EVOLUTION

Evolution is defined as change in the inherited traits of a population of organisms through

successive generations.
Charles Darwin gave the concept of evolution.
 He has observed that variation exist in nature and helps organism to adapt the
environment passed to the next generation.
 He published his book "The origin of species" and theory proposed by him is known
as "The Theory of Natural selection”.
 He explained that the best adapted organisms are selected by the nature to pass
their characteristics to the next generation.

An illustration of evolution:
To understand how evolution takes place, let us consider some imaginary examples:
i) Consider a group of twelve red beetles. They live in some bushes with green leaves. Their
population will grow by sexual reproduction, and therefore, can generate variations.
ii) Let us imagine also that crows eat these beetles. The more beetles the crows eat, the
fewer beetles are available to reproduce.
Let us consider three different situations that can develop in this population of beetles.

First situation:
 In the first situation, a colour variation arises during reproduction, so that there is
one beetle that is green in colour instead of red.
 The number of green beetles increases after reproduction. Crows cannot see green-
coloured beetles on the green leaves of the bushes, and therefore cannot eat them.
 The progeny of green beetles is not eaten, while the progeny of red beetles
continues to be eaten. As a result, the population of green beetles increases than the
red ones in the beetle population.
Conclusion:
Green beetles got the survival advantage or they are naturally selected as they were not
visible in green bushes.
This natural selection is exerted by crows resulting in the beetles to fit better in their
environment.

Second Situation:
 In a second situation, again, a colour variation arises during reproduction, but now it
results in a beetle that is blue in colour instead of red.
 The number of blue beetles increases after reproduction. Crows can see blue-
coloured beetles in the green leaves of the bushes as well as they can see red ones,
and therefore can eat them.
 Initially, the number of red beetles is more than the number of blue beetles.

Address: “H.No. 34, Agrasen Colony, Opp. Vishal Mega Mart, Bhilwara (Raj.)” Page 1
Contact No. : +91-9413757285, +91-8107543119
  But at this point, an elephant comes by, and stamps on the bushes where the beetles
live. This kills most of the beetles.
 By chance, the few beetles that have survived are mostly blue. The beetle population
slowly expands again, but now, the beetles in the population are mostly blue. The
survival of the blue beetles was because of an accident.
Conclusion:
 Blue beetles did not get survival advantage. Elephant suddenly caused major havoc
in beetles population otherwise their number would have been considerably large.
 From this we can conclude that accidents can change the frequency of some genes
even if they do not get survival advantage. This is called genetic drift.

Third Situation:
 Now consider a third situation. In this, as the beetle population begins to expand,
the bushes start suffering from a plant disease.
 The amount of leaf material for the beetles is reduced. Therefore, the beetles are
poorly nourished. The average weight of adult beetles decreases due to non-
availability of leaves, but there is no genetic change occurring.
 After a few years and a few beetle generations of such scarcity, the plant disease is
eliminated. There is a lot of leaf food and weight of the beetles also increases.
 Here, the change in size was a change in the phenotype and hence was not
inheritable. Change in size could not produce any variation and evolution in the
species.
Conclusion:
 No genetic change has occurred in the population of beetle. The population gets
affected for a short duration only due to environmental changes.

Inherited traits:
 Inherited traits are traits in an organism due to changes in the genetic composition.
 It can be passed from one generation to the next and it results in evolution.
 Inherited traits include things such as hair colour, eye colour, muscle structure, bone
structure, and even features like the shape of a nose.

Acquired traits:
 Acquired traits are traits which are acquired by an organism during its lifetime.
 It cannot be passed from one generation to the next and it does not result in
evolution.
 Acquired traits include muscle building due to exercise, low weight of starving
beetles etc.

Note:
 J.B. Lemarc proposes the theory of inheritance of acquired character in his book
‘Philosophy zoologique’.
 According to Lemarc all acquired characters are transmitted to next generation.

Address: “H.No. 34, Agrasen Colony, Opp. Vishal Mega Mart, Bhilwara (Raj.)” Page 2
Contact No. : +91-9413757285, +91-8107543119
  This theory was criticised by Weismann who disproved lemarc’s view.
 He cut the tail of mice for 21 generations. He found out that every generation of
mice contains tail.

Species:
 A collection of organisms which can reproduce among themselves. E.g. homo
sapiens.
Speciation:
 The process by which new species develop from the existing species is known as
speciation.
 It is an event that splits a population of the same species into two independent
species which cannot reproduce among them.

Causes of speciation:
 Genetic drift: It occurs due to changes in the frequencies of particular genes by
chance alone. e.g. If a hurricane strikes the mainland, and bananas with beetle eggs
on them are washed away to an island. This is called a genetic drift.
 Natural selection: These are the variations caused in individuals due to natural
selection which lead to the formation of a new species. e.g. If the ecological
conditions are slightly different on the island as compared to the mainland, it leads
to a change in the morphology and food preferences in the organisms over the
course of generations.
 Geographical isolation: Geographical isolation of a population caused by various
types of barriers such as rivers, mountain and seas. It leads to the reproductive
isolation due to which there is no flow of genes between separated groups of
population.

Tracing evolutionary relations:

 The modern system of classification is based on evolutionary relationships. The
degree of similarity and dissimilarity shows that all animals have evolved from a
common ancestor.
Homologous organs
 Homologous organs are organs having same basic structure modified to perform
different function in different organisms.
 Organs such as bat's wing, wings of birds, forelimb of a horse, and human arm have a
common underlying anatomy that was present in their last common ancestors,
therefore their forelimbs are homologous organs.
 Such homologies reveal the common ancestry of all these animals. Such differences
are due to divergent evolution or adaptation for varied conditions.

Address: “H.No. 34, Agrasen Colony, Opp. Vishal Mega Mart, Bhilwara (Raj.)” Page 3
Contact No. : +91-9413757285, +91-8107543119
Analogous Organs:
 Analogous organs are organs which look similar because they perform same
function, but they do not have same origin and basic structure.
 Wings of butterfly, wings of a bat and wings of birds look similar because they
perform same function of flying but they do not have same origin and basic
structure.

Vestigial organs:
 Organs which are functionless and rudimentary are rudimentary now but were
functional in the ancestors. Example: vermiform appendix, nictating membrane.

Fossils Provide Evidence of Evolution:

 Fossils provide us direct evidence of the types of organisms (Plants, animals and
microbes) that existed at a particular geological time and help us to reconstruct the
evolutionary process.
 Fossils are preserved remains or impressions of organisms that lived in the past.
 Some fossils provide us links between existing groups of plants and animals for
example feather imprints preserved along with dinosaur's bones indicate that birds
have evolved for reptiles.
 Archaeopteryx is connecting link between the reptiles and birds. It looks like birds
but has many other features like reptiles.

Address: “H.No. 34, Agrasen Colony, Opp. Vishal Mega Mart, Bhilwara (Raj.)” Page 4
Contact No. : +91-9413757285, +91-8107543119
Example of fossils:
Ammonite: Fossil-invertebrate
Trilobite: Fossil-invertebrate
Knightia: Fossil-fish
Rajasaurus: Fossil-dinosaur skull

Finding age of fossils:

(i). Radiocarbon dating:
 Age of the fossils can be found by detecting the ratios of different isotopes of the
same element in the fossil material.
(ii) Depth of fossils:
 Age of the fossils can be found by estimation of the depth of the layer of rocks in
which it is found. E.g. The fossils we find closer to the surface are more recent than
the fossils we find in deeper layers.

Evolution by stages:
 Evolution of complex organisms has taken place through a series of DNA changes
(mutations) created bit by bit over generations.
Evolution of eyes:
 Eyes were not present in the initial stages of life on earth. It evolved slowly through a
series of changes. Eyes would not have evolved through a single DNA change.
 Planaria is the first animal which shows 'eye' like structure. The dark spots on
planaria are light sensitive spots but a planaria cannot distinguish between two
different objects.
 Eyes of insects are compound eyes which are made up of thousands of optical
surfaces.
 Eyes of higher animals are simple eyes which are composed of a single lens. Most of
the animals cannot differentiate among colours. Depth perception is also weak in
many animals.
 Human eyes are the most advanced; because humans can recognize colours and
have very good depth perception.

Adaptation:
 A characteristic of a particular animal may, post-evolution be useful for performing a
totally different function. For example: Feathers.
 Long feathers were considered to provide insulation in cold weather. Some reptiles
like the dinosaur had feathers but very few were adapted for flying. In the present
day, birds use feathers for flight, which is an example of adaptation.

Address: “H.No. 34, Agrasen Colony, Opp. Vishal Mega Mart, Bhilwara (Raj.)” Page 5
Contact No. : +91-9413757285, +91-8107543119
Artificial selection:
 This is the usage of plants with desirable characteristics to produce new varieties.
 Broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, kohlrabi and kale are produced from its ancestor wild
cabbage by artificial selection.
 Humans cultivated wild cabbage for over 2000 years and produced different
vegetables from it by artificial selection.
Examples:

 Cabbage: By selecting short distance between the leaves.

 Cauliflower: By selecting sterile flowers.
 Kale: By selecting large leaves.
 Kholrabi: By selecting the swollen stem
 Broccoli: By arresting flower growth

Molecular phylogeny:
 Evolution occurs due to changes in DNA. Therefore by studying the differences in
DNA of organisms, we can learn about evolution (which organism evolved from
whom).
 This approach is based on the idea that organisms which are more distantly related
will accumulate a greater number of differences in their DNA and vice versa.
 Such studies trace the evolutionary relationships and it has observed that the
relationships among different organisms shown by molecular phylogeny match the
classification scheme.

Address: “H.No. 34, Agrasen Colony, Opp. Vishal Mega Mart, Bhilwara (Raj.)” Page 6
Contact No. : +91-9413757285, +91-8107543119
Evolution Should Not Be Equated With 'Progress':
 New organisms formed from evolution are not always better. Moreover, old
organisms were not always inefficient.
 Example: This can be proved by example of bacteria. Bacteria are the simplest and
one of the oldest organisms on the earth.
 Their simple body design does not make them weak from any angle. Bacteria are
known to survive some of the harshest climates.
 Many animals have certain features which hamper even their routine activities.
 For example; the branch-like horns of antelope are a handicap for them. When an
antelope runs for its life; there are times when its horns get entangled in branches or
bushes. This results in the death of the antelope.
 Colourful feathers of a male peacock are very good when it comes to attract a
female. But because of its conspicuous feathers, it can be easily spotted by a
predator. Because of its bulky feather it cannot fly away to safety.
 Evolution basically leads to more complex organisms due to genetic variation and
natural selection.
 In evolution, old species need not disappear. One species may evolve into many.
So there can be many branches of evolution. Eg. chimpanzee and man.
 They would have had a common ancestor from which both would have evolved. We
have not descended from chimpanzee.

Evolution of human:
 Humans have evolved like any other organisms. There is nothing special about us.
 Humans have evolved among themselves. Human beings evolved in Africa.
 Some of them stayed there but some migrated to different parts of the world.
 Then due to genetic variations and the environmental changes in different
geographical regions they developed changes in their forms and features.

Evolution and classification:

 Both evolution and classification are interlinked.
 Classification of species is reflection of their evolutionary relationship.
 The more characteristic two species have in common the more closely they are
related.
 The more closely they are related, the more recently they have a common ancestor.
 Similarities among organisms allow us to group them together and to study their
characteristics.

Address: “H.No. 34, Agrasen Colony, Opp. Vishal Mega Mart, Bhilwara (Raj.)” Page 7
Contact No. : +91-9413757285, +91-8107543119
Origin of life on earth:
 In 1929, a British scientist J.B.S. Haldane (who became a citizen of India later)
suggested that life must have developed from simple inorganic molecules which
were present on earth soon after it came into existence.
 Haldane said that conditions on earth at that time which were very different from
the conditions we see today, could have converted inorganic molecules into complex
organic molecules that were necessary for life.
 The first primitive organisms would arise from further chemical synthesis.
 He also suggested from theoretical considerations that living beings were formed in
the oceans.
 Long time ago, life on earth was very different from the conditions we see today.
 Earth did not have oxygen in the atmosphere. Atmosphere was supposed to contain
gases such as ammonia, methane, hydrogen sulphide etc. There used to be frequent
lightning.
 Mostly, inorganic compounds were present on earth.
 There were no organic compounds.
 Lightning triggered chemical reaction between inorganic compounds. This formed
new organic compounds like amino acids.

Experimental verification of theory of life on earth:

 The theory of life on earth was proposed by Haldane and approved by the
experiments conducted by 1953, Stanley. L. Miller and Harold C. Urey in 1953.
 They assembled an atmosphere similar to that thought to exist on early earth (this
had molecules like ammonia, methane and hydrogen sulphide, but no oxygen) over
water.
 This was maintained at a temperature just below 100°C and sparks were passed
through the mixture of gases to simulate lightning.
 At the end of a week, 15% of the carbon (from methane) had been converted to
simple compounds of carbon including amino acids which make up protein
molecules.
 These protein molecules are found in living organisms. Thus, these experiments
provide the evidence that life originated from non-living matter like inorganic
molecules.

Address: “H.No. 34, Agrasen Colony, Opp. Vishal Mega Mart, Bhilwara (Raj.)” Page 8
Contact No. : +91-9413757285, +91-8107543119