LITO

Chapter IX – PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMICS

1. Dynamics is the branch of mechanics which deals with the study of bodies in motion.

2. No accurate time-measuring devices, such as the pendulum clock developed by Huygens in

1657 and the balance-wheel watch developed by Robert Hooke around 1666, were
devised until after Galileo’s death.

3. Newton’s laws of motion are the basis for extending the laws of motion from a particle to a
body composed of a system of particles.

4. The term particle usually denotes an object of point size. A particle is a body so small that
any differences in the motions of its parts can be neglected.

5. The term body denotes a system of particles which form an object of appreciable size.

6. Dynamics is divided into two branches:

a a. Kinematics is the geometry of motion. The term is used to define the motion of a
b particle or body without consideration of the forces causing the motion.
c Kinematics is essentially a treatment of the relations between displacement,
d velocity and acceleration.
b. Kinetics is the branch of mechanics that relates the force acting on a body to its mass
and acceleration. When the acceleration of a body caused by the forces acting on
it has been determined, the principles of kinematics may be applied to determine
the displacement or velocity at any instant. The kinematic motion of a body may
be used to compute its acceleration.

7. The displacement of a particle is the vector distance from an origin to the position occupied
by the particle on its path of travel.

8. Velocity is defined as the time rate of change of displacement.

9. Acceleration is defined as the time rate of change of velocity.

10. Newton’s Laws of Motion of a Particle

e a. A particle acted upon by a balanced force system has no acceleration.
f b. A particle acted upon by an unbalanced force system has an acceleration in line with
g and directly proportional to the resultant of the force system.
h c. Action and reaction forces between two particles are always equal and oppositely
i directed.

11. The effective force on a particle is defined as the resultant force on the particle.

12. Inertia force of the particle is the equal but oppositely directed reaction to the resultant
 force acting on a particle.
13. If the inertia force is considered to act on a particle together with the resultant force, the
particle will be in a state of equilibrium. This will be called dynamic equilibrium to
distinguish it from static equilibrium in which the particle is at rest or is moving with
constant velocity.

14. D’Alembert’s principle expresses the relation between the external forces applied to a
system of particles and the effective force on each particle of the system. It may be stated
as follows: The resultant of the external forces applied to a body (rigid or non-rigid)
composed of a system of particles is equivalent to the vector summation of the effective
forces acting on all particles.

15. If the resultant of the applied force system is a single force passing through the gravity center
of the body, the body will move in the direction of the resultant but it will not rotate. If
the direction is constant, the motion of the body follows a straight-line path and is called
rectilinear translation. If the direction of the resultant varies, although continuing to
pass through the gravity center, so will the motion of the body, resulting in a curved path
motion known as curvilinear translation.

CHAPTER IX – RECTILINEAR TRANSLATION

Horizontal Translation

s = vot + 1/2at2 v = vo + at v2 = vo2 + 2as

where:
s – horizontal displacement (m) vo – initial velocity (m/s or km/h)
t – time (s or m or h) v – final velocity (m/s or km/h)
a – acceleration(+) or deceleration(-) (m/s2)

Vertical Translation

h = vot + 1/2gt2 v = vo + gt v2 = vo2 + 2gs

where:
h – vertical translation g – gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s2)

1. Translation is defined as the motion of a rigid body in which a straight line passing through
any two of its particles remains parallel to its initial position.

2. Since the body is assumed to be rigid, the distance separating the particles remains constant
and the particles have no motion relative to each other.

3. The motion of a translating body moving in a straight line is called rectilinear translation.
4. If the path of translating body is curved, the motion becomes a curvilinear translation.
5. The outstanding kinematic characteristic of the translation of a rigid body is the fact that all
particles travel the same or parallel paths.

6. A translating body may be considered as a particle concentrated at its center of gravity.

7. The acceleration of a freely falling body is directly proportional to the resultant force acting
upon it.

8. The weight is a force that results from the attraction between the mass of the body and the
mass of the earth; it varies inversely as the square of the distance separating the two
centers of mass and is directly proportional to the product of the masses.

9. The gravitational force and the gravitational acceleration may be assumed to be constant.

10. A body is speeding up if the directions of velocity and acceleration are the same, and
slowing down if velocity and acceleration are oppositely directed.

11. Since the mass of any body on the earth is insignificant compared with the mass of the earth,
the gravitational force varies only with the position of the body relative to the center of
the earth’s mass.

12. When bodies are acted upon by variable forces, they move with variable acceleration.

13. Rectilinear Motion with Variable Acceleration

Case I – The displacement is given in terms of the time; i.e. s = f(t), to find v and a.
Case II – The acceleration is expressed in terms of the time; i.e., a = f(t), to find v and s.
Case III – The velocity is given in terms of the time; i.e., v = f(t), to find a and s.
Case IV – One of the principal variables is expressed in terms of an adjacent variable; i.e.,
a = f(v) or v = f(s).
Case V – The given variables are not adjacent; i.e., a = f(s).

14. In rectilinear translation of a rigid body all particles of the body move in parallel straight
lines, and hence the displacement, velocity, and acceleration of any particle are parallel to
the line of motion.

15. The kinetic equations of rectilinear translation are obtained from the general equation
governing the motion of the center of gravity.

16. Since the moment sum of the effective force for all particles is zero, the moment of the
resultant effective force is also zero.

17. The resultant effective force Wa/g acts through the center of gravity in the direction of the
acceleration.
18. Dynamic equilibrium is a method whereby a kinetics problem can be reduced to an
equivalent statics problem.
19. Static equilibrium is one in which a body is either at rest or is moving in a straight line with
constant velocity.

20. It is particularly advantageous to use dynamic equilibrium to eliminate two unknown forces
by taking a moment sum about their intersection.

Wa
X = Y = Z = 0
g

The X-axis coincides with the line of motion of the body, and that it is considered positive in the
initial direction of motion.

Dynamic Equilibrium in Translation. Analysis as a Rigid Body

21. D’Alembert’s Principle – The resultant of the applied forces acting on a body is equivalent
to the resultant of the effective forces acting on all properties composing the body.

22. Since the moment sum of the effective force for all particles is zero, the moment of the
resultant effective force is also zero. Since this resultant is a force, its moment is zero
only because the force passes through the center of the moments.

23. The resultant effective force Wa/g (equivalent to the resultant of the applied forces) acts
through the center of gravity in the direction of the acceleration.

24. Dynamic equilibrium. This is a method whereby a kinetics problem can be reduced to an
equivalent statics problem.

25. A body in equilibrium is one acted upon by a force system whose resultant is zero.

26. Static equilibrium is one in which a body is either at rest or is moving in a straight line with
constant velocity.

27. The combination of the applied forces together with the inertia force (dynamic reaction) has a
zero resultant; hence all the equations and methods of static equilibrium may be applied
to this combination of applied and inertia forces.

28. Dynamic equilibrium can be created by adding an equilibrant which is equal, opposite, and
collinear with the resultant.

29. The equilibrant is an inertia force having the magnitude Wa/g acting through the gravity
center but directed opposite to the acceleration.
30. A free-body diagram which includes the inertia force Wa/g (sometimes called the reversed
effective force) as well as the real or applied forces represents a force system whose
resultant is zero.

31. It is particularly advantageous to use dynamic equilibrium to eliminate two unknown forces
by taking a moment sum about their intersection.

CHAPTER XI – CURVILINEAR TRANSLATION

1. Translation of a rigid body has been defined as the motion in which a straight line passing
through any two points of the body always remains parallel to its initial position. This
definition requires that all particles of the translating body have exactly the same motion.

2. In curvilinear motion, the displacement vector will change in both the magnitude and
inclination.

3. In curvilinear motion, although the velocity is always directed tangent to the curved path of
motion, the acceleration is not tangent to the path.

4. Flight Projectiles

Rectilinear Motion with X Component of Flight Y Component of Flight

Constant Acceleration ax = 0; vox = vo cos  ay = -g; voy = vo sin 
v = vo + at vx = vox + ax t or vy = voy +ay t or
vx = vo cos  vy = vo sin  - gt
x = vox t + ½ ax t2 or y = voy t + ½ ay t2 or
s = vo t + ½ at2 x = vo cos t y = vo sin  t - ½ gt2

Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration

5. The most useful components of acceleration are those which are tangent and normal to the
path. These components denote respectively the rate of change of magnitude and of
direction of velocity.

6. The magnitude of the resultant acceleration is given by:

a =  an2 + at2

and its inclination with the normal by tana = at / an

7. “a = dvt / dt” represents only the rate of change in magnitude of velocity and that it will be
zero if the speed is constant.
8. If it is denoted the velocity at any point by v, the normal acceleration is:

an = v2 / r

while the tangential acceleration is:

at = dv / dt

Kinetics of Curvilinear Translation. Dynamic Equilibrium

9. The kinetic equations of curvilinear translation are obtained from the equation of motion for
the center of gravity of any body, i.e., R = Wa/g. It is convenient to resolve this equation
into components which are normal and tangent to the path. Calling the normal axis N and
the tangential axis T:

W Wv2 Wat Wat

N = an = T = =
g gr g g

The bar signs which refer to the motion of the center of gravity can be omitted from these
equations because all particles in translation have identical values of acceleration as well
as displacement and velocity.

L h 

T T W

Wv2 vr
gr Wv2
W r gr

Conical pendulum Force polygon

10. Dynamic equilibrium is created by applying the centrifugal inertia force acting radially
outward from the center of the path.
11. The inclination  of the cord with the vertical is:

Wv2/ gr v2
tan  = =
W gr
From which the inclination  is independent of the weight. Substituting
r = Lsin reduces to:

cos2  + v2 cos / gL – 1 = 0

from which the value of cos , and hence  may be obtained.

12. The tension T is also obtained from the force polygon.

W = Tcos or T = W / cos

13. The distance traveled by the bob in one revolution is 2 r at a constant velocity v, whence the
period or time for a complete revolution is:

t = s / v = 2 r / v = 2  r / gtan
14. Since tan = r / h, we have:

t = 2  h / g

15. As the angle  decreases, the value of h approaches the limiting value L so that the maximum
time for a revolution becomes:

tmax = 2 L / g

Banking of Highway Curves

16. The curve is banked at an angle  with the horizontal so that there is no tendency to slide up
or down the road. This is known as the ideal angle of banking.

tan = v2 / gr

This equation defines the ideal angle of banking in terms of the velocity of the car and the
radius of the turn and is independent of the weight of the car. The velocity in this case is
often termed the rated speed of the curve.
Friction Force on a Banked Road

16. Friction force is exerted by the road on the tires when the car is rounding a banked curve with
a velocity greater than the rated speed of the curve. This frictional force F will evidently
act down the plane of banking.

17. The friction force adjusts itself to the amount required to prevent skidding and will not have
its maximum value unless skidding is impending. In other words, the friction relation
F = fN does not apply unless the car is making the maximum speed.

18. When the car is traveling at its greatest speed and is about to skid up the plane, the relation
between F and N is given by F = fN.

tan ( + f ) = v2 / gr

19. If the car is on the point of slipping down the plane of banking (because of insufficient
speed):

tan ( - f ) = v2 / gr

CHAPTER XII – ROTATION

1. Rotation is defined as that motion of a rigid body in which the particles move in circular paths
with their centers on a fixed straight line that is called the axis of rotation.
2. The planes of the circles in which the particles move are perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
3. All particles of a rotating body have the same angular displacement although their linear
movements vary directly with their distances from the axis of rotation.
4. Angular displacement is the angular distance swept through by any line in a rigid body.
5. The units of angular displacement may be radians, degrees, or revolutions, but radian
measurement is preferred in order to correlate angular displacement with linear
displacement.
6. In the motion of translation all the particles have identical values of linear displacement, linear
velocity, and linear acceleration.
7. In the motion of rotation all the particles have the same values of angular displacement,
angular velocity, and angular acceleration.
8. The linear values of displacement, velocity, and acceleration in a rotating body are not the
same; they vary directly with the distance of the particle from the axis of rotation.
Kinematic Differential Equations of Rotation
9. The relation between the linear displacement of the weight and the angular displacement (in
radians) of the pulley is given by the equation

s = r
r – constant radius of rotation
 - angular displacement
10. The term d / dt represents the time rate of change of angular displacement and hence, will
be called the angular velocity and be represented by the symbol  . Thus the angular
velocity at any instant is defined by the equation:

 = d / dt
The common unit is radians per second (rad / sec) but other units such as degrees per
second (deg / sec) and revolutions per minute (rpm) are also used.

v = r
11. The expression dv / dt represents the time rate of change of the magnitude of the velocity. It
is preferable to denote this acceleration by at because it not only represents the linear
acceleration of the weight but is also the tangential acceleration of a point on the rim of
the pulley.
12. The expression d / dt represents the time rate of change of angular velocity and will be
defined as the angular acceleration a :

a = d / dt
The common unit is radian per second per second (rad / sec2 ) and revolutions per
minute per second (rpm / sec).

at = ra
Since v = r , the normal acceleration of any point on the rim of the pulley is given by:

an = v / r = r
A third convenient relation may be found by eliminating dt.

 d = a d
13. Summary of the differential equations of rotation and comparing them with similar
expressions for rectilinear motion.
 Rectilinear Motion Rotation

v = ds / dt  = d / dt
a = dv / dt = d2 s / dt2 a = d / dt = d2 / dt2
v dv = a ds  d = a d
These relations differ only in the symbols used; they are therefore mathematically
identical.

s = r v = r at = ra an = r 2
14. The angular displacement of a body is a vector quantity; e.g., the direction of rotation may be
either clockwise or counterclockwise.
15. The sense of positive  determines the sense of positive  and positive a .

XIII – WORK AND ENERGY

Fundamental Work-Energy Equation for rectilinear Translation

The mathematical expressions defining work and kinetic energy as applied to translation are
easily obtained by considering the following equations which have been already derived:
1)  X = Wa / g – It equates the resultant force acting at any instant to the
corresponding acceleration. The value of a depends on the corresponding value of
 X; it may be constant or variable depending on whether  X is constant or
variable.
2) ads = vdv – It expresses the instantaneous value of the acceleration in terms of the
instantaneous velocity.

Eliminating a in the two equations results in:

3)  X.ds = W vdv / g – defined as the differential form of the work-energy

relationship.

Assuming that the initial velocity vo at zero displacement and that the final velocity is v at a final
displacement s, integrating Eq. 3:

s v
  X . ds = W / g  vdv
o vo
Which gives

4)  X . ds = ½ W v 2
/ g – ½ W vo2 / g = W / 2g (v2 – vo2 )
o
This is the fundamental work-energy equation.
s

The expression  X . ds is defined as resultant work.

o

The expression ½ W v2 / g is defined as kinetic energy.

The resultant work on a translating body is equal to the corresponding change in kinetic energy.

Work-Energy Equation for Constant Forces

If the forces acting on a body are constant, the resultant force  X will be constant.
Eq. 4 becomes:

 X . s = ½ W v2 / g – ½ W vo2 / g = W / 2g (v2 – vo2 )

The expression  X .s is called the resultant work done on a body as it moves through a linear
displacement s.

Unit of work is N . m.
Steps for applying the work-energy method:

1. Determine the direction of motion. Confirmation is obtained by noting that the resultant work
must be positive to speed up a system, and vice versa.

2. Determine the kinematic relations between the bodies composing the system.

3. Apply the work-energy equation to the entire system.

4. If the internal force in a connecting member is desired, apply the work-energy equation to a
free-body diagram of that part of the system on which this force then acts as an external
force. If the internal force is not constant, this step will determine only its average value.
The instantaneous value of a variable force must be found by the force-inertia method.
POWER. EFFICIENCY

Power is the time rate at which work is done on a body.

Power = Work / Time This gives the average power.

If F is the net force doing the work, then work during any instant is given by:

 X . ds = F . s

and the power exerted at any instant is:

Power = Work / Time = Fds / dt = Fv

i. e., the power exerted at any instant is the product of the net force multiplied by the
instantaneous velocity.

The unit of power depends on the units of work and time.

The units commonly used are the horsepower (hp) and the watt and kilowatt (kw). The
horsepower is a traditional unit equivalent to 550ft-lb of work / sec., or 33,000 ft-lb /
min. The watt equals 107 ergs/sec, and the kilowatt = 1000watts.

Relations between horsepower and kilowatts:

1 hp = 0.746 kw 1 kw = 1.34 hp

Efficiency is the ratio of power output to power input. This ratio is usually multiplied by 100 so
that efficiency may be given as a percentage.

Efficiency may be defined as the ratio of energy output to energy input or of work output to
work input.

The overall efficiency of a number of machines placed in series is equal to the product of their
individual efficiencies.