practice.
They are:
1. Solid or common hack saw
2. The adjustable hack saw
Fig 7.8a shows a solid type hack saw which accommodates the blades of
same length. Fig 7.8b shows the adjustable hack saw which is most useful and
accommodates the blades of different lengths.
Frame
Pin
Handle
(a) Solid Type
(c)
(b) Adjustable Type

Fig 7.8
The commonly used blades are 0.65mm thick 12.5mm wide and 200 to
300mm in length. The blades are specified by its length measured between the
centres of the two holes and pitch. Blades are available with 6, 8, 10, and 12
teeth per cm. Blades with coarse pitch are used for jobs or soft materials while
finer pitch are for fine cuts or thinner jobs. The hack saw blades are made of
high grades of steel such as tool steel , high speed steel or tungsten alloy steel.
Handle Blade Back
Toe
Tooth
Heel
Fig. 7.9 Tennon or Wooden Saw
When cutting with a hack saw full strikes while pushing the saw away from
you and no pressure should be applied on return stroke.
Wooden saw or tenon saw is used for cutting small jobs like cutting wooden
batten, casing-capping, wooden blocks etc. It is the ideal saw for all types of
wooden work. The saw available in different lengths ranging from 250mm to
400mm.
7.1.5 Chisels, Scratch Awl
One of the earliest method of shaping a piece of wood, stone or metal was
the chip away the unwanted material with a hammer and chisel. This practice is
still common today for jobs which are done at the work bench and instances
where it is not practical to do the work on a machine.
For electrical work generally two types of chisels are used:
2. Wooden chisel
3. Cold chisel
Wooden Chisel
In wood work the use of Blade
chisel is made in making various Handle Tang Ferrule
connections of casing0capping or
for cutting the side of the wooden
boards from the centre in order to Cutting Edge
allow the wires to be connected to
switches, sockets etc. The Fig. 7.10
wooden chisel has a blade made
of tool steel and is fitted in to a handle as shown in fig 7.10 cutting edge is
hardened and tempered to increase the toughness. The chisel usually specified
by the width of the cutting edge.
Cold Chisels
A cold chisel is a tool from hexagon or octagon shaped tool steel (or high
carbon steel chrome vanadium steel). One end is shaped for the cutting operation
and other end (head) is left blunt to receive the blow from a hammer as shown
in fig 7.11. The cutting edge is hardened and tempered. The cross-section of the
shank is usually hexagonal or octagonal. The chisel is specified by the width of
the cutting edge. In house wiring cold chisels are used for plaster cutting or for
brick cutting only.
(a) Flat Chisel (b) Cape Chisel (c) Diamond Point Chiesel (d) Round Nosed Chisel
Fig. 7.11 Types of Chisels
Scratch Awl
Scratch awls are generally made from forged tool steel as shown in fig
7.12. It is difficult to insert a wooden screw into wood, unless there is a small
hole or impression. With a scratch awl an impression is made into wood before
screwing. As the scratch awl tool is very sharp, it should be handled carefully.
Handle
Fig 7.12
7.1.6 Hand Drill

Hand Drill
The making of whole in a piece of material can, in some instances, be a
simple operation. But in some of the instances it is an important and precise job.
A large number of different tools and machines have been designed so that holes
may be speedily, economically and accurately in all kinds of material.
A hand drill consists of a chuck with hardened steel jaws into which is
placed the twist drill (drill bit). A crank and gear is used for increasing the speed
of the drill as shown in the fig 7.13.
In house wiring, hand drill is often used in wooden batten, wooden blocks
and wooden boards etc., to facilitate the passage of insulated wires which
terminate into switched holders, sockets or other fittings. For such purpose a
hand drill is useful.
Name Plate
Main Handle
Main Handle
Turning Drive Wheel
Handle
Pinion Chuck
Auxillary Handle
IDE Handle Jaw Pistol Grip handle
Cable
Chuck
AW Plug
Drill
(a) Hand Drill (b) Electric Power Drill
Fig. 7.13
7.1.7 Reamer
A hole that has been made by drilling is seldom accurate in size. It is usually
slightly oversize. This is quite satisfactory for holes in which bolts or rivets are
placed. When greater accuracy and a smooth finish are required, the hole is first
drilled under size and then finished by reaming.
Fig. 7.14 Reamer
The reamer as shown in above figure is inserted into the spindle of the
machine in the same manner as a drill.
7.1.8 Rawl Plug Jumper, Center Punch
Rawl Plug Jumper
It consists of a hard tube with a central hole called Rawl plug and a bit. It is
generally used to make holes in stone walls or concrete walls, and should not be
used on metals. While drilling a hole are should be taken to tap it slightly with a
rotary motion so that which each stroke it goes forward and throws out the dust
or small stone pieces etc.
Fig 7.15 Rawl Plug Jumper
Center Punch
A center punch is made of hardened tool steel. It is used to mark the
location of holes to be drilled and also to help to start the drill in the correct spot.
(a) Center Punch
(b) Automatic Center Punch
Fig. 7.16 Center Punch
The automatic center punch makes punch marks of a uniform size without
the use of a hammer. The knurled cap may be turned to control the depth of the
punch mark or impression.
7.1.9 Files
Filing is a method of removing small amounts of material from the surface
of a piece of metal or other hard substance. A file is a hardened steel instrument
(tool) having parallel rows of cutting edges or teeth on its surfaces. On the two
wide surfaces, the rows are usually diagonal to the edge. One end of the file is
shaped so that it may be inserted into a wooden handle.
Tang Face
Tip
Handle Heel Length
Fig. 7.17 Files

Often electrician requires a file for removing burrs on wires or joints etc.
Usually a smooth half round files with serve the purpose of an electrician. Files
are classified according to their length, teeth pattern, fineness of the teeth and
shapes of the cross-section.
7.1.10 Pipe Vise
A pipe vise is a vise with serrated jaws that are V-shaped to grip pipe and
cylindrical bars firmly.
Fig. 7.17 Pipewise
Pipe vises are generally used in plumbing work for holding the hollow circular
sections such as pipes, and cylindrical bars. An electrician also used the pipe
vises (Portable) for holding the conduit during conduit cutting or for cutting threads
on the conduits or for bending conduits etc. It has two V-shaped serrated jaws,
one is fixed and the other is moved by rotation of handle. It grips the conduits or
bars in between the jaws firmly as shown in fig (7.17).
7.1.11 Pipe Cutter
A pipe cutter is a tool especially designed to cut pipe. The cutting blade is
a hardened-steel wheel. The cutter is adjustable for cutting various sizes of pipes.
The pipe is held securely by the pipe cutter which is rotated round the pipe and
after few rotations the cutter is again tightened against the pipe wall and further
rotations are given to the cutter.
The process is repeated until the pipe cut. But the pipe bulges with a sharp
edge at the cut which strongly affects the wires by spoiling their insulation. The
sharp edges can not be removed completely but, can be improved by reaming
the edges by means of a reamer (or use hack-saw for cutting.
Fig. 7.18 Pipe Cutter
7.1.12 Wrenches
A wrench is a tool for turning or twisting nuts or bolts. It is usually made of
steel. Wrenches may consist of a slot, socket, pins or movable jaws for gripping
the nut, accordingly the wrenches are classified as follows:
(i) Single-ended wrench: A single-ended wrench is one that is made to fit
one size of nut of bolt as shown in fig 7.19(a). This is the most inexpensive type
of wrench and is quite efficient in ordinary situations.
(a) Single - Ended Wrench
(b) Double - Ended Wrench
Fig. 7.19
(ii) Double-ended wrench: A double-ended wrench has two openings one

at each end of the handle, to fit two different sizes of nuts or bolt heads as shown
in fig. 7.19 (b).
(iii) Closed – end wrench: A closed-end wrench is similar to a single-ended
wrench, but, as if entirely encloses a nut, there is little danger of the wrench
slipping off the nut or of the jaws spreading apart. For these reasons it is preferred
for some jobs. It is also known as a box-wrench.
(a) Closed - End Box - Wrench
(b) 12 - Point Box Wrench
(C) Comibination box and open end Wrench
(d) Flare Nut Wrench
Fig 7.20 Flare Nut Wrench
(iv) Twelve – point box wrench : A twelve – point box wrench is one
that is designed with twelve notches or points, inside each closed end. The
points of a nut may be gripped by any one of the twelve notches of the wrench,
which permits the turning of a nut where only short pull of the wrench is possible.
(v) Adjustable open-end wrench : An adjustable open – end wrench
has a movable jaw which makes it adjustable to various size of nuts as shown in
fig 7.21(a). A heavy type of adjustable wrench is the monkey wrench shown in
fig 7.21(b). When using this type of tool, point the jaws in the direction of the
force applied. This will prevent the jaws from springing apart, and the wrench
will be less likely a slip off a nut. The movable jaw should be adjusted so that it
is tight against the part to be turned.
(vi) Lever-jaw wrench : A lever-jaw wrench is a combination gripping
tool with adjustable jaws that may be locked in place. It may be used as a
wrench, clamp, pliers, or vise as shown in fig 7.22.
(vii) T-socket wrench : A T-socket wrench is made in the form of T, as
shown in fig 7.24. The hole in the end or socket is made in a variety of shapes,
such as shapes, such as square, hexagon, or octagon. It is generally used on
jobs where there is insufficient space to permit the use of an ordinary wrench.
The handle may be removed from the head of the wrench.
Fixed Jaw
Handle
Thumb Screw
Movable Jaw (a) Adjustable Open - End Wrench
(b) Monkey Wrench
Fig. 7.21
(viii) Off-set socket wrench : An off-set socket wrench is made with the
same variety of sockets as a T-socket wrench. It is designed to be used on nuts
requiring great leverage or in places where a T-socket wrench cannot be used.
Fig. 7.22 LEVER - Jaw Wrench
(ix) Ratchet wrench : A ratchet

wrench permits a nut to be turned in spaces
only a short swing of the handle is possible.
Another advantage of this type of wrench is
that it is not necessary to remove it from the
nut or bolt until it is tight.
Fig. 7.23 Off Set Socket Wrench Fig. 7.24 T-Socket Wrench
Fig. 7.25 Ratchet Wrench
(x) Hollow – Set screw Wrench : A hollow set screw wrench, sometimes
called an Allen wrench, is made of hexagonal – shaped stock. They are used to
fit set screws or head screws and are available in many sizes.
Fig. 7.26 Hollow - Set Screw or Allen Screw
(xi) Strap wrench: A strap wrench is used for turning cylindrical parts or
pipes, or holding or revolving any job on which the surface finish must be
preserved.
Fig. 7.27 Strap Wrench
(xii) Pipe Wrench : A pipe wrench is a tool designed to grip and turn a
pipe or rod about its axis in one direction only. It has adjustable serrated jaws,
the serrated edges tend to cut into the metal being gripped, so care should be
taken to protect plated or finished surfaces.
Conduit
Fig. 7.28 Pipe Wrench
(xiii) Rib joint Wrench : A rib joint wrench. It has an adjustable channel
with which one jaw can be adjusted. It can be used as a plier as well as a
wrench.
Adjustable Channel
Straight Jaw
Handle Nut
Bolt
Fig. 7.29 Rin Joint Wrench
(xiv) Chain Pipe

Wrench : A chain pipe
wrench. It is mainly used to grip
the big size conduits. This
chain pipe wrench or simply
chain wrench is mainly used to
install sub-mercible pumps in
the tube – wells.
Fig. 7.30 Chain Pipe Wrench
7.1.13 Miscellaneous Tools

Some of the following important tools, associated with an electrician or
used in our daily life are:
(a) Voltage tester: The voltage tester used to find the supply in a live
conductor or system. It should not be used as a screw driver except for small
screws.
(b) Wire stripper: The wire stripper used to remove the insulation of cables.
It removes the insulation without any scratches or cuttings on the conductor.
Neon Lamp
Insulated Handle
Insulated Blade
Adjustment Wheel
Fig. 7.31 Stripper
7.2 Wire Joints

7.2.1 Splicing or Joining of Wires
In house-wiring or in any wiring system, the splicing (jointing) of wires is
essential. To make use of the wire pieces or to extend the length of a wire,
another wire is to be spliced to it. The termination of wires is needed, as the
wires are to be connected to switches, sockets, lamp holders, ceiling roses etc.
As far as possible the splicing should be avoided in conduit runs or casing capping.
But sometimes when repairing old wiring system splicing becomes necessary.
Splicing should always be carried out at out lets i.e. in switches, ceiling roses or
in junction boxes etc. Splicing should be mechanically strong; it should have
95% tensile strength and 100% electrical continuity.
The following are the various operations for making a joint:
(a) Removing of insulation
(b) Cleaning of conductor
(c) Twisting and over laying the conductors.
(d) Splicing the conductors
(e) Soldering the splice
(f) Insulating (Taping) the splice.
(a) Removing of Insulation : For splicing two conductors together,

first their insulation should be removed in a tapered fashion, which facilitates
better splicing and insulation of the splice. While removing the insulation care
should be taken such that conductor will not get any scratches or cuts. The
insulation should be removed to the required lengths only i.e. 2.5 cm
approximately.
Fig. 7.32 Removing Insulation
(b) Cleaning of Conductor : After removing the insulation, the

conductor should be cleaned with the help of sand paper. So that enamel costed
insulation present on the conductor will be removed.
(c) Twisting and over laying the Conductors: The bare conductor
after cleaning should be twisted properly. If it is a single core conductor twisting
is not necessary. The overlaying of conductors in cross-position prevents the
two wires being separated out under pressure.
(d) Splicing the Conductors : Now with the help of plier or forefinger
and thumb make four to eight turns on both sides of the cross – position.
Fig. 7.33 Twisting of Wires Fig. 7.34 Finished Joints
(e) Soldering the splice: The splice should be soldered in order to

make it strong and avoids the formation of carbon in between the turns. The
soldering can be done with the help of soldering iron for small size splices and
for large size splices (which are used for under ground cables) either blow lamp
will be used or solder will be heated and poured on the splice, with the help of
blow lamp the splice will be heated to certain temperature such that the solder
wire (lead and tin), which when place over the splice should melt.
(f) Insulating the splice: The soldered splice should be provided with
insulation. For house wiring splices, a rubber tape or black tape should be
wrapped uniformly. Each turn of the tape should over lap a part of the previous
turn. The tape should cover the entire splice and part of the insulation on the
cable on either side of the splice also should be covered.
Some of the common methods employed for jointing of cables are:
1. Western Union Joint: It is a straight joint and is used to increase the
length of single core cables only. The western joint is well explained with the
help of fig 7.32, 7.33 and fig 7.34. It is also known as twisted joint. It is also
used for bare conductor as shown in fig 7.35. Two clean bare conductors pieces
are placed one over the other as shown in fig 7.35(a). Leave a portion of 8 cm
in the centre. Give a neck turn and twist one conductor around the other making
3 to 4 turn. Repeat the same on the other end and cut the surplus conductors as
shown in fig 7.35(b).
(a) Base Conductor (b) Completed Joint
Fig. 7.35 Western Union Joint
2. Married Joint: It is also a straight joint but is used to join stranded

cables. Let us consider a seven strand cable and follow the steps given below
for the joint:
(i) Remove the insulation of both cable upto a length of about 6 to 8 cm
from one side of each cable in a tapered fashion as shown in fig 7.36
(a).
(ii) Remove the also braid if present for about 1 to 2 cm on each cable.
(iii) Scatter the strands by twisting the conductors in opposite direction
leaving about 4 cm from the insulation end and bind it at this point with
binding wire as shown in fig 7.36(b).
(iv) Clean each strand neatly

with emery paper (sand paper) and
cur off the middle strand.
(v) Bring both the cables end (a) Removing of Insulation
to end and mix them intersecting with
other at alternate strands as shown in
fig 7.36 (c). Hold one cable in the left
hand and wrap the one strand around (b) Scatter the Wires
the twisted portion of the other in
opposite direction, and complete the
wrapping of other strand also. Repeat
the method of wraping strands on the (c) Intersecting the Strands
other side of the conductor. Round off
the ends of both the cables with the
(d) Finished Married Joint
help of wooden hammer (mallet) or
plier. Fig. 7.36 Married Joint
(vi) The joint is then soldered and insulated with insulation tape.
3. Britannia (Straight) Joint: This is also another straight joint and is
suitable for bare overhead conductors. To make this joint, conductors are cleaned
with the help emery paper for a length of 8 to 10 cm (even more depending
upon the size of the conductor). The conductors are then made straight and a
little bend is given at their ends. The conductors are then held together firmly
and wound over tightly with a copper binding wire. The joint is then soldered
(insulation tape will not be used).
Fig 7.37(b) shows Britannia ‘Tee’ joint. It is usually used for over head
lines for tapping the electrical energy.
(a) Britannia Straight Joint (b) Britannia Tee Joint

Fig. 7.37 Britannia Joint
4. Tee-Joint: It is also known as single branch splice and is used for

taking a tapping or connection from a straight through cable or over head line.
(b) Branching Cable

(a) Running Cable
(c) Finished Joint
Fig. 7.38 Tee Joint of Single Core Conductor

Consider a running cable and branch cable. Remove the insulation of
the running cable in a tapered fashion for a length of 2 to 3 cm. Also remove the
insulation of the branching cable for a length of 3 to 4 cm as shown in fig () and
fig () respectively. Clean the conductors with the help of a emery paper. Keep
the branching wire in quadrature (90°) with the running wire and turn the branching
wire around the running wire and complete atleast 5 to 8 turns as shown in fig.
7.38(c). Now the joint should be soldered and insulated.
(a) Running Cable
(b) Turning of Branching Cable (c) Finished Joint
Fig. 7.39 ‘TEE’ Joint of a Stranded cable
Fig 7.39 illustrates the tee joint or branch splich or a tap joint of a
stranded cable.
Remove the insulation of both the running and branching cable suitably
and after cleaning the conductors with emery paper, separate the strands of the
running cables as shown in fig 7.69 (a). Insert the branching conductors into the
middle of the opening made in the running conductor. Divide the strands of the
branching cable in to two equal groups and wrap them into opposite direction
as shown in fig 7.39 (b). Now complete 3 to 5 turns by each group of the
branching cable in the opposite direction as shown in fig 7.39(c). Lastly solder
the joint and insulate with the tape.
(a) Staggered Manner of removing insulation for running cable
(b) Finished Tee Joint
Fig. 7.40 Tee Joint of a DCC
Fig. 7.40 illustrates the tee joint of a double core (or twin core) cable.
Some times it is necessary to provide a tee joint in a double (twin) core

cable. In such cases remove the insulation of the running cable in a staggered
and tapered fashion as shown in fig. 7.40(a). Remove also the insulation of the
branching cable in a tapered fashion. Clean the conductors with emery paper
and hold the two lengths of the branching cable at 90° to the running cable.
Wrap the branching conductors over running conductors in the opposite direction
and provide at least 5 to 8 turns as shown in fig 7.40(b). Now solder and
provide the insulation tape.
5. Pig Tail or Rat Tail or Straight Joint: Pig tail is often required for
termination of the conductor in switches, sockets, lamp holders, ceiling roses
etc.
Fig. 7.41 Pigtail Joint of a Single Core Cable

Fig. 7.41 illustrates a pig tail joint of a single core cable. Remove the
insulation of both the cables for a legth of 3 t o5 cm in a tapered fashion. After
cleaning the conductors keep the conductors with their insulation parallel and
twist the two conductors by hand or with the help of plier, keep the length of the
twist at least 2 to 8 cm and cut-out the remaining conductor. Now solder the
joint and provide the inslation.
Fig. 7.42 Pigtal Joint of a single core cable and flexible cable
Fig 7.42 illustrates a pig tail joint of a single core cable and a flexible
cable. In this case the flexible wire should be wrapped over the solid conductor
over the solid conductor for a length of 2 to 3 cm, then the solid conductor
should be bent back. After soldering for providing tape care should be taken to
see that no part of the joint should be left without tape for this purpose tape
should be started between the cables.
7.3 Soldering a Joint
Soldering is a process of making joints between two metallic surfaces by a
metal alloy which melts at lower temperature than that of the metals to be jointed.
The material used as a solder for joining of conductors consists of an
alloy of lead and tin in the ratio of 1:1 (or 50/50) and it melts at 200°. The
melting temperature can be reduced by increasing the tin quantity.
The following are the various devices for soldering a joint:
(a) Soldering iron (for small size joints)
(b) blow lamp
(c) ladle and pot (for larger size joints)
(a) Soldering Iron: It is used for small size joints such as Radio, TV,
Computer and other electronic field. When the soldering iron cord is connected
to AC. Supply the copper bar gets heated and melts the solder placed over the
tip of the bar for making joint. Before making a joint the wires should be cleaned
and then only soldered.
Fig. 7.43
(b) Blow Lamp : The blow lamp is used for soldering the joints of large
size such as under ground cable etc. It is capable of producing very high
temperatures. Usually kerosene oil is used in the lamp. It directs the flame on to
the job or joint and increased the temperature. When the solder is placed over
the joint it melts and spreads over the joint. It is essential to heat the joint to a
proper temperature; if it is under-heated proper soldering can not be done, and
if it is over-heated the conductor joint becomes weak and brittle. Proper
temperature can be tested with the help of solder. Which when placed over the
joint should just melt.
Fig. 7.44 Blow Lamp Fig 7.45 (a) Ladle and Pot
(c) Ladle and Pot : This method is used to solder large size joints. First
the solder is heated in a pot. After cleaning the joint the melted solder should be
poured over the joint with the help of ladle until entire joint is soldered as shown
in fig (). A dish or tray should be placed below the joint to collect the solder
which flows through the joint.
(b) Melted Solder Pouring over the Joint
7.3.1 Termination of Wires at Terminal Screws

The bending of a cable conductor into a proper shape (circular fashion
or fixing into a lug etc). is known as termination. The termination is needed as
the cables or wires are to be connected to switches, sockets, holders etc. The
terminals can be terminated by the following two methods:
• by using solder type terminal lugs or splicers.
• By using solder less terminals lugs or connectors.
(a) Bending of a cable conductor (b) Conductor Terminal Connection
Fig. 7.46
Consider a 1/18 cable conductor for termination in to the screw of a

switch or socket. First the insulation of the cable should be removed in a tapered
fashion, and the conductor should be bent in the form of a loop as shown in fig
7.46.
While bending care should be taken to see that the conductor must be
bend in the (clock wise direction) same direction in which the terminal screw is
to be turned for tightening. Such an action closes the loop in the process and
keeps in a tight position. Fig 2.23(b) shows the terminal point, when the binding
nut or screw is tightened, it also tends to tighten the conductor eye.
This method of termination is some times not desirable when, the

conductor size is large or design requirements are rigid.
Ve n t
Barr e l
To ng ue
(a) Soldering Lug (b) Joints between conduc- (c) Solder - Type
tors larger than 7/0.44 must Terminal Lug
be made with substantial
mechanical clamps of
sweating sockets.
Fig. 7.47
When heavy conductors are to be terminated into a small nut and bolt
screw, some times soldering lugs used as shown in fig 7.47. The soldering lugs
are also called as terminal lugs. They are available in different shapes and sizes.
Each type of lug has a barrel (or sleeve) which is wedged, crimped, or soldered
to its conductor.
There is also a tongue with a hold or slot in it to receive the terminal post
or screw. The conductor tip is stripped and also tinned, then inserted into the
preheated lug. When mounted, the conductor insulation should butt against the
lug barrel, so that there is no exposed conductor. When the termination is
supposed to be opened very frequently, in such cases a solder less connection is
made for lighter or heavier conductors as shown in fig 7.47. Splicers and terminal
lugs which do not require solder are more widely used than those which do
require solder. Solder less connectors are attached to their conductors by means
of several different devices. They are all squeezed (crimped) tightly onto their
conductors. They afford adequate electrical contact, plus great mechanical
strength. In addition, solder less conductors are easier to mount correctly because
they are free from the most common problems of solder connector mounting;
namely, cold solder joints, burned insulation and so forth.
7.3.2 Standard Wire Gauge
Standard wire gauge is also known as British Standard Wire (BSW)
gauge and is used to measure the size of the wires. The size of the wires are not
measured in terms of areas, but are measured in terms of numbers, which are
assigned to the wire sizes.
Fig. 7.48
Suppose we want to measure the size or wire (or cable), the wire should
be inserted into suitable slot and that particular number marked on the slot into
which exactly fits is its gauge number. The diameter and area of the wire can be
determined from the table.
The smallest wire gauge number is 40 having a diameter of 0.1219 mm
(0.0048 inch); while the largest number is 00,00,000 (named as seven zero) or
in short written a 7/0 having a diameter of 12.70 mm. It should be remembered
that the higher the number of wire gauge the smaller is the diameter. Fig () shows
the wire gauge used for measuring the sizes of wires. Table () gives the diameter
and the area of the British standard wire gauge.
7.3.3 Number of Strands and Current Carrying Capacity
While giving the specification of an insulated wire we have to mention
the number of strands and gauge number, type of insulation and the material of
the conductor.
For example: 3/20 VIR Aluminium wire
The numerator 3 represents number of strands and the denominator 20
represent the gauge number with VIR insulation and the material is aluminium.
Table () and Table () gives the current capacity of various size cables.
Table 2.1
British Standard Wire Gauge (S.W.G)
Gauge Diameter Area Gauge Diameter Area

No. (mm) (mm)2 No. (mm) (mm)2
7/0 12.7000 126.6760 18 1.2192 1.1675
6/0 11.7856 109.0921 19 1.0160 .8107
5/0 10.9728 94.3638 20 .9144 .6567
4/0 10.1600 81.0732 21 .8128 .5189
3/0 9.4488 70.1202 22 .7112 .3973

2/0 8.8392 61.3643 23 .6096 .2919
0 8.2296 53.1921 24 .5588 .2453
1 7.6200 45.6037 26 .5080 .2027
2 7.0104 38.5990 26 .4572 .16417

3 6.4008 32.1780 27 .4166 .13628
4 5.8928 27.2730 28 .3759 .11099
5 5.3848 22.7734 29 .3454 .09372
6 4.8768 18.6792 30 .3150 .07791

7 4.4705 15.6958 31 .2946 .06818
8 4.0640 12.9717 32 .2743 .05910
9 3.6576 10.5071 33 .2540 .05067
10 3.2512 8.3019 34 .2337 .04289

11 2.9464 6.0183 35 .2134 .03575
12 2.6416 5.4805 36 .1930 .02927
13 2.3368 4.2888 37 .1727 .02343
14 2.0320 3.2429 38 .1524 .018241

15 1.8288 2.6268 39 .1321 .013701
16 1.6256 2.0755 40 .1219 .011675
17 1.4224 1.5890
Table 2.2
Current Carrying capacity of PVC Insulated : PVC sheathed, Aluminium
conductor cable confirming to IS : 1554 (Part - I)
Nominal Nominal Nominal Approxi- Current Rating

cross thickness thickness mate
In Ground In Duct In Air
sectional of of outer overall
area insulation sheath dia 2 core 3-core 2 core 3-core 2 core 3-core
(sq.mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (amp) (amp) (amp) (amp) (amp) (amp)
1.5 1.1 1.8 7.4 17 13 16 13 15 12
2.5 1.2 1.8 8.0 24 19 22 19 20 16
4.0 1.3 1.8 8.7 31 25 29 26 29 23
6.0 1.3 1.8 9.2 40 32 38 31 36 30

10.0 1.3 1.8 10.0 51 46 52 46 52 41
16.0 1.3 1.8 11.5 66 61 63 60 64 58
25.0 1.5 1.8 12.9 86 82 84 80 90 80

35.0 1.5 1.8 14.0 115 96 106 96 115 100
50.0 1.5 1.8 15.2 145 120 130 115 150 130
70.0 1.5 1.8 17.0 170 140 155 135 185 155
95.0 1.6 2.0 19.4 205 175 180 155 215 190
120.3 1.6 2.0 20.9 230 195 200 170 240 220
150.0 1.8 2.0 22.8 265 220 200 190 270 250
185.0 2.0 2.0 25.0 300 240 240 210 305 290
240.0 2.2 2.0 27.9 335 270 270 225 350 335
300.0 2.4 2.2 30.9 370 295 295 245 395 380
400.0 2.6 2.2 34.1 410 325 335 275 455 435
500.0 3.0 2.2 37.9 435 345 355 295 490 480
630.0 3.4 2.4 42.9 485 390 395 320 560 550
800.0 3.4 2.6 49.0 525 440 420 350 650 640
1000.0 3.4 2.8 53.9 570 490 445 380 735 720

(1) What is the difference between a wire and cable?
(2) List the various types of cables.
(3) Write short-notes on the following
(a) VIR cables

(b) CTS or TRS cables
(c) PVC cables
(d) Weather-proof cables
(e) Flexible cables.
(4) What are the various operations for making a joint?
(5) Explain the following with neat sketches:
(a) Western Joint
(b) Married Joint
(c) Britannia Joint
(d) Tee-Joint
(e) Pig-Tail Joint
(6) Explain the soldering of a joint with the help of soldering-iron
and Blow-lamp.
(7) What do you understand by termination of wire?
(8) How you will measure the size of a wire?
(9) What is the different between PVC and CTS wires?
1. Draw a screw driver and name the various parts.
2. What is the material used for the shank of a screw drivers?
3. State the applications of a screw driver.
4. List the various types of screw driver.
5. What are the various applications of pliers?
6. List the various types of pliers.
7. State the function of a diagonal cutting pliers.
8. With a neat sketch identify the various parts of a ball – peen hammer.
9. How many types of hack-saw’s are there and what are their functions?
10. Draw a wooden chisel and name the parts.

11. State the functions of the following:
(a) Scratch Awl
(b) Hand-drill
(c) Ratchet brace
(d) Auger-bits
(e) Center punch
(f) Rawl plug jumper
12. With a near sketch identify the parts of a file.
13. What is pipe-vise? How many types of pipe-vises are there?
14. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Taps
(b) Die and die set
(c) Pipe – cutter
15. How many types of conduit bending tools are there? Explain any one
of them?
16. What is a wrench? And how many types of wrenches are there?
Activities
1. Practice, usage of tools for different applications.
2. Prepare ‘T’ Pig tail and straight joints and paste them.
UNIT 10
Earthing
Learning Objectives
• To understand purpose of Earthing.
• To learn system of earthing.
Introduction
The very purpose of earthing is to safe against dangers of shock and fire
etc. It is essential to have good and effective ‘earthing’ or grounding
The word ‘earthing’ and ‘grounding’ have the same meaning but the
equipment is different from neutral point earthing. This chapter deals with the
equipments earthing only.
A poor safety ground or one that is wired incorrectly is more dangerous
than no ground at all. The poor ground is dangerous because it does not offer
full protection while the user is lulled into a false sense of security. The incorrectly
wired ground is a hazard because one of the wires and the safety ground are
transposed; making the shell of the tool ‘hot’ the instant the plug is connected.
Thus the unwary user is trapped, unless by poor chance the safety ground is
connected to the grounded side of the line on a single-phase ground system, on
no ground are present on the ungrounded system, this instance the user again
goes blithely along using the tool until he encounters a receptacle which has bits
wires transposed or a ground appears on the system.
Because there is absolutely Fullproof method of insuring that all tools are
safely grounded (and because of the tendency of the average technician to ignore
the use of the grounding wire) the old method of using a separate external wire
has been discontinued. Instead a 3-wire, standard, colorcoded cord with a
polarized plug and a ground pin is required. In this manner safety ground is
made a part of the connecting cord and plug. Since the polarized plug can be
connected only to a mating receptacle, the user has no choice but to use the
safety ground.
All new tools properly connected, Use the green wire as the safety ground.
This wire is attached to the metal case of the tool at one end and to the polarized
grounding pin in the connector at the other hand. It normally carries no current,
but is used only when tool insulation fails, in which case it short circuits the
electricity ground around the user to ground and protects him from shock. The
green lead must never be mixed with the black or white leads which are the true
current carrying conductors.
Check the resistance of the grounding system with a low reading ohmmeter
to conform that the grounding is adequate (less than 1 ohm is acceptable). If the
resistance indicate greater than 1 ohm, use a separate ground strap.
Some old installations are not equipped with receptacles that will accept
the grounding plug. In this events use one of the following methods:
1. Use an adapter fitting
2. Use the old type plug and bring the green ground wire out separately.
3. Connected an independent safety ground line.
When using the adapter, be sure to connect the ground lead extension to a
good ground. (Do not use the centre screw which holds the cover plate on the
respectable). Where the separate safety ground leads are externally connected
to a ground, be certain to first connect the ground and then plug in the tool, first
remove the line plug and then disconnect the safety ground. The safety ground is
always connected first and removed last.
10.1 Purpose of Earthing
Fig 10.1 illustrates an electric iron connected to supply through 3-core
cable. The line and neutral and connected to heating element where as the earth
wire (green shown dotted) is connected to the metal frame of the iron. The earth
terminal in turn connected to the neutral earthing at sub-station through mass of
earth. Due to insulation damage or otherwise, the live wire touches the metal
frame of iron, it effectively gets connected to the earth.
If the person holds the iron current will not pass through his body because
the resistance of the earth will be less than the human body resistance. Hence
the person will be protected from the electric shock. Meanwhile the current will
pass through the low resistance path of the earth wire causing the fuse wire in
the live wire to blow and thus protect the circuit.
Fig. 10.1 Electric Iron Connected to Supply with 3-Core Cable
If the earth wire is not provided (i.e. 2-core cable is used) then the live wire
accidentally makes contacts with the iron frame, the latter will be at the same
potential as the live wire (i.e. 230-v). If the person holds the wire unknowingly
the current flows through the body of the person as shown in the fig 10.2 which
is very dangerous to life.
Metal Body of Electric Iron

Sub Station Consumer D.B
Neutral
Earthing
Fig. 10.2 Fault Current Path When no earth is provided
Hence from the above it is clear that the non-current carrying metallic parts
in the neighborhood of electrical circuits must be earthened, which ensures safety
to human life. The non-current carrying parts include the following:
(i) Motor body, switch gear metal enclosure, transformer tank, conduits of
wiring etc.
(ii) Support structures, tower poles etc.
(iii) Sheaths of cables

(iv) Body of equipments such as iron, oven heater, kettle etc.
Electricity is dangerous. Death can occur even with 230-V shock.. The
equipment earthing is essential safety measure..
10.2 Types of Earthing
The various methods of earthing are as follows:
1. Rod earthing
2. Strip or wire earthing
3. Pipe earthing
4. Plate earthing
1. Rod earthing
This method of earthing is simple, cheap and does not need the excavation.
It is suitable for the areas which are having loose soil conditions or sandy.
In this system of earthing a 16mm dia. GI solid rod ( or 125m dia copper
rod 25mm GI pipe) of length not less than 2.5m driven vertically into the ground
either manually or by hammer. Sometimes it may be necessary to drive more
than one rod to reduce the earth resistance to desired value.
2. Strip or wire earthing
In this method of earthing a metal strip or wire is used as earthing electrode.
This type of earthing is preferred at places where soil is rocky with a earth bed
over it, because the excavation is difficult at such places.
In this system 24x4mm GI strip or 25x1.6m copper strip (or 6mm2GI wire
or 3mm square copper wire) is buried in horizontal trenches of minimum depth
0.5m. The length of the strength or wire depends upon the requirement of earth
resistance. It shall however be not less than15m. Sometimes it may be necessary
to use more than one-strip/ or wire laid in parallel or radial trenches.
Fig. 10.3 Strip Or Wire Earthing

3. Pipe earthing
In this method of earthing,a 38mm internal diameter, perfornated galvanized
pipe of length 2.5mm is placed vertically (up right) in a permanently wet soil.
Where the rock is encountered at the length of less than 2.5m the electrode may
be buried inclined to the vertical.
Fig. 10.4 Pipe Earthing
The inclination should not be more than 30 degrees from the vertical. The
pipe is surrounded by a pieces of coke or charcoal and salt in alternate layers of
about 15cm around the pipe is used to decrease the resistance as shown in fig
10.4. Another pipe of 19mm dia and length 1.25m is connected through the
buried pipe through reducing socket.
At the top of 19mm pipe a funnel is fited and is fastened in a cement

concrete work. For effective earthing water should be poured, 2 to 4 buckets
now and then through funnel particularly in summer.
The earthwire (either GI wire or pipe) is carried in a GI pipe of 12.7mm
diameter at a depth of 60cm from the ground level.
If it is necessary to reduce the depth of burial of a electrode under unavoidable
circumstances, this can be done without increasing the earth resistance. It is
achieved by using number of electrodes connecting them together. The distance
between two elecxtrodes in such case should not less than twice the length of
the electrode.
Acast iron cover is hinged in a small masonary work on the top of the
earthing to facilitate its identification and periodical checking etc.
4. Plate earthing
Fig. 10.5 Plate Earthing

In this type of earthing a copper plate of dimension 60cm x 60cm x 3.15mm

or a GI plate of 60cm x 60cm x 6.3mm is used as an earth electrode. Plate
electrode should be buried with its face vertical such that the top edge is at a
depth of not less than 1.5m below the surface of the ground. The electrode is
surrounded by alternate layers of broken pieces of coke or salt. The earth wire
is securely bolted to the earth plate with the help of bolt, run and weather made
of copper for copper electrode and GI for GI electrode.
A cast iron cover is provided at the top of the earthing with a hing to facilitate
its identification and for its period checking.
When resistance of one plate earthing is higher than the required value
more than one plates should be earthed and connected together.
10.3 Selection of Earthing
Rod earthing is used very rarely but can be seen at agricultural pumps to
glow the lamps. Strip or wire earthing is used only at rocky soil areas.
To provide the earthing for refrigerators, air cooler, heater, geyzer, electric
iron (domestic appliances) etc., in house wiring installations and to provide the
earthing for pole mounted substations as well as distribution poles, pipe earthing
is sufficient.
Plate earthing is used for large installations such as sub-stations, transmission
towers etc.
The maximum permissible values of each resistance for satisfactory operation
are given below:
Large power stations=0.5 ohms
Major sub-stations=1.0 ohms
Small sub-station=2.0 ohms
In all other cases=8.0 ohms
Factors effecting the earth resistance
1. Soil condition (black soil, red soil, rocky soil, etc)
2. Moisture content in the soil.
3. Temperature of the soil.
4. Size of the earth electrode
5. Depth of the electrode embedded below the ground level.
6. Material of the electrode

7. Quality of coal or charcoal pieces or powder.
8. Quantity of coal and salt.
10.3.1 Material Estimation
S.No. Specification of Material Qty. Remarks
1. G..I. Plate 60 cm x 60cm x 6.30 mm 1 No.

2. G.I. wire (8 SWG) 4m
3. 12.7 mm GI pipe 2m
4. 19mm GI Pipe 1.5 m For watering
5. G..I. nuts, bolts, check nut and washers 6 sets Four at point ‘A’
and two for funnel

6. G.I. bend 12.7 . 1 No. For connecting
earth wire
7. G.I. lugs 3 No.
8. Cast iron frame with hinges 30 x 30 cm 1 No.
9. Cast iron cover 30 x 30 cm 1 No.
10. Funnel with wire mesh 1 No. LS = Lump Sum
11. Charcoal or coke 20 kg
12. Salt 20 kg
13. Cement concrete L.S.
14 Caution plate painted 1 No.
Example 10.1: Draw a neat sketch of suitable earthing to be provided for

a 12kw industrial load and prepare the quantity estimate of material required.
Indicate the details giving dimensions.
Solution: Refer art for the sketch of pipe earthing with its dimensions.
Schedule of Material
S.No. Specification of Material Qty. Remarks
1. 38 mm dia G.I. pipe perrforated 2.5 m

2. 19 mm G.I. pipe 1m
3. 12.7 mm GI pipe 2m
4. G.I. wire 8 SWG 6 m
5. G.I. (38x19mm) reducing socket 1 No.
6. G.I. lugs 2 No.
7. Nuts, bolts, locknut and washer for 19mm 2 sets
8. G.I. bends 12.7 mm 2 No.
9. 30x30 cm cast ironframe with hinges 1 No.
10. 30 x 30 cm cast iron cover 1 No.
11. Funnel with wire mesh 1 No.
12. Charcoal or Coal (pieces) 20 kg
13. Cement concrete L.S.
14 Caution plate painted 1 No. LS = Lump Sum
10.4 Measure of Earth Resistance

Earth resistance can be measured by Earth Tester or Megger. For satisfactory
operation, the approximate permissible values of earth resistance for various
applications are given below:
• Large power station .................................... = 0.5 ohms
• Major sub stations ................................... = 1.0 ohms
• Small sub stations ................................... = 2.0 ohms
• In all other cases .................................. = 5.0 to 8.0 ohms

1. What do you understand by the term earthing?
2. What is the necessity of earthing?
3. Explain the rod earthing?
4. Explain the strip or wire earthing?
5. What are the factors effecting earth resistance?
Or
State the factors on which the resistance of earth depends.
6. List the points to be earthened?
7. Draw the neat sketch of a dimensional pipe earthing and estimate the
quantity of material required for the same.
8. Draw the neat sketch of the dimensional plate earthing and estimate
the quantity of material required for the same.
Activities
1. Visist a pole mounted/plinth mounted transformer and watch earthing
system.
2. Visit a shopping Mall and watch the earthing method.
3. Visit a near by flour mill and watch earthing system.
UNIT 11
Safety Precautions and I.E.
Rules for Wiring
Learning Objectives
• To learn and practice I.E. rules
• To learn about shock and its effects and about first aid
Introduction
In the performance of his or her normal duties, the technician is exposed to
many potentially many dangerous conditions and situations. No training manual,
no set of rules or regulations, no listing of hazards can make working conditions
completely safe. However it is possible for the technician to complete a full
career without serious accidents or injury. Attainment of this goal requires that
he be aware of the main sources of danger, and he remain constantly aware of
those dangers. He must take the proper precautions and practice the basic rules
of safety. He must be safety conscious at all times, and this safety consciousness
second nature to him.
The purpose of this chapter is to indicate some of the major hazards
encountered in the normal working conditions of the technicians, and to indicate
some of the basic precautions that must be observed. Although many of these
hazards and precautions are general, and apply to all personal, some of them
are peculiar or especially applicable to personal concerned with electrical and
electronic maintenance.
Most accidents which occur in non-combat operations can be prevented if

the full cooperation of personnel is gained, and care is exercised to eliminate
unsafe acts and conditions. In the following paragraphs some general safety
rules are listed. These rules apply to personnel in all types of activities and each
individual should strictly observe the following precautions as applicable to his
work or duty:
1. Report any unsafe condition or any equipment or a material which he
considers to be unsafe.
2. Warn others whom he believes to be endangered by known hazards or
by failures to observe safety precautions.
3. Wear or use available protective clothing or equipments of the type
approved for safe performance of his work or duty.
4. Report any injury or evidence of impaired health occurring in the course
of work or duty.
5. Exercise, in the event of any unforeseen hazardous occurrence, such
reasonable caution as is appropriate to the situation.
11.1 Safety Precautions
11.1.1 Precuations in handling tools
i. The sharp edged tools such as pocket knife, chisels, scratching and should
be put in pocket without shield and while working with such tools, care
should be taken not to place hand or finger in to path of motions of the
cutting tool.
ii. When cutting with a chisel, always cut away from you rather than towards
yourself.
iii. Before using a hammer, its handle must be examined whether it is properly
secured or not.
iv. When making a cut with a saw, the cut must be guided with a finger and
thumb of one hand, otherwise the blade is liable to brake which may
cause serious injurious.
v. After using tools, they should never be left at the top of the ladder or any
other place since they may all accidentally and cause injury.
vi. Only a suitable tool should be used for the proper purpose.
vii. All injuries must be attended to immediately since delay may cause
infection.
11.1.2 Precautions to be observed while installing different Electric

Appliances in Houses
Safe practices will protect you and your fellow workers. Study the following
rules discuss them with others and ask your teacher about any that you do not
understand.
1. Do not work when you’re tired or taking medicines that makes you
drowsy.
2. Do not work in poor light.
3. Do not work in damp areas or with wet clothes or shoes.
4. Use approved tools, equipment and protective devices.
5. Avoid wearing rings and bracelets, and similar metal items when working
around exposed electric circuits.
6. Never assume that a circuit is off. Double check it with an instrument
that you are sure is operational.
7. Some situations require a buddy “buddy system” to guarantee that power
will not be turned on while a technician is still working on a circuit.
8. Never tamper with or try to over ride safety devices such as an interlock
(a type of switch that automatically removes power a door is opened or a panel
is removed.
9. Keep the tools and test equipments clean and in good working condition.
Replace insulated probes and leads at the first sign of deterioration.
10. Some devices such as capacitors, can store a lethal charge. They may
store this charge or long periods of time. You must be certain that these devices
are discharged before working around them.
11. Do not remove grounds, and do not use adapters that defeat the
equipment ground.
12. Use only an approved fire extinguisher for electric and electronic
equipment. Water can conduct electricity and may severely damage equipment.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) or halogenated type extinguishers are usually preferred.
Foam-type extinguishers may also be desired in some cases. Commercial fire
extinguishers are rated for the type of fires for which they are effective. Use only
those rated extinguishers for the proper working conditions.
13. Follow directions when using solvents and other chemicals. They may
be toxic, flammable or may be damage certain materials such as plastic.
14. . A few materials used in electronic equipments are toxic. Examples
include tantalum, capacitors and beryllium oxide transistor cases. These devices
should not be crushed or abraded and you wash your hands thoroughly after
handling them. Other materials (such as heat shink) tubing may produce irritating
fumes if overheated.
15. Certain circuit components affect the safe performance of equipments
and system. Use only exact or approved equipment parts.
16. Use protective clothing and safety glasses when handling high-vacuum
devices such as picture tubes and cathode ray tube.
17. Don’t work on equipment before you know proper procedures and
are aware of any essential safety hazards.
18. Many accidents have been caused by people rushing and cutting corners.
Take the time required to protect yourself and others. Running, horseplay, and
practical jokes are strictly forbidden in shops and laboratories.
Circuits and equipments must be treated with respect. Learn how they
work and the proper way of working on them. Always practice safety: your
health and health depend on it.
11.2 Efects of Shock
Electric shock is a jarring, shaking sensation resulting from contact with
electric circuits or from the effects of lightning. The victim usually feels that he or
she received a sudden blow, if the voltage and resulting current is sufficiently
high, the victims may become unconscious. Severe burns may appear on the
skin at the place of contact muscular spasm may occur, causing the victim to
clasp the apparatus or wire which causes the shock and be unable to turn it
loose.
The amount of current that may pass through the body without danger
depends on the individual or current quantity, type, path and length of contact
time.
Body resistance varies from 1000 to 5, 00,000 ohms for unbroken dry
skin. Resistance is lowered by moisture and high voltage and is highest with dry
skin and low voltage. Breaks, cuts or burns may lower body resistance. A current
of 1 milliamperes can be felt and will cause a person to avoid it. The term
milliamperes is very small amount of current or 1/1000 of an ampere. Current as
low as 5 milliamperes can be dangerous. If the palm of the hand makes contact
with the conductor, a current of about12 milliamperes will tend to cause the
hand muscles to contract, freezing the body to the conductor. Such a shock may
or may not cause serious damage, depending on the contact time and your
physical condition, particularly the condition of your heart. A current of 25
milliamperes has been known to be fatal.
Due to the physiological and chemical nature of the human body five times
more direct current than alternating current is needed to freeze the same body to
a conductor. Also 50-hertz (cycles per second) alternating current is about the
most dangerous frequency. This is normally used in residential, commercial and
industrial power.
The damage from shock is also proportional to the number of vital organs
transversed, especially the percentage of current that reaches the heart.
Currents especially 100 and 200 milliamperes are lethal. Ventricular fibrillation
of the heart occurs when the current through the body approaches 100
miliamperes. Ventrical fibrillation is the unco-ordinated actions of the walls of
the hearts ventricles. This in turn causes the loss of the pumping action of the
heart.. This fibrillation will usually continue some force is used to restore the co-
ordination of the hearts actions.
Severe burns and unconsciousness are also produced by currents of 200
milliaperes or higher. These currents usually do not cause death if the victim is
given immediate attention. The victim will usually respond if rendered resuscitation
in the form of artificial respiration. This is due to 20 milliamperes of current
clamping the heart muscles which prevents the heart from going in to ventricular
fibrillation.
When a person is rendered unconscious by a current passing through the
body. It is impossible to tell you how much current caused the unconsciousness.
Artificial respiration is to be applied immediately if breathing has stopped.
The effects of electric shock are:
1. There may be fatal paralysis of heart.
2. There may be sudden stoppage of breathing due to paralysis of muscles
used in breathing.
3. Heart may continue to beat, while breathing has stopped. In this condition
the face appears blue.
4. There may be burns, either superficial or deep. They depend on the

strength of the electric current causing the injuries.
The effects of various current strengths (a.c) are given below:
1mA to 8mA……………just bearable
9mA to 15mA……………painful shocks (sometimes contact muscles)
16mA to 50mA……may stop breathing (if it passes through chest)
51mA to 200A… ...may cause fibrillation (stop beating of heart)
Beyond 200mA…..may stop breathing without fibrillation.
The high voltage causing currents beyond 20mA punctures the outer causing
burns. The average effective resistance of the body may be taken as 50 ohms
when dry and 1k ohms when wet.
11.3 First Aid For Electric Shock
Intelligent and prompt action of first aider is required in case of electric
shock. If the first aider is not cautious, he may also receive severe electric shock
or even die along with the casualty. Therefore every employee or workers in the
electrical field or those who are having electric supply should make themselves
familiar with the instructions given below:
1. Removal from contact: When a person gets back a shock and he is in
contact with the supply or conductor, first switch off the switch off the switch or
main. If the switch or main is not found, cut the cable with the help of axe or
plastic handled knife but don’t use scissors. If the cable cutting is also not possible
in case of LT supply, the first aider should stand on an insulated material which
is dry, if available rubber gloves should be worn, if not dry coat, cap, clothing or
folded newspaper should be used while removing the casualty victim. In case of
HT supply there is greater danger. The casualty may not be in casual contact
with the wire as the current can pass through the gap causing an arc. The first
aider should keep away from the wires and the casualty should be dragged out
by means of walking stick, dry rope, dry bamboo stick etc.
2. See the victim’s clothes and extinguish the spark if smouldering.
3. Check the victim if he/she breathing but unconscious ring/send for a
doctor. If the victim is not breathing, immediately start artificial respiration as
detailed below until first aid doctor or first aid arrives.
3. In case of fire on electrical installation do not throw water on equipment,
because water is a good conductor of electricity.
5. Use fire extinguishers (CO2) if it is specified for use on electrical

appliances.
6. Don’t energise a line or conductor unless you are sure that it is clear and
no one working on it.
7. Use proper tools for specific work e.g don’t use plier as a hammer.
8. Replaceimmediately broken switches and plugs etc.
9. All metallic parts of electrical equipment should be earthed.
10. The conductor used must be of proper size to carry the load current
safely.
11.4 Indian Electric Rules
11.4.1 Indian electricity rules regarding to internal wiring
1. The minimum size of conductor used in domestic wiring must not be of
size less than 1/1.12mm in copper or 1/1.40mm (1.5mm) in aluminium wire.
2. For flexible wires the minimum size is 14/0.193mm.
3. The height at which meter board, main switchboard are to be fitted 1.5
meters from ground level.
4. The casing will be run at a height of 3.0 meters room ground level.
5. The light brackets should be fixed at a height of 2 to 2.5 meters from
ground level.
6. The maximum number of points in a sub circuit is 10.
7. The maximum load in a sub circuit is 800W.
11.4.2 I.E. Rules regarding
1. I.E. rule no. 48 the insulation resistance between the wiring of an
installation and earth should be of such a value that the leakage current may not
exceed 1/50000 the part or 0.02 percent of the F.L. current.
2. The permissible voltage drop in a lighting circuit is 2% of the supply
voltage plus one volt.
3. The maximum permissible voltage drop in a power industrial circuit should
not be more than 5% of the declared supply voltage.
4. The insulation resistance should not be more than 50 M / No. of

outlets
5. In any case the value should not be more than 0.5 M  and need not to
be more than one mega-ohm.
6. In case of PVC wires, insulation resistance must be 12.5 M / No. of
outlets
7. The earth resistance should not exceed the value of one ohm. Higher
thanthis value shows that conduit or switch has not been properly earthed.
11.4.2 I.E. Rules regarding to power wiring
1. In a power sub circuit the load is normally restricted to 3000 watts and
number of outlets to two in each sub circuit.
2. All equipment used in power wiring shall be iron clad construction and
wiring shall be of the armored cable or conduit type.
3. The length of flexible conduit used for connections between the terminal
boxes of motors and starters, switches and motors shall not exceed
1.25 meters.
4. Every motor, regardless of its size shall be provided with a switch fuse
placed near it.
5. The minimum cross-sectional area of conductor, that can be used for
power minig of 1.25 mm for copper conductor cables and 1.50 mm for
A1 conductor cables (refer ISI recommendations). Hence VIR or PVC
cables of size lower than 3/0.915 mm copper or 1/1.80 mm A1 can not
be used or motor wiring.
6. For motors below 15 bhp which have a very heavy starting current a
fuse should be of current rating to carry the starting current of motor
safely and cable should be of current rating not lower than half of the
current rating of fuse.
ModelQuestions
1. What is the necessity of earthing?
2. State the reasons for fire accidents in electrical system?
3. State at least two reasons for not using fuse in neutral?
4. On what factors the earth resistances depend?

5. What are the effects of electric shock?
6. Explain the procedure of first aid electrical shock treatment to a
person?
7. Suggest any four precautions required to be taken against shock to a
worker?
8. What is meant by an electric shock?
9. State three factors on which the severity of shock depends?
Activities
1. Play a drama with one student met with fire accident and other students
should play a role of rescuing him. (Mock Drill).
UNIT 8
Wiring Systems and Types of
House Wiring
Learning Objectives
• To learn energy distribution system.
• To learn types of wiring system.
• To learn I.E. rules for wiring
8.0 Introduction
A network of cables connecting various electrical accessories for distribution
of electrical energy from the supplier meter board to the various electrical energy
consuming devices such as lamps, fans, radio, TV and other domestic appliances
through controlling and safety devices is known as wiring system.
The supplier (i.e. Andhra Pradesh State Electricity Board, APSEB) service
cable feeding an installation terminates at services fuses (some times called service
cutouts). Service cutouts including service meter (i.e. energy meter) remains the
property of the supplier. The point at which the consumer wiring is connected in
to the cutout is known as point of commencement of supply or consumers
terminals. From consumer terminals onwards the supply cables are under the
control of consumers and so laid as per his choice. Fig (8.1) illustrates a typical
house wiring.
Fig. 8.1 A Typical House Wiring
8.1 Electrical Energy Distribution Systems

As per the recommendations of ISI the maximum number of points of lights,
fans and socket outlets cannot be exceed beyond 10 and the maximum load
that can be connected in such a circuit is 800 watt. Hence in case of more load
or more points to be connected to the supply system, then it is to be done by
having more than one circuit through (a) distribution board system and (b) the
tree system (c) Joint box system and (d) loop – in – system.
(a) Distribution Board System: It is the most commonly adopted system
for distribution of electrical energy in buildings. The fuses of all circuits are grouped
on a distribution board and is also known as fuse board [now – a – days the DP
(double-pole) main switch and fuses are grouped on a single board only].
The distribution board shown in fig (8.1) has 3 sub-circuits or ways, each
circuit is provided with a fuse. The lamps or fans connected to each circuit need
not be in the same room or even on the same floor. For determination of electrical
load of an installation, the following ratings of the appliance may be assumed
unless specified:
(i) Incandescent lamp …….. 60W
(ii) Fluorescnet lamp ……… 40W
(iii) Fans ...... 80W
(iv) Socket outlets …... 100W
(v) Power socket ....... Outlets 1000 W etc
Outlets ……..1,000 W etc.

(b) Tree System: In tree system the sub circuits are taken from the main
circuit or main line as shown in fig (8.2). The wiring system resembles like a tree,
hence it is known as tree system. Now – a – days this system is obsolete due to
scattered fuses, more number of joints involved, difficulty to find the fault since
the joints will be beneath the roof or floor and the lamps in the last sub-circuit
will have less voltage because of more voltage drop in leads etc.
Fig. 8.2 Tree System
(c) Joint Box or Tee System: In this system the connections to the lamps
are made through joints made in joint boxes by means of connectors. The
disadvantage of this system is that more number of T-connections in the wiring.
Now –a – days the use of this system, is limited to temporary installation only as
its cost is low and less cable is required.
Fig. 8.3 Joint Box or Tee System

(d) Loop – in – System: This system is universally adopted for connections

of various lamps, fans and other appliances to the supply source. In this system
the feed conductor looped – in by bringing it direct to the terminal and then
carrying it forward again to the next point to be feed as shown in fig 8.4.
Fig. 8.4 Loop in System
Advantages of loop – In – system:

(i) Joint boxes or connectors are avoided.
(ii) No joint is made in the run cable.
(iii) Joints are not concealed beneath the floor or roof.
(iv) All the joints are at switches and lamps or fans which are accessible
for inspection in case of faults simply by removing the fitments concerned.
Disadvantages of loop – in – system:
(i) Length of the cable required is more:
(ii) Voltage drop and copper losses are more.
Fig. 8.5 Looping In From Ceiling Rose

(iii) Looping – in switches and lamps is usually difficult.

Another method of loop – in is with the help of 2 – plate ceiling roses as shown
in fig. (8.5)
8.2 System of Wiring
The following are the different types of house wiring system:
1. Cleat wiring
2. Wooden casing capping
3. CTS or TRS wiring
4. Lead (or metal) Sheathed Wiring
5. Conduit Wiring
(a) Surface or open type
(b) Recessed or concealed type.
The following points to be considered before deciding any type of wiring:
(i) Durability: The wires selected must be durable and it must be able to
withstand wear and tear due to weather.
(ii) Safety: It is one of the foremost point to be considered. The system
selected should be such that poor workman ship may not produce dangerous
results.
(iii) Cost: The system adopted must be economical to suit the purse of the
individual concerned.
(iv) Appearance: The appearance of wiring has an important bearing on
the architectural beauty and, from aesthetic point of view, concealed conduit
wiring is the proper choice.
(v) Accessibility: The repair and/or extension of the wiring should be
feasible.
General Rules for Wiring
The following general rules should be kept in mind while executing the
electrical wiring work:
1. The current rating of the cable / conductor should be slightly greater
(at least 1.5 times) than the load current.
2. Every live wire / line should be protected by a fuse of suitable rating

as per load requirements.
3. Every sub-circuit should be connected with the fuse distribution board.
4. All metal coverings used for the protection of earth must be connected
to earth.
5. No switch or fuse is used in earth or neutral conductor.
6. Every apparatus should be provided with a separate switch.
7. No additional load should be connected to the existing installation
until it has been satisfied that the installation can safely carry the additional
load.
8. All the switches and starters should be accessible to the operator.
9. A caution notice (danger plate) should be fixed on very equipment.
10.. In any building light wiring and power wiring should be kept
separately.
11. When the installation has been completed it should be tested before
giving the supply and the leakage in the wiring should not exceed 1/5000 of the
maximum current of the load.
12. In 3-phase, 4 – wire installation the load should be distributed almost
equally on all the phases.
13. In case of 3-phse, 4-wire system, at the main board, indication should
be done in Red, Yellow and Blue. Neutral should be indicated in black.
8.3 Cleat Wiring
In this system of wiring cables are supported and gripped between porcelain
cleats 6mm. above the wall or roof. The porcelain cleats are made in two halves.
The main part is base, which is grooved to accommodate the cables, the other
part is the cap which is put over the base as shown in fig (8.6). The lower cleat
(base) and upper cover (cap), after placing cables between them are then screwed
on wooden gutties. The gutties are previously fixed into the walls or roof at an
interval of 30 to 60 cm. if the distance between the cleats is increased, there is
every risk of cables touching the walls. For low voltage (up to 250-V) installation,
cleats shall be such dimensions that cables shall not be less than 2.5 cm. apart
for branch circuits and, should not less than 4 cm. apart for sub mains. Only one
cable should be placed in each groove. The cables recommended by ISI for this
type of wiring are VIR or PVC cables and any other approved insulated cables.
Wall Base
(a) Two Grooves (b) Three Grooves
Fig. 8.6
Advantages
1. It is the cheapest system.
2. Installation and dismantling is easy.
3. Less skilled persons are required.
4. Inspection is easy.
5. Alterations and additions are easy.
Disadvantages
1. It is purely temporary wiring system.
2. Appearance is not good.
3. Cables are exposed to atmosphere and there is a possibility of mechanical
injury.
4. This system should not be used in damp places other wise insulation gets
damaged.
8.3.1Wooden Casing - Capping Wiring
This is one of the earliest system of wiring. It consists of rectangular blocks
made from seasoned and knots free wood (preferably teak-wood) as shown in
fig (8.7). The casing has usually two (or three) ‘U’ shaped grooves, (two in
number) into which the VIR or PVC cables are laid in such a way that the
opposite polarity cables are laid in different grooves. The casing is covered by
means of a rectangular strip of the same width as that of casing known as capping
and is screwed to it. This system of wiring is suitable for low voltage installations.
The casing must be kept at least 3.2 mm. apart from the walls or ceiling by
means of porcelain pieces.
Now a days as wood has become costly and due to high risk of fire, this
sytem is outdated and replace by PVC casing capping.
Casing
(a) Straight Joint Capping
Two Pieces of Casings before jointing Finished Tee Joint
(b) Tee Joint
Fig. 8.7
Advantages
1. It provides good insulation as conductors are apart.
2. It provides good mechanical strength.
3. Easy to inspect by opening the capping.
Disadvantages
1. It is costly system now – a – days because it needs seasoned, knot –
free wood.
2. There is every risk of fire.
3. The labour cost is more because it requires skilled carpenters.
4. This system can not be used in damp places.
8.3.2 CTS or TRS Wiring

CTS cables are available in single-core, twin-core or three-core with a
circular or oval in shape. CTS cables are sufficiently chemical proof, water
proof, steam proof. The cables are run or carried on well seasoned, perfectly
straight and well varnished (on all four sides) teak wood batten of thickness 10
mm. at least. The width of the batten depends upon the number and size of
cables to be carried by it. The batten is available in widths of 6, 13, 19, 25, 31,
38, 44, 50, 56, 63, 69 and 75 mm. The wooden battens are fixed to the walls or
ceilings by means of gutties or wooden plugs with flat head wooden screws, the
wooden screws should be fixed on the batten at an interval not exceeding 750
mm. The cables are held on the wooden batten by means of tinned brass link
clips already fixed on the batten with (brass) pins and spaced at an interval of 10
cm. the wiring after completion should be neatly painted with two coats of oil –
less, non – cracking paint as specified in IS 732. This system is suitable for low
voltage installations.
(a) Straight Batten Joint
(b) ‘L’ Joint (c) Half Lap Tee Joint
Fig. 8.8
Advantages
1. It’s appearance is good, if carried properly.
2. It’s life is sufficiently long.
3. It can withstand the action of most chemicals such as acids and alkalies.
4. It’s installation is easy and quick compared to casing-capping.
5. It is cheap compared to casing – capping, metal conduit and lead sheathed

wiring.
Disadvantages
1. This system of wiring is not recommended in situations exposed to sun
and rain, unless preventive steps are taken.
2. It can not be used in damp places.
3. Good work man ship is required to make a sound job.
8.3.3 Lead Sheated Wiring
In lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring the cables used are insulated
wires, TRS or PVC, with metal outer covering of about 1 mm. thick. The metal
covering is known as sheathing and is made of lead – aluminium alloy containing
about 95% of lead. The metal sheathed cables are run on wooden batten and
are fixed to it by link – clips as in the case of CTS or TRS as explained. The
whole metal sheath is made electrically continuous and is connected to earth to
protect against electrolytic action due to leakage current and to provide safety
against the sheath becoming alive.
Advantages
1. It provides protection against mechanical injury.
2. It can be used in damp situations.
3. It can be used in situations exposed to-sun, and rain provided no joint is
exposed.
4. It has longer life.
5. It is easy to fix and looks nice as it can be run in buildings without
damaging decoration and can be painted to suit wall colours.
Disadvantages
1. It is costly system of wiring.
2. It is not suitable where chemical (acids and alkalies) corrosion may occur.
3. In case of insulation damage, the metal sheath become alive and gives
shock.
8.3.4 Conduit Wiring System

Conduit wiring system consists of either VIR or PVC cables taken through
tubes or pipes and terminated at the outlets or switches / sockets. The tube or
pipe is known as “conduit”. Conduit wiring may run over the surface of the walls
and ceiling or may be concealed under masonary work.
Types of Conduits
1. Rigid steel / metal conduit.
2. Rigid PVC / non-metallic conduit.
3. Flexible steel conduit.
4. Flexible PVC / non-metallic conduit.
Non-Metallic or PVC conduits are cheaper than metal conduits.
8.3.5 Concealed or Recessed Conduit Wiring:
The conduits (metal or PVC) are embedded along walls or ceiling in plaster
at the time of building construction. The conduits are fixed by means of saddles
or staples not more than 60 cm. apart. Fixing of bends or elbows should be
avoided as far as possible. All curves should be made by bending the conduit
pipe itself to permit easy drawing in of cables.
The VIR or PVC cables are drawn into the concealed by means of springs
or GI wire of size 18 SWG. Suitable inspection boxes should be provided to
permit periodical inspection, drawing of cables and to facilitate removal of cables
if necessary. The inspection boxes should be mounted flush with the wall.
In case of metal conduits, all threaded joints should be treated with some
approved preservative compound to secure protection against rust. Conduits
should be joined by means of screwed or plain couplers; where the long runs of
straight conduits, inspection type couplers should be provided at certain intervals.
Now a days PVC conduits are increasingly being used in place of steel
conduits. PVC conduits are less expensive and the labour time saved may be as
much as 25% to 50% compared to the time taken when installing steel conduits.
PVC conduits are resistant to acids alkalies, oil and moisture. They can be
buried in lime or cement plaster without ill – effects.
Concealed conduit wiring is used in residential, commercial and public
buildings.
8.3.6 Surface Conduit Wiring

All steel conduits should be coated or finished with galvanized or enameled
surface. Conduit accessories must be of threaded type. No steel conduit less
than 12.7 mm. in diameter should be used. To fix the conduit to wall first wooden
gutties should be fitted to the wall with the help of cement then, the conduit
should be laid over the wooden gutties, and should be fixed to the wall by
means of saddles screwed to wooden plugs at an interval of not more than 1.2
m. However, where bends couples or other fittings are used, saddles should be
fixed at the distance of 30 cm on either side from the center of such fittings. All
necessary bends, elbows, and inspection boxes should be provided. The conduit
should be laid completely before cables are drawn in and the entire conduit
should be permanently connected to earth.
Surface conduit is used for factory or workshop lighting and for motor
wiring. It is an expensive system of wiring and requires more time for installation.
However it’s advantages and disadvantages are:
Advantages
1. It provides protection against mechanical damage.
2. Metal conduits provides protection against fire due to short circuit etc.
3. The whole system is water proof.
4. It’s life is long.
5. Replacement of defective wiring is easy.
6. It is shock proof if earthing is done properly.
7. PVC conduit wiring (particularly concealed) is cheap.
8. PVC conduit wiring requires less time.
9. Concealed conduit wiring appearance is very good.
Disadvantages
1. PVC conduit does not provide protection against fire.
2. Metal conduit wiring is very costly.
3. Metal conduit wiring requires more time.
4. Metal conduit wiring needs skilled labour.
8.3.6 Comparison between various systems of Wiring
Sl. Base of Cleat Wiring Wood casing CTS/TRS Lead sheathed Condult wiring
No. Comparison capping wiring wiring wiring Metal PVC
1. Material Cleats, VIR/ Seasoned wood Seasoned Seasoned wood Metal PVC
required PVC Cables casting and wood battern batten, lead conduit Conduits
screws, boards, capping VIR/ CTS/TRS sheath cable, VIR/PVC VIR/PVC
blocks, gutties PVC cable, cables, screws,gutties, screws, cables cable,
etc. screws, boards nails, nails linkclips saddles, saddles,
blocks gutties linkclips boards, blocks bends, screws
etc. boards blocks etc. elbows, bends,
gutties etc. junction elbows
boxes juntion
gutties etc. boxes
gutties etc.
2. Cost Low Costly Medium Costly Very costly Medium
3. Life Short Long Long Long Very long Very long
4. Mechanical Nil Good Fairly good Good Very good Very good
Protection
5. Protection Nil Nil Poor Good Very good Poor
against fire
6. Protection from Nil Poor Good Good Fairly good Good
dampness
7. Apperance not good Fairly good Good Fairly good Good Good
8. Type of labour Semi skilled Highly skilled Skilled Skilled Hi ghly Skilled
required skilled
9. Addition of very easy Difficult easy Difficult Most Most
points difficult difficult
10. No. of points 6 to 8 3 to 4 4 to 5 3 to 4 2 to 3 4 to 5
that can be
done/day by
electrician with
a mate
11. Repair/fault Very easy Difficult Easy Difficult Difficult Difficult
Finding
12. Applications Temporary Residential Residential Suitable for Industries, Residential
installations e.g. buildings offices offices & places exposed to work shops, commercial
marriages but replaced by commercial sun & rain & public & office
functions etc. CTS & PVC damm places buildings buildings
conduit wiring.
Questions
1. How many types of energy distribution systems are there?
2. Explain loop-in-system of energy distribution and state its advantages
and disadvantages.
3. How many types of wiring systems are there?
4. Explain conduit system of wiring.
5. What are the points to be considered before deciding any type of wiring?
6. What are the general rules for wiring?
7. Draw a schematic sketch showing main switch, distribution board and 3
lamp circuits with switches and ceiling rose connection.
8. Compare CTS and conduit wiring systems.

9. List the advantages and disadvantages of different system of wiring.
Activities
1. Visit nearby apartment and learn energy distribution system.
2. Visit a hospital and see the energy distribution system.
3. Visit a Cinema Hall/Shopping Mall and learn energy distribution system.
UNIT 9
Wiring Circuits
Learning Objectives
• To learn various wiring circuits connections
• To learn working of various lamps
9.0 Introduction
The natural source of light is the SUN which emits both heat and light
energy at a very tremendous rate.
A hot body about 500°C to 800° becomes a ‘red hot’ and about 2500°C
to 3000°C the body becomes white hot. In both the cases a part of radiation is
in the form of heat and the rest in the form of light. It should be understood that
light is a form of energy which can be radiated like heat and is converted from
the heat only. Like electromagnetic waves light radiations also can propagate
through a medium in the form of transverse waves. In the middle of eighteenth
century, it was shown that light waves are electromagnetic in character.
Different light waves have different frequencies but the velocity is same.
The different frequency light wave produces different colour sensation on human
eye. The human eye is more sensitive to certain colours and the fig (9.1) gives
the idea of sensitivity of human eye to different wave lengths of light. Normal
human eye can perceive radiant energy in the wave lengths between (0.0004
mm to 0.00075 mm) 4,000 AU to 7,5000 AU (Angstrom Unit).
Fig 9.1 Wave Length A.U.
The eye discriminates between different wave lengths in this range by the
sensation of colour. Blue and violet correspond to the short wave lengths and
red to the long orange, yellow and green being in the middle of the visible range
of wave lengths. From the wave lengths versus percent sensitivity curve, it is
clear that human eye is most sensitive to radiation with a wave length of about
5,500 AU., i.e. to group of colours between green and yellow.
The band width of radiations visible to human eyes is very small i.e. from
4.3 x 1014 Hz to 7.5x1014 Hz. The white sun light is composed of different colour
radiations coming in the visible spectrum having wave lengths between 4,000 to
7,5000 AU.
The sources of light can be divided into two categories:
1. Natural
Non Electrical Sources
2. Artificial
Electrical Sources
The natural sources of light are sun and stars. The non – electrical sources
of light includes kerosene lamps, candles, gas lights etc. The electrical sources
of light include incandescent lamps, mercury vapour lamps, Fluorescent tubes
etc.
Principle of Gas Discharge Lamps: The production of light by discharge
lamps is based on the phenomenon of excitation and ionization in a gas or a
vapour. In certain solids and gases there are electrons which can escape from
the influence of the nucleus of one atom and go over to another atom. If a
potential difference is applied to two electrodes placed in a gas filled tube as
shown in fig 9.2 . The free electrons of the gas will be attracted to the positive
electrode and the velocity acquired by an electron will depend upon the potential
gradient. During its motion towards the anode, an electron will collide with other
atoms of the gas and one or more of the following results may be produced.
Fig 9.2
(a) Elastic Collision

(b) Excitation Collision
(c) Ionisation Collision
Sl.No Gas or Vapours Colour

1. Sodium Vapour Yellow
2. Neon Red
3. Mercury Vapour (low pressure) Bluish green
4. Mercury Vapour (high pressure) Bluish white
9.1 Types of Lamps

An electric lamp converts the electrical energy into light energy. It is an
artificial method of producing light. Electric lamps, in board sense may be
classified into three groups.
1. Incandescent or Filament Lamps
2. Arc Lamps
(a) Carbon – Arc Lamps
(b) Flame – Arc Lamps
(c) Magnetic – Arc Lamps

3. Electric Discharge Lamps
(a) Sodium Vapour Lamps
(b) Mercury Vapour Lamps
(c) Neon Lamps
(d) Fluorescent Lamps
9.1.1 Incandescent ‘or’ Filament Lamps: An incandescent lamp
essentially consists of a fine wire (filament) of high resistance material placed in
an evacuated glass bulb as shown in fig 9.3. The electric current while passing
through the filament raises its temperature so high that the filament emits both
heat and light waves. This state of the filament at which it emits light waves in
addition to heat waves is known as incandescence and hence the name
incandescent lamp. To prevent the filament from oxidation, all the air must be
Fig. 9.3 Incadescent Lamp

pumped out of the bulb because of this all the early lamps were of the vacuum
type with a large barred shaped filament as shown in fig 9.4.
The materials which are used for filaments of incandescent lamps must fulfill
the following requirements:
1. High melting point.
2. At high temperature the material having high melting point, should not
evaporate and become black.
3. The material must be ductile.
4. It must have high specific resistance (which reduces the quantity of
material and cost).
5. Low temperature co – efficient.
6. Low vapour pressure.
7. Good mechanical strength to with – stand vibrations.
8. Commercially available.
9. Cost must be reasonable.
The materials which can be used for preparing incandescent lamp filaments
are:
- Carbon
- Osmium.
- Tantalum
- Tungsten
The early carbon filament lamps operated at a temperature of about 2000°C.
The melting point of carbon is 3500°C. They had the disadvantages of low
luminous efficiency only 2 to 3 lumen per watt, it starts varpouring at fast rate
beyond 1800°C and blackens the bulb, and has negative temperature co-efficient
of resistance. Now – a – days carbon is not used as filament.
The carbon was replaced by osmium and tantalum. The osmium has melting
point of 2600°C but it is experience and has low luminous efficiency of the
order of 4 to 5 lumen per watt. The tantalum melting point is 2800°C, its operating
temperature could be raised to 2500°C in vacuum and has luminous efficiency

of 8 to 10 lumen per watt.
All the filament materials were replaced by tungsten in about 1907. Tungsten
has a melting point of 3500°C, high resistivity, low vapour pressure, low
temperature co-efficient, mechanically strong and ductile. In all modern
incandescent bulbs the chemically inert gas like nitrogen and argon are filled due
to the following advantages:
1. It is stable and does not react with the lamp components at high
temperature.
2. Heat conductivity will be low.
3. It decreases the evaporation of the filament.
4. The life of the bulb increases.
5. The filament working temperature can be increased.
6. Prevents the “flashing”.
Longmuir’s work showed that argon was far superior to nitrogen as “lamp
gas” mainly due to its higher molecular weight and lower heat conductivity.
Nitrogen slowly reacts with hot tungsten, causing blackening of the bulb. However
argon could not be used by itself in high – voltage coiled filament lamps because
of the low ionization potential, which led to serious “flashing”; particularly at
switching on. This flashing often destroy the lamp because of the high current.
Nitrogen mixed with argon inhibited flashing and its use became universal.
The present filling gas in general in incandescent lamps consist of 93%
argon and 7% nitrogen at a pressure of about 700 mm. of Hg measured with the
lamp cold.
Krypton or Xenon would be more advantageous than argon, since they
are heavier and are poor heat conductors. They are too expensive to use as
‘lamp gas’. Krypton is used, however, in miner’s cap lamps, where high brightness
and good efficiency are of first importance.
Single Coiled
Coiled Coil
Fig. 9.4 Types of Filaments
The filaments of all the incandescent lamps, is either ‘single coiled’ or ‘coiled-
coil’ as shown in fig 9.4. The coiled – coil filament leads to reduce the effective
exposure to gases, concentrating the heat, and allows high operating temperatures
thus giving greater radiant efficiency.
Thus
Radiant efficiency = Energy radiated in the form of light
Total energy radiated in the form of light and heat.
The life of incandescent lamps is considered as 1000 hours, and is mainly
governed by the rate at which vaporization of the filament takes place.
9.1.2 Sodium Vapour Lamp:
This lamp comprises of an inner U
– tube made of special glass sodium
vapour resisting glass to withstand
high temperature of the electric
discharge. It houses two sets of
electrodes connected to a pin type
base, sodium together with small
amount of neon gas at a pressure of
10 mm. of Hg. (and a very small
amount of argon gas whose man
function is to start the initial
ionization). The neon gas serves to
start the discharge and to develop
enough heat to vapourize the
sodium. Sodium below 60°C is in
solid state. The lamp operates at
about 300°C and generates notable
quantity of heat and to conserve this
heat and to assure the lamp
operating at normal ambient
temperature the discharge U – tube
is enclosed in a special vacuum
envelop or double walled flask
designed for this purpose as shown
in fig 9.5.
Fig. 9.5 Sodium Vapour Lamp
The tungsten – coated electrodes are connected across auto –

transformer having relatively high leakage reactance. The open circuit secondary
voltage is about 450 to 470 volt, which is sufficient to initiate a discharge through
neon gas.
When the supply is switched – on, the high – voltage of the auto -
transformer initiates the electric discharge through neon gas whether the lamp is
hot or cold and gives red – orange ( or pink) colour glow. The metallic sodium
which is on the walls of inner tube gradually vapourises and discharge takes
place through sodium vapour. The lamp will take 15 to 20 minutes to attain its
full brightness. If switched off, the lamp can be restarted immediately. The
luminous efficiency of the lamp is about 40 to 50 lumen per watt. The life is
approximately 3000 hours. These lamps are available in several sizes rated from
45,60,85 and 140 watt.
Advantages
1. Most of the radiation is on visible region.
2. First execution level is radiated with low voltage and requires less energy
compared to other vapours.
Disadvantages
1. It gives monochromatic orange – yellow light which makes object appear
as gray there fore used only for street and high way lighting.
2. Operates at very poor power – factor about 0.3 lag and needs a
capacitor to improve it.
3. It needs a large size U – tube of special glass.
9.1.3. Mercury Vapour Lamps: The following are the various types of
(high pressure) mercury vapour lamps.
(a) M.A. type (250 & 400W, 230V A.C.)
(b) M.A.T. type (200 & 500 W, 230V A.C or D.C.)
(c) M.B. type (80 & 125W, 230V A.C.)
(a) M.A. Type Lamp: It consists of two main electrodes one at each end
of an inner hard glass tube or bulb made of borosilicate or quartz. The electrodes
are made of tungsten coils coated with electron emitting material which may be
thorium or an oxide mixture. Near the upper electrode is an auxiliary or starting
electrode which is connected to the bottom electrode through a high resistance
as shown in fig 9.6. The inner tube also consists of any one of the inert gases,
generally argon at few millimeters of mercury in addition in liquid mercury. The
inner tube is enclosed in an outer tube. The space between the two bulbs is
either partially or completely evacuated to prevent heat loss by convection from

the inner bulb. The outer bulb protects the inner bulb and absorbs the harmful
ultra violet rays.
Main Electrode
Vacuum
Outer Tube or Envelop
Fig. 9.6 M.A. Mercury Type Vapour Lamp
(To minimize the ultra-violet region of light, the pressure inside the inner
bulb should range from one to ten atmospheres). The lamp has a screwed cap
and is connected to the A.C. mains through a choke and a capacitor. The function
of the capacitor is to improve the power factor.
When the lamp is switched on the voltage appears across the auxiliary
electrode and the nearly main electrode. The argon gas between these two
electrodes is first ionized because of small distance between them and an arc
takes place between them. The small arc flow results in building up of pressure
due to warming or heating of mercury which is originally in the condensed form.
Ultimately the discharge takes place between the two main electrodes. Due to
low resistance of the ionized path between the two main electrodes the discharge
shifts from auxiliary electrode circuit to main electrodes (auxiliary electrode circuit
resistance is high compared to ionized path resistance).
The lamp takes 4 to 6 minutes to attain full brilliancy. If the supply is
interrupted, the lamp should cool down and the vapour pressure be reduced
before it restart and it may take 3 to 4 minutes. The operating temperature
inside the inner bulb is about 600 to 650°C and the efficiency is about 30 to 40
lumen / watt. The life is approximately 3000 hours. The light of this lamp has a
bluish – green in colour which gives an un-natural appearance of objects. This
makes it unsuitable for flood-lighting, high ways etc. The lamp should always be
mounted vertically otherwise the inner bulb may be damaged by the striking arc.
NOTE: Choke must always be connected in the lamp circuit, otherwise
the current through the ionized medium will go on increase and may permanently
damage the inner bulb.
(b) M.A.T. Type Lamp: The construction of M.A.T. type of lamp is almost
similar to that of M.A. type except that it has tungsten filament, thermal switch
and has no choke as shown in fig 9.7.
Fig. 9.7 M.A.T Type Mercury Vapour Lamp
When the lamp is switched on, the tungsten filament gets full supply through
a thermal switch. It starts emitting its own light as ordinary incandescent lamp
and simultaneously warming the mercury in the inner bulb. When a particular
temperature is attained the thermal switch operates, which bring the tungsten
filament in series with the main electrodes and short-circuits a part of the tungsten
filament so that the voltage across the discharge bulb increases. Thus the discharge
occurs through mercury bulb and a part of tungsten filament gives its own share
of (red) light improving the quality of light emitted in total by the lamp.
The current is controlled by the tungsten filament and the absence of choke
makes it suitable to use both on A.C. as well as D.C. supply.
(c) M.B. Type Lamp : It also consists of two main electrodes and one
auxiliary electrode inside the discharge bulb as shown in fig 9.8. Constructionally
the M.B. type of lamp is similar to that of M.A. type of lamp, except that it
operates at high pressure of about 5 to 10 atmosphere.
The working of this lamp is also similar to that of M.A. type lamp. The only
advantage is that, it can be used in any position.
Fig. 9.8 M.B Type Mercury Vapour Lamp
9.1.4 Neon Lamp: The different types of neon lamps are as follows:
(i) Neon indicator lamps
(ii) Neon sign lamps ‘or’ Neon tubes
(i) Neon Indicator Lamps: These belong to cold-cathode category. It
consists of a plastic fabricated (or glass) cover inside which are placed two
nickel coated iron electrodes at few mm apart as shown in fig 9.9. The cover is
filled with neon gas and a small percentage of helium.
Fig. 9.9 Neon Indicating Lamp
When supply is given to the lamp the ionization of the gas within the cover
takes place immediately and a reddish pink glow appears across the electrodes
under the influence of excited neon atoms. Owing to the discharge of the gas
between the electrodes in the form an arc, it may cause the current drawn by the
lamp to increase indefinitely. In order to prevent it, a high resistor of few thousand
ohm is introduced in the circuit and usually mounted in a cap.
Due to the closeness of electrodes, it just needs normal supply voltage to
initiate the discharge. The physical dimensions of the lamp are approximately
12.5 mm in length and 3 to 4 mm in diameter. These indicator miniature lamps
are used for control panel equipment, voltage regulators etc. To get a desired
colour the plastic cap of the lamp cover is given red, green, blue or yellow
colour.
(ii) Neon Sign Lamps: These are also belongs to cold cathode discharge
category. The electrodes are in the form of iron shells and are coated inside.
Although the main constituent of the gases inside the tube is neon, but the
combination of other gases produces different colours e.g. mercury and neon
produces blue colour where as argon, neon and mercury produce bluish green
colour. Fig 9.10 shows a neon sign display circuit. The required voltage goes on
increasing with the number of display letters or the length of the sign tube required
to represent some figures (like rotating fan, etc), a 5 kV network is used. The
transformer has a high leakage reactance which controls the magnitude of current
and hence stabilizes the arc in the lamp. A choke is also used to restrict the
current. A capacitor is used to improve the power factor of the highly inductive
circuit. This type of lamps are mostly used for commercial advertisements.
Fig. 9.10 Neon Sign Display Circuit
9.1.5 Fluorescent Tube Lamp: The lamp are made in the form of tubes
12 or 25 or 38 mm in diameter and 200 mm to 1520 mm long. Two electrodes
are provided at each end of the tube, and both the ends are sealed. The electrodes
are coated with electron emissive material (oxides of barium and strontium).
The inside surface of the tube is coated with a thin layer of fluorescent powder
material. These powder material are usually called as phosphors. The phosphors
used for coating depend upon the colour effect desired as given in below table.
Sl.No Phosphor Colour of Flourescent

1. Calcium tungstate Blue
2. Magnesium tungstate Blue White
3. Zinc silicate Green
4. Zinc – beryllium silicate Yellow-White
5. Cadmium borate Pink
6. Cadmium silicate Yellow-Pink
7. 360 BL phosphor Blue-Ultra
8. E phosphor Blue-Ultra
The tube also contains a small quantity of argon gas at a pressure of 2.5
mm of mercury and few drops of mercury. A started is provided in the circuit,
which puts the electrodes directly across the supply at the time of starting. A
stabilizing choke is connected in series with the electrodes which provides a
voltage impulse at the time of starting and acts as a ballast during running condition.
Fig. 9.10 Neon Sign Display Circuit
When the supply is connected to the fluorescent tube circuit as shown in fig
(), the full voltage appears across the starter terminals due to low resistance of
the electrodes and small current through choke. As the starter is filled with argon
(or any mono-atomic gas) gas, it ionizes and a glow appears inside the starter.
This glow warms up the bimetallic strip and short – circuits the starter terminals.
This causes maximum current through the electrodes and chokes. Thus results
in thermionic emission at electrodes and ionizes the argon gas inside the tube.
Meanwhile, the bimetallic strip cools down and opens the starter terminals. This
sudden opening of the starter terminals results in abrupt change of current (di/dt)
in choke, which induces high voltage in the choke. This high voltage surge ionizes
the gas medium in the tube and result the passage of electrons between the
electrodes. These electrons while accelerating, collide with argon and mercury
vapour atoms. The excited atoms of mercury gives ultra-violet radiation of 2357
AU wave length which produces no illumination, if left as it is. If this radiation is
make to strike with phosphor material produces-emission of light radiation of
different wave lengths and results illumination. This phenomenon is called
fluorescence and hence it is named as fluorescence tube.
The average life of the fluorescent lamp is 4000 to 5000 hours and its
efficiency is 40 lumen per watt. The operating temperature is about 50°C. These
lamps operates at low power factor, hence, a capacitor should be used.
Stabilising choke: It is essentially an iron o
cored reactor. It has high reactance and low
resistance. It’s man function is to provide voltage
surge at the time of start and to stabilize the current
through the ionized medium within safe limits.
Starter: There are two types of starters in
common use, viz the glow discharge type and the
thermal type. The glow type starter consist of two
metal strips, one or both made of bimetallic strips,
Fig. 9.11
mounted in a bulb and are normally held apart as
shown in fig 9.11. When the supply is given at first, a glow discharge is started
between the bimetal strips which heat up and bend so as to close the contacts.
This short-circuit allows the heating current to flow through the electrodes of the
lamp. At the same time the bimetal strips begins to cool and opens the contacts.
When this takes place, it causes a voltage surge or kick across the lamp and
starts the main discharge. The tube voltage is not sufficient to re-start the glow in
the starter, because a part of the supply voltage drops across the choke hence,
the starter remains out of action until the next time the lamp is started.
The thermal starter consists of a normally closed bimetallic strip as shown
in fig 9.12. Bimetallic strip can be heated by means of a heater coil connected in
series with the lamp. When the supply is switched on the bi-metallic strip gets
heated and expands to separate the contacts. This causes the voltage surge as in
the case of glow starter and the normal lamp current flowing through the heater
coil is sufficient to keep the contacts apart. The capacitor across the starter is to
avoid introduction of noise signals into the reception or a radio or transistor near
the tube. If there is no capacitor the radio receiver starts picking up a typical
hum. However a capacitor across the supply is to improve the power factor.
Fig. 9.12 Florescent Tube on D.C. Supply
Fluorescent Tube on D.C. Supply: Fluorescent lamps can be used for

D.C. supply also with little modification as given below:
Choke has low resistance D.C (high impedance on A.C), and hence a
series resistor ‘R’ limiting the current will have to be used ‘or’ in place of choke
a low wattage incandescent lamp should be used as shown in fig 9.13.
Fig. 9.13 Fluorescent Tube on D.C. Supply

- The positive end relatively dark on account of the mercury vapours to

migrate toward negative end of the tube. However, it can be over come by
eithe
- If the system voltage is below 220-V, thermal type of starter’s should
be used because glow type starter may not function at low voltage.
9.1.6 Halogen Lamps: Halogen is the name given to a family of
electronegative elements i.e.
bromine, chlorine, fluorine
and iodine. In the beginning
of nineteenth century, it was
shown that a chemical
reaction between a halogen
and tungsten could take
place in a lamp. Around
1959, it was found that by
adding a halogen such as
iodine to the gas filling of a
specially designed lamp,
having only tungst en
components within the
envelop and with the bulb
wall temperature kept above
250°C, a regenerative cycle
could be achieved. A whole
new range of lamps has
resulted.
The conventional .
incandescent gas-filled lamp Fig. 9.14 Comparative Sizes of 500 W GLS
loses filament material by (General Lighting Service)
evaporation; much of its and 500 W Tungsten Halogen Lamp
deposited on the bulb wall.
When a halogen is added to the filling gas, and if certain temperature and design
conditions are established, a reversible chemical reaction occurs between
tungsten and halogen. In the simplest terms, tungsten is evaporated the
incandescent filament and some portion of this diffuse towards the bulb wall.
Within a specific zone between the filament and bulb wall, where temperature
conditions are favourable, the tungsten combines with the halogen. The tungsten
halide molecules diffuse towards the filament where they dissociate, the tungsten
being deposited back on the filament while the halogen is available for a further
reaction cycle. This phenomen on is called the regenerative cycle.
The improved efficiency and life of the tungsten halogen lamp over a
conventional in candescent lamp do not in fact arise directly from the redeposition
of tungsten on the filament, for the regenerative cycle only prevents the
accumulation of the tungsten on the bulb wall. It gives virtually 100% luman
maintenance throughout life. This permits changes in the geometry and radical
reduction in the size of the lamp, which intorn result in increased efficiency and
life. The volume of a tungsten halogen lamp is very much less than the equivalent
conventional lamp. For instance, a 500W tungsten halogen lamp is only 1% of
the volume of its conventional counter part as shown in fig 9.14
9.2 Lamp Circuits
Electrical appliances or apparatus are connected to the supply mains and
to the associated protective (fuses) and controlling (switches) devices by means
of cables. This arrangement by cables and apparatus is known as a circuit.
9.2.1 One Lamp controlled by one switch: The lamp circuits used for
house wiring are generally controlled from one place (or by one switch) as
shown in fig (). The neutral cable (shown dotted) is directly given to the lamp,
where as the phase cable is given to the lamp through a switch. This arrangement
is satisfactory if additional lighting points are not required.enrance of steps. So
that the lamp can be operated from two places. Hence, it is also known as stair
case wiring.
Fig. 9.15 One Lamp Controlled from one place
9.2.2 One lamp controlled from two places (stair case): For independent
control of one lamp of one lamp from two places, two 2-way switches are
required as shown in fig 9.16.
If a lamp is provided in the first-floor one switch will be provided in the first
– floor and the other witch will be provided in the ground – floor near the
entrance of steps. So that the lamp can be operated from two placed. Hence, it
is also known as stair case wiring.
(a) Lamp Not Glowing (b) Lamp Glowing by operating switch ‘B’
(c) Lamp not Glowing by (d) Lamp Glowing by

Operating Switch ‘A’ Operating Switch ‘B’
Fig. 9.16
9.2.3 Series – Parallel connection of Lamps: This arrangement is usually

used to either provide dim lights or full bright lights. Such lights are required in
hotels, railway carriages, bedrooms, hospitals, etc. The following methods are
used to obtain such lights:
(a) One lamp parallel or both in series (using center OFF Switch): Two
lamps L1 and L2 are connected to a two-way center – off switch as shown in fig
9.17. When the switch is thrown to position – 1 the lamp L1 gives full brightness
and L2 will not glow at all. When the switch is on position 2 (shown dotted) the
entire circuit is off. When the switch is thrown the position-3 (shown dotted) the
lamps L1 and L2 are connected in series and gives dim light. Thus with this
arrangement
- L1 can be made to glow full brightness.
- L1 & L2 can be made off.
- L1 & L2 can be made to glow dim.
(b) Either lamps parallel or both in series (using Two-way centre off and
One-way switch). Two lamps L1, L2 one 1-way switch and one 2-way centre-
off switch are connected as shown in fig 9.18 one-way switch is assumed to be
closed first then, with 2-way switch is in position-1 the lamp L1 gets short-
circuited and L2 glow with full brightness. When 2-way switch is thrown to
position-2 both the lamps gets connected in series for dim light. When the 2-
way switch is thrown to position-3, L2 gets short-circuited and L1 glow with full
brightness. One-way switch controls both the lamps. Thus with this arrangement
- L1 alone can be made to glow full brightness.
- L1 & L2 can be made to off.
Fig. 9.17 Two Way Centre off Switch
N
Supply
One Way 2-way

switch Centre Off
Fig. 9.18 Either Lamps Flow Full bright or Two Lamps Dim
(c) One lamp parallel or both in series (Using Two-way and One-way
Switch): Two lamps L1, L2 one 1-way switch and one 2-way switch are connected
as shown in fig 9.20. One way switch should be assumed to be closed first.
When 2-way switch is in position-1, lamp L1 glow full bright (L2 will be open-
circuited). When 2-way switch is thrown to postion-2, both the lamps gets
connected in series and glow dim. The one way switch controls both the lamps
or entire circuit. Thus with this arrangement
One Way Two Way

Swi tc h Swi tc h
Fig. 9.19 One Lamp Full Bright or Two lamps Dim

- L1 & L2 can be made to off.
(d) Either two lamps in parallel or two lamps in series (Using one 1-way
switch and two 2-way switches): Two lamps L1, L2 two 2-way switches and one
1-2ay switch are connected as shown in fig 9.21 (a). When 1-way switch is
closed, with the 2-way switches position shown in fig, the two lamps gets
connected in series and glow dim. When 2-way switches both thrown to other
One (a)
Wa y
Swi tc h
Fig. 9.20 Either Two Lamps Glow full bright or Two lamps Dim
position shown dotted, the two lamps get connected in parallel and glow full
bright.
The alternate to achieve the above connection is shown in fig 9.21(b).

Here one 1-way switch and one 2-way center-off switch are used for two
lamps. When 1-way switch is open and 2-way center off switch is open and 2
way center off switch is
Position-1: Two lamps connected in series and glow dim.
Position-2: Both lamps will be off or the entire circuit is open.
Position-3: Lamp L2 alone glow full bright and L1 gets isolated.
When 1-way switch is closed and 2-way centre off switch is thrown to
Position-1: L1 glow full bright and L2 gets short circuited.
Position-2: L1 glow full bright and L2 gets open-circuited.
Position-3: Both lamps L1 and L2 gets connected in parallel and glow full
bright.
9.2.4 Godown wiring scheme: Four lamps, one 1-way switch and
three 2-way switches are connected as shown in fig () and is called godown
wiring. When 1-way switch S1 is closed L1 will glow and as a person enters into
a godown if 2-way switch, S2 is closed L1 gets off and L2 gets glow. Further the
person moves and if he closes the 2-way switch S3 L1, L2 gets off and L3 alone
S1 = 1 - Way Switch
S2, S3, S4 = 2 way L1, L2, L3 L4= Lamps
swit c he s
Fig. 9. 21
will glow and so on. Thus with this arrangement only one lamps will glow at a
time and other lamp will be off even in the return path.
9.2.5 Lamp circuits with main switch, energy meter, fuse cut-out and
distribution box: Fig () illustrates the lamp circuits with main switch, energy
meter, fuse cut-out and distribution box. For simplicity only two circuits have
been considered. Meter board and distribution board will be usually placed
close to each others.
Fig. 9.22
Questions
1. With a neat sketch, explain the construction and working or incandescent
or filament lamp.
2. What are the requirements of filament material?
3. What are the advantages of ‘tungsten’ as filament?
4. Draw the neat sketch of a sodium vapour lamp and explain how it works.
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of sodium vapour lamps?
6. Explain the construction and working of MA type mercury-Vapour
Lamp.
7. How many types of neon lamps are there and explain them in brief?
8. How many types of phosphors can be used in fluorescent tubes?
9. Draw the wiring diagram of a fluorescent tube.
10. Explain the working of a fluorescent lamp.

11.Write a brief note on stroboscopic effect.
12. Compare the incandescent, fluorescent and sodium vapour lamps
13. Draw the circuit diagram to control on lamp from two different places.
14. Draw the godown wiring and explain its function.
15. Draw the circuit diagram for two lamps either in series or in parallel
using.
a. One 1-way switch and two 2-way switches.
b. One 1-way switch and one two-way centre-off switch.
16. Briefly explain the halogen lamps.
Activities
1. Practice different wiring circuits in your laboratory.
2. Visit to the bus stand/railway station to see the nature of the lamps used.
3. To visit a shopping or a commercial complex to see the nature of lamps
used.

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134 Electrical Technician

1.1 Structure of Atom

Atoms of such elements give up their valence electrons to form an electron

Fig. 1.1 Covalent bond of Germanium atoms

Fig. 2.1 Resistance - Temperature graph

e. Properties Applications and Advantages of ACSR

Fig. 2.2 ACSR Conductor

3. It must have high mechanical strength.

3. It is malleable and ductile.

Fig. 2.3 Atomic structure for silicon and Germanium

3.1 Classification of Magnetic Materials

i.e. permeability = flux density / field strength

are liable to shrink or expand. There is a small extension with corresponding

(iii)It is known as one of the best magnetic materials.

Fig. 3.1 B-H. Curve

Long Answer Type Questions

1. Volume resistance and

Factors Affecting Dielectric Strength

e) Plastic insulating materials.

4.4 Fibrous Insulating Materials

The use of unimpregnated paper is very limited because of certain major

iii) Insulating textiles

r = 1 for free space or vacuum or air (dimensinless)

Factors affecting dielectric loss

5.3 Thermocouple Material

Long Answer Type Questions

(c) Three core cable

6.2.1 One-way Switches

All Black 1-way or 2- Porcelain Base Porcelain Base Porcelain Base

Fig. 6.1 Surface or Tumbler Switches

Fig 6.3 Ceiling or Pulling Switch

Fig 6.4 Grid Switch

(f) Rotatory switch: Rotatory switch consist of an insulated handle to

Fig 6.6 Push Switches

6.2.2 Two Way Switches

Surface Type D.P. Switch Surface Type without

Fig 6.8 ICDP

(ii) Iron-Clad Triple-Pole Switch (ICTP): These switches consists of

Slots for Cables

Fig 6.10 ICTPN Fig 6.10 Splitter Unit

SPDT DPDT (Double Pole Double

Fig 6.11 Knife Switches

Interior of Standard 3 - hole

Home office Type

(f) Goliath Edison screw Lamp Holders: As mentioned earlier these

Ball and Socket Joint

Fig 6.17 Swivel Lamp Holders

Fig. 6.18 Fluorescent Starter Holders

6.3 Ceiling Rose

Fig 6.21 Ceiling Rose

2-Pin Sockets (a) Surface socket outlets 2-Pin Sockets

Flush type sockets 3 in 1 socket

Only one appliance may be connected to a socket-outlet, it is usual practice,

(a) Gun Type (b) 2 - Pin Plugs with Neon

In three-pin plug, the small two-pins are connected to the appliances

Fig 6.25 Fig 6.26 Wooden Gutty

Fig 6.27 Round Block

(a) Plain Elbow (b) Inspection Elbow (c) Grip Elbow

Conduit (a) Screwed Coupler

(b) Grip Coupler (b) Grip Coupler

Fig 6.29 Coupling

Conduit boxes to which fittings are to be fixed should be drilled

(b) Conduits on a Concrete Celing