CHAPTER 17-Antenna Fundamentals

Section 17
Antenna
Fundamentals
Section 18
Radio-wave
Propagation
Section 19
Microwave
Engineering
Section 20
Satellite
Communications
Section 21
Cellular
Communication
System
Wireless
Communications
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Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 5-1
Section Antenna Read it

till it
17 Fundamentals Hertz!
DEFINITION. Antenna is basically a transducer that converts electrical

alternating current oscillations at an RF frequency to an electromagnetic wave
of the same frequency.
DEFINITION. Radiation Resistance is a resistance that, if replaced the

antenna, would dissipate exactly the same amount of power the antenna
radiates.
DEFINITION. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is defined as

equivalents transmit power that an isotropic antenna would have to radiate to
achieve the same power density in the chosen direction at a given point as
another antenna.
A. .ANTENNA RECIPROCITY.
States that antenna characteristic are essentially the same regardless of

whether an antenna is transmitting or receiving electromagnetic energy
B. .ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS.
A complete antenna system consists of three parts:
1. Coupling Device - The coupling device (coupling coil) connects the

transmitter to the feeder
2. Feeder - The feeder is a transmission line that carries energy to the
antenna.
3. Antenna - The antenna radiates this energy into space.

5-2 ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS
C. .CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION ON AN ANTENNA.
The principles of radiation of electromagnetic energy are based on two

laws:
A moving electric field creates a

magnetic (H) field.
A moving magnetic field creates

an electric (E) field.
D. .ANTENNA PARAMETERS.
1. Radiation Pattern
A polar diagram or graph representing
field strengths or power densities at
various angular positions relative to an
antenna.
2. Antenna Polarization
Polarization refers to the orientation of
the electric field vector in space.
3. Near Field and Far Field

Region
i. Near Field
The term near field refers to the field pattern that is close to the
antenna.
A D2
FN
2 8
ii. Far Field

The term far field refers to the field pattern that is at great
distance from the antenna where power that reach this region
continues to radiate outward and is never returned to the
antenna.
2D2
FF
That region of the field of an antenna where the angular field distribution is
essentially independent of the distance from a specified point in the antenna
region.
For Your Information

Near field is sometimes called the induction field or Fresnel field.
Far field is sometimes called the radiation field or Fraunhofer field.
4. Radiation Resistance
Radiation Resistance is a resistance that, if replaced the antenna,
would dissipate exactly the same amount of power the antenna
radiates.
Antenna Efficiency ( )
Prad R rad
x 100% x 100%
Pin R rad R loss
Sample Problem:
Calculate the efficiency of a dipole antenna that has a radiation resistance of
67 and a loss resistance of 5 , measured at the feed point.
Solution:
R rad 67
x 100 % x 100 % 93 .05 %
R rad R loss 67 5

5. Antenna Gain
Directive Gain
The ratio of the power density radiated in a particular direction to
the power density radiated to the same point by a reference
antenna.
Pd(dir)
D
Pd(iso)
Power Gain
The ratio between the amounts of energy propagated in these
directions compared to the energy that would be propagated if the
antenna were not directional is known as its gain.
G Dx
Sample Problem:
Calculate the gain of a certain antenna relative to a dipole antenna with a
gain of 5.3 dB with respect to an isotropic radiator. Also compute for the
power gain if the antenna has an efficiency of 95%.
Solution:
D dBd D dBi 2.14 dB G Dx
5.3 2.14 3.16
0.95 x log 1( )
3.16 dBd 10
1.97 2.94 dB
6. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

EIRP is defined as equivalents transmit power that an isotropic
antenna would have to radiate to achieve the same power density in
the chosen direction at a given point as another antenna.
EIRP Ptx Gtx EIRPdB Ptx(dB) Gtx(dB)

Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
ERPdB EIRP(dB) 2.14 dB
7. Captured Area & Captured Power
i. Captured Area (Effective Area)
2
G
AC
4
ii. Captured Power (Received Power)
2
Pr Pd x A c Pr Pt Gtx Grx
4
In dB
Pr(dB) EIRPdB FSL dB Grx(dB)
Sample Problem:
Calculate the captured power 10 km away from a half-wave dipole
transmitter with 10 W transmit power for the following antenna at 150 MHz;
a. Hertzian dipole
b. Half-wave dipole
Solution:
a. For Hertzian dipole (Elementary doublet)
2
Pt G tx G rx 10 (1 . 64 ) 2 2 (1 . 5 )
Pr x x 6.23 nW
4 d2 4 4 (10 ,000 )2 4
b. For Half-wave dipole (Hertz antenna)
2
Pt G tx G rx 10 (1 . 64 ) 2 2 (1 . 64 )
Pr x x 6.81 nW
4 d2 4 4 (10 ,000 )2 4

Summary for various antennas
Unitless Effective
Antenna Types
Gain Area
2
Isotropic 1
4
2
Elementary 1 .5
1.5
Doublet or Loop 4
2
1.64
Half-Wave Dipole 1.64
4
2
1.15
Turnstile 1.15
4
Horn with mouth 10A
2 0.81A
area A
Parabola with face 7A
2 0.56A
area A
8. Front-to-Back Ratio
The ratio of the energy radiated in the principal direction compared to
the energy radiated in the opposite direction for a given antenna.
9. Antenna Beamwidth
The angular separation between the two half-power points on the
major lobe of an antenna s plane radiation pattern.
E. .ANTENNA FEED MECHANISM.
1. Center fed antenna

If energy is applied at the geometrical center of an antenna, the
antenna is said to be center-fed.
2. Voltage-fed antenna
If energy is applied to the point of high voltage along the antenna
length, the antenna is voltage-fed.
3. Current-fed antenna
If energy is applied to the point of high circulating current along the
antenna length, the antenna is said to be current-fed.
F. .ANTENNA GROUNDING SYSTEM.
The ground screen and the counterpoise are used to reduce losses caused
by the ground in the immediate vicinity of the antenna.
1. Counterpoise
Counterpoise consists of a structure made of wire erected at short
distance above the ground and insulated from the ground.
2. Earth Mat (Groundscreen)

A network of up to 120 buried wires 15 to 30 cm below the ground
under the antenna. Each radial wire has a length which should be at
least /4, and preferably /2.
The ground screen is buried below the surface of the earth. The
counterpoise is installed above the ground.
G. .ANTENNA LOADING.
Antenna loading is the method used to change the electrical length of an

antenna. This keeps the antenna in resonance with the applied frequency.
It is accomplished by inserting a variable inductor or capacitor in series
with the antenna.
1. Inserting an inductor in series with a short antenna compensate its

capacitive reactance thus effectively increasing its electrical length and
bandwidth, while the resonant frequency decreases.
2. Inserting a capacitor in series with a long antenna compensate its

inductive reactance thus effectively decreasing its electrical length and
bandwidth, while the resonant frequency increases.
3 General Types
a. Top loading - the loading component is attached at the top of the

antenna structure.
b. Center loading - the loading component is placed along the

antenna structure, approximately half-way between the feedpoint
and the end.
c.Base loading - the loading component is located at the bottom of the

antenna structure.

H. .BASIC ANTENNAS.
1. Elementary Doublet
The elementary doublet is an electrically short dipole and is often
referred to simply as Hertzian dipole.
Field strength at a distance

where:
induce field strength in V m
60 I e I antenna current in A
d e effective antenna length
10
d distance from the antenna in m
2. Half-Wave Dipole
The half-wave dipole is a resonant antenna, the total length of which
is nominally /2 at the carrier frequency.
Voltage, Current & Impedance Distribution of Half-wave dipole
Voltage is maximum at the

ends.
-----------------------------------------------
Current is maximum at the
feedpoint.
-----------------------------------------------
Impedance is maximum at
the ends.
If the dipole is not driven at the centre then the feed point resistance will be higher. If the
feed point is distance from one end of a half wave ( /2) dipole, the resistance will be
described by the following equation.
where:
75 Rx Radiation resistance in
Rx
x signal wavelength in m
sin2
x distance from one end of the dipole m
Sample Problem:
Calculate the radiation resistance of a half-wave dipole antenna if the
feedpoint is 0.25 m from one end at 300 MHz.
Solution:
75 75
Rx 150
x 0 .2 5
s in 2 s in 2
1
Sample Problem:
Calculate the radiation resistance of a half-wave dipole antenna 0.1 m from
one end at 300 MHz.
Solution:
75 75
Rx 785 . 4
x 0 .1
sin 2 sin 2
1
3. Quarter-Wave (Marconi or Long-wire) antenna

The quarter wavelength vertical antenna is basically a half-wave dipole
placed vertically, with the other half of the dipole being the ground
(image).
Considering the
Antenna Types Exact Formula
End Effect (F=0.95)
Quarter-Wave Dipole 246F 234
L ft L ft
(Marconi or Long wire) fMHz fMHz
Half-Wave Dipole 492 F 468
L ft L ft
(Hertz antenna) fMHz fMHz
where: F=velocity factor

ECE Board Exam: APRIL 2005

What is the actual length in feet of one-half wavelength of a coax with
velocity factor of 0.63 at 28 MHz?
Solution:
492F 492(0.63)
L ft 11.07 ft
f MHz 28
ECE Board Exam: APRIL 2003

What is the actual length in feet of one-quarter wavelength of a coax with
velocity factor of 0.695 at 42 MHz?
Solution:
246F 246(0.695)
L ft 4.07 ft
f MHz 42
I. .ANTENNA ELEMENT.
1. Driven element
A driven element obtains its power directly from the transmitter or, as
a receiving antenna; it delivers the received energy directly to the
receiver.
2. Parasitic element
A parasitic element is located near the driven element from which it
gets its power. It is placed close enough to the driven element to
permit coupling.
When it operates to reinforce energy coming from the driver

toward itself, the parasitic element is referred to as a director.
If a parasitic element is placed so it causes maximum energy

radiation in a direction away from itself and toward the driven
element, that parasitic element is called a reflector.
Note:
If all of the elements in an array are driven, the array is referred to as a
Driven Array (sometimes as a connected array).
If one or more elements are parasitic, the entire system usually is

considered to be a Parasitic Array.
J. .SPECIAL PURPOSE ANTENNA.
1. Folded Dipole antenna

The folded dipole is essentially a single antenna made up of two
elements. One element is fed directly (driven element), whereas the
other is conductively (parasitic element) coupled at the ends.
2. Yagi-Uda antenna
A Yagi antenna is a linear array consisting of a dipole and two or more
parasitic elements.
For your information

Yagi-Uda antenna was
invented by Hidetsugi
Yagi and Shintaro Uda
0.55 hence the name Yagi-
0.45
0.5 Uda
Antenna Considering the End

Exact Formula
Element Effect (F=0.95)
Director 0.45 0.451
Driven element 0.5 0.475
Reflector 0.55 0.49875 0.5

Sample Problem:
A Yagi-Uda antenna is designed to receive signals centered at 174 MHz.
Calculate the length of the driven element, reflector, and director.
Solution:
a. For the driven element
3 x 10 8
Length 0 .5 0 . 86 m
2 174 x 10 6
Considering End effect

Length 0.5 5%(0.5 ) 0.475
0.86 (0.05 x 0.86) 0.817 m
b. For the reflector

3 x 108
Length 0.55 0.55 0.948 m
174 x 106

Length 0.475 5%(0.475 ) 0.49875 0.5
0.817 (0.05 x 0.817) 0.8599 m
c. For the director

3 x 108
Length 0.45 0.45 0.776 m
174 x 106

Length 0.475 5%(0.475 ) 0.451
0 .817 (0.05 x 0.817) 0.776 m
3. Turnstile antenna
The turnstile antenna is formed

by placing two dipoles at right
angles to each other, 90 out of
phase. The radiation pattern is
the sum of the radiation patterns
from the two dipoles, which
produces a nearly omnidirectional
pattern.
4. Loop antenna
A closed-circuit antenna, that is, one in which a conductor is formed
into one or more turns so its end are close together.
Parameter Equation
Induced Voltage 2 fBAN
Induced Voltage
max Q
(Tuned Loop Antenna)
B magnetic flux density in Teslas

A loop area in m2
N number of turns in the loop
Q qualitiy factor
5. Helical antenna
A circularly polarized antenna that is wound into a helix.
Two Principal Modes
1. In the normal (broadside) mode or, the dimensions of the helix

are small compared with the wavelength. The far field radiation
pattern is similar to an electrically short dipole or monopole.
These antennas tend to be inefficient radiators and are typically used for
mobile communications where reduced size is a critical factor.

2. In the axial (endfire) mode, the antenna produces true circular

polarization.
These antennas are best suited for space communication, where the orientation
of the sender and receiver cannot be easily controlled, or where the polarization
of the signal may change.
i. Gain of a helical antenna
N # of turns, 3 to 20 turns
15NS( D)2
G 3 S pitch or spacing
D helix diameter
ii. 3dB Beamwidth ( )
52
D NS
Sample Problem:
Calculate the gain and beamwidth of a helical antenna if the optimum
diameter is 80 mm, pitch of 62.5 mm, with eight turns and will operate at
1.2 GHz.
Solution:
15 NS ( D ) 2 15 ( 8 )( 0 . 0625 )( x 0 . 08 ) 2
G 10 log 10 log 14 . 8 dB
3 3
0 . 25
52 52 ( 0 . 25 ) 0 . 25
36 . 6
D NS x 0 . 08 8 x 0 . 0625
K. .MULTI-ELEMENT ARRAYS.
1. Multi-element arrays frequently are classified according to their

directivity.
i. Bidirectional array
A bidirectional array radiates in opposite directions along the line
of maximum radiation.
ii. Unidirectional array

A Unidirectional array radiates in only one general direction.
Arrays can be described with respect to their radiation patterns
and the types of elements of which they are made.
2. In Terms of Direction of Radiation
i. Collinear array
The collinear array antenna usually uses two or more wire half-
wave dipoles mounted end-to-end. The pattern radiated by the
collinear array is similar to that produced by a single dipole. The
addition of two or more radiator, however, tends to intensify the
pattern.
ii. Broadside array

A broadside array designates an array in which the direction of
maximum radiation is perpendicular to the plane containing these
elements. In actual practice, this term is confined to those arrays
in which the elements themselves are parallel, with respect to
each other.

iii. End-fire array

An end-fire array is one in which the principal direction of
radiation is along the plane of the array and perpendicular to the
elements. Radiation is from the end of the array, which is the
reason this arrangement is referred to as an end-fire array.
iv. Log-Periodic antenna

The log-periodic antenna derives its name from the fact that the
feedpoint impedance is a periodic function of the operating
frequency.
L1 L2 L3 d1 d2 d3
L2 L3 L4 d2 d3 d4
1 L1
2 tan
2d1
design constant (typically between 0.7 to 0.9)

design angle in degrees
L1 ,L2 element length from shortest to longest
d1 , d2 spacing between elements from the apex
L. .PARABOLIC REFLECTOR ANTENNA.
A form of a dish antenna with a reflecting

surface that is a geometric paraboloid.
Parabolic reflectors resemble the shape of a

plate or dish; therefore, they are sometimes
called parabolic dish antennas or simply dish
antennas.
Parameter Equation
f
Aperture Number
D
Angular Aperture 2
Relation between f
Angular aperture and 0.25 cot
Aperture number D 2
Effective Area A eff x A face
Beamwidth 70
D
Beamwidth between
o 2 140
nulls D
Gain of a Parabolic Reflector antenna
d2
Areaeffective(parabolic) x D
2
G 4
2
Areaeffective(isotropic )
4
where:
aperture or illumination efficiency
0.5 to 0.75 (0.55 typical)
D mouth or face diameter in m

When =55% When =60%

2 2
D D
G 5.4 G 6
GdB 42.22 20log fMHz x Dm GdB 52.6 20 log fMHz x Dft
GdB 17.78 20 log fGHz x Dm GdB 7.5 20 log fGHz x D ft
Sample Problem:
Calculate the directive gain and beamwidth between nulls for a paraboloidal
reflector antenna with a mouth diameter of 2.4m and the illumination
efficiency is 0.55 operating at 6 GHz.
Solution:
Directive Gain (D)
4 4 D2 4 x 2 .4 2
D xA eff x x 0 . 55
2 2 4 0 . 05 2 4
12 ,507
D dB 10 log D 10 log 12 ,507 41 dB
Beamwidth between nulls

0.05
o 2 140 140 2.92
D 2.4
Sample Problem:
To minimize interference, a 500-MHz dish needs to have a 1 beamdwith.
What diameter dish is required, in wavelength and meters?
Solution:
8
70 70 70 3 x 10
D 70 70 42 m
D 1 6
500 x 10
M. .HORN ANTENNA.
Horn radiator is a tapered termination of a length of waveguide that

provides the impedance transformation between waveguide and free space
impedance.
dE
dH
Parameter General Solution
7.5dEdH
Gain G 2
70
H-plane Beamwidth H
dH
56
E-plane Beamwidth E
dE
Sample Problem:
Calculate the gain, beamwidth in the E and H plane of a pyramidal horn
antenna that has an aperture of 60 mm in the E-plane, 80 mm in the H-
plane and operating at 6 GHz.
Solution:
7 . 5 dE dH 7 . 5 x 0 . 06 x 0 . 08
G 2
14 . 4 11 . 58 dB
0 . 05 2
56 56 x 0 .05 70 70 x 0 .05
E 46 .67 H 43 .75
dE 0 .06 dH 0 . 08

N. .SUMMARY OF VARIOUS ANTENNAS.
Half-wave dipole antenna
Antenna Radiation Pattern Parameter Typical Values
Gain 2.14 dB
.Elevation Pattern.
Bandwidth 10% (1.1:1)
Frequency 10 Hz to 8 GHz
Limit (due to size)
.Azimuth Pattern. Linear

Polarization
(vertical as shown)
Half-Power
80º x 360º
Beamwidth
Vertical Whip antenna
Gain 2 to 6 dB
.Elevation Pattern.
Frequency
None
Limit

Polarization
(vertical as shown)
Half-Power
45º x 360º
Beamwidth
Linear Dipole Array antenna
Dependent on the
Gain
.Elevation Pattern. number of elements
Bandwidth Narrow
Frequency
10 MHz to 10 GHz
Limit

Polarization
(vertical as shown)
Half-Power
Related to gain
Beamwidth
Yagi-Uda antenna
Gain 5 to 15 dB
.Elevation Pattern.
Frequency
50 MHz to 2 GHz
Limit
.Azimuth Pattern. Linear (horizontal

Polarization
as shown)
Half-Power
50º x 50º
Beamwidth

Log-Periodic antenna
.Elevation Pattern. Gain 6 to 8 dB
Bandwidth 163% (10:1)
Frequency
3 MHz to 18 GHz
Limit

Polarization
as shown)
Half-Power
60º x 80º
Beamwidth
Circular Loop
Gain -2 to 2 dB
.Elevation Pattern.
Frequency
50 MHz to 1 GHz
Limit

Polarization
as shown)
Half-Power
80º x 360º
eamwidth
Square Loop
Gain 1 to 3 dB
.Elevation Pattern.
Frequency
50 MHz to 1 GHz
Limit

Polarization
as shown)
Half-Power
100º x 360º
Beamwidth
Alford Loop
Gain -1 dB
.Elevation Pattern.
Bandwidth 67% (2:1)
Frequency
100 MHz to 2 GHz
Limit

Polarization
as shown)
Half-Power
80º x 360º
Beamwidth

Axial Mode Helical antenna
Gain 10 dB

Frequency 100 MHz to 3
Limit GHz
Circular (Left-
Polarization
hand as shown )
Half-Power
50 º x 10º
Beamwidth
Normal Mode Helical antenna
Gain 0 dB
.Elevation Pattern.
Frequency
100 MHz to 3 GHz
Limit
.Azimuth Pattern.
Circular (with an
Polarization ideal pitch-to-
diameter ratio)
Half-Power
60º x 360º
Beamwidth
Horn antenna
Gain 5 to 20 dB
.Elevation Pattern.
120% (4:1) --ridged

Bandwidth 67% (2:1) non-
ridged
Frequency
50 MHz to 40 GHz
Limit

Polarization
(vertical as shown)
Half-Power
40º x 40º
Beamwidth
Horn antenna (with Polarizer)
Gain 5 to 10 dB
.Elevation Pattern.
Bandwidth 60% (2:1)
Frequency
2 to 18 GHz
Limit
.Azimuth Pattern. Circular (depends on

Polarization
polarizer)
Half-Power
40º x 40º
Beamwidth

Discone antenna
.Elevation Pattern.
Gain 0 to 4 dB

Frequency
30 MHz to 3 GHz
Limit

Polarization
(vertical as shown)
Half-Power
20 to 80º x360º
Beamwidth
Parabolic antenna
Gain 10 to 60 dB

Frequency 400 MHz to +13
Limit GHz
Polarization Polarization of feed
Half-Power
1 to 10º
Beamwidth
V-antenna
Gain 2 to 7 dB
Bandwidth Broadband
Frequency
3 to 500 MHz
Limit
Linear (vertical
Polarization
as shown)
Half-Power
60º x 60º
Beamwidth
Rhombic antenna
Gain 3 dB
Bandwidth Broadband
Frequency
3 to 500 MHz
Limit
Linear (vertical
Polarization
as shown)
Half-Power
60º x 60º
Beamwidth
Biconical antenna
Gain 0 to 4 dB
.Elevation Pattern.
Frequency
500 MHz to 40 GHz
Limit

Polarization
(vertical as shown)
Half-Power
20 to 100º x360º
Beamwidth
Corner Reflector antenna
Gain 10 dB above feed
Bandwidth Narrow
Dependent upon feed Frequency
1 GHz to 40 GHz
emitter Limit
Polarization Feed dependent
Half-Power
40º x variable
Beamwidth

Biconical antenna (with Polarizer)
Gain -3 to 1 dB
.Elevation Pattern.
Frequency
2 GHz to 18 GHz
Limit
.Azimuth Pattern.
Circular
Polarization (Direction depends
on polarization)
Half-Power
20 to 100º x360º
Beamwidth
Guide Fed Slot antenna
Gain 0 dB
.Elevation Pattern.
Bandwidth Narrow
Frequency
2 GHz to 40 GHz
Limit

Polarization
(vertical as shown)
45º x50º
Half-Power
(elevation)
Beamwidth
80º (azimuth)
Cavity Backed Circuit Fed Slot and Microstrip Patch antenna
Gain 6 dB
.Elevation and.
.Azimuth Pattern.
Bandwidth Narrow
Frequency
50 MHz to 18 GHz
Limit
Linear
Polarization
(vertical as shown)
Half-Power
80º x 80º
Beamwidth
O. .RADIATION PATTERN OF VARIOUS DIPOLE ANTENNA.
Notice the development of lobes as the antenna length increases
0.5 0.75
1.0 1.25

1.5 1.75
2.0 2.25
2.5 2.75
3.0

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CHAPTER 17-Antenna Fundamentals

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Section 17

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Section Antenna Read it

DEFINITION. Antenna is basically a transducer that converts electrical

DEFINITION. Radiation Resistance is a resistance that, if replaced the

DEFINITION. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is defined as

States that antenna characteristic are essentially the same regardless of

1. Coupling Device - The coupling device (coupling coil) connects the

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C. .CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION ON AN ANTENNA.

The principles of radiation of electromagnetic energy are based on two

A moving electric field creates a

A moving magnetic field creates

3. Near Field and Far Field

ii. Far Field

For Your Information

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6. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

EIRP Ptx Gtx EIRPdB Ptx(dB) Gtx(dB)

Effective Radiated Power (ERP)

ERPdB EIRP(dB) 2.14 dB

7. Captured Area & Captured Power

i. Captured Area (Effective Area)

ii. Captured Power (Received Power)

Pr(dB) EIRPdB FSL dB Grx(dB)

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Summary for various antennas

E. .ANTENNA FEED MECHANISM.

1. Center fed antenna

F. .ANTENNA GROUNDING SYSTEM.

2. Earth Mat (Groundscreen)

Antenna loading is the method used to change the electrical length of an

1. Inserting an inductor in series with a short antenna compensate its

2. Inserting a capacitor in series with a long antenna compensate its

a. Top loading - the loading component is attached at the top of the

b. Center loading - the loading component is placed along the

c.Base loading - the loading component is located at the bottom of the

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Field strength at a distance

Voltage, Current & Impedance Distribution of Half-wave dipole

Voltage is maximum at the

3. Quarter-Wave (Marconi or Long-wire) antenna

where: F=velocity factor

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ECE Board Exam: APRIL 2005

ECE Board Exam: APRIL 2003

When it operates to reinforce energy coming from the driver

If a parasitic element is placed so it causes maximum energy

If one or more elements are parasitic, the entire system usually is

J. .SPECIAL PURPOSE ANTENNA.

1. Folded Dipole antenna

For your information

Antenna Considering the End

Director 0.45 0.451

Driven element 0.5 0.475

Reflector 0.55 0.49875 0.5

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Considering End effect

b. For the reflector

Considering End effect

c. For the director

Considering End effect

The turnstile antenna is formed

Induced Voltage 2 fBAN