A solid has three dimensions, viz. length, breadth and thickness.

To represent a solid on a flat

surface having only length and breadth, at least two orthographic views are necessary.
Sometimes, additional views projected on auxiliary planes become necessary to make the
description of a solid complete. This chapter deals with the following topics:

Types of solids.

2. Projections of solids in simple positions.

(a) Axis perpendicular to the H.P.
(b) Axis perpendicular to the V.P.
(c) Axis parallel to both the H.P. and the V.P.
3. Projections of solids with axes inclined to one of the reference planes and parallel to the
other.
(a)Axis inclined to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P.
(b) Axis inclined to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.
4. Projections of solids with axes inclined to both the H.P. and the V.P.
5. Projections of spheres.

TYPES OF SOLID

Solids may be divided into two Types:

1) Polyhedra 2) Solids of revolution.

Polyhedron

A polyhedron is defined as a solid bounded by planes called faces. When all faces are
equal and regular.

I. Tetrahedron - four equal faces, each an equilateral triangle.

II. Cube or hexahedron - six faces, all equal squares.

III. Octahedron - eight equal equilateral triangles as faces.

IV. Dodecahedron - twelve equal and regular pentagons as faces

V. Icosahedrons - twenty faces, all equal equilateral triangles.

VI. Prism - This is a polyhedron having two equal and similar faces called its ends or
bases, parallel to each other and joined by other faces which are parallelograms.
  The imaginary line joining the centers of the bases is called the axis.
 A right and regular prism has its axis perpendicular to the bases.
 All its faces are equal rectangles.

Some definitions regarding prisms

Base and lateral faces. When the prism is placed vertically on one of its end faces,
the end face on which the prism rests is called the base. The vertical side faces are the
lateral faces.
Base edge/Shorter edge: These are the sides of the end faces.
Axis – it is the imaginary line connecting the end faces is called axis.
these are the edges connecting the respective corners of the two end faces.
Right prism – A prism whose axis is perpendicular to its end face is called as a
right prism. Prisms are named according to the shape of their end faces, i.e, if end
faces are triangular, prism is called a triangular prism.
Oblique prism: It is the prism in which the axis is inclined to its base.

Triangle Prism Rectangle prism Pentagonal Prism

Hexagonal Prism Octagonal Prism

 VERTICS Edges Faces
NAME BASE
(Points) (lines) (Planes)
Triangle Prism
3 6 9 5
Rectangle prism
4 8 12 6
Pentagonal Prism
5 10 15 7
Hexagonal Prism
6 12 18 8
Octagonal Prism
8 16 24 10

VII. Pyramid - Pyramid is a polyhedron formed by a plane surface as its base and a number
of triangles as its side faces, all meeting at a point, called vertex or apex.
Axis – the imaginary line connecting the apex and the center of the base.
Inclined/slant faces – inclined triangular side faces.
Inclined/slant/longer edges – the edges which connect the apex and the base corners.
Right pyramid – when the axis of the pyramid is perpendicular to its base.
Oblique pyramid – when the axis of the pyramid is inclined to its base.

Triangular Pyramid Rectangular Pyramid

Pentagonal Pyramid Hexagonal Pyramid

 VERTICS Edges Faces
NAME BASE
(Points) (lines) (Planes)
Triangle Pyramid
3 4 6 3
Rectangle Pyramid
4 5 8 4
Pentagonal Pyramid
5 6 10 5
6
Hexagonal Pyramid 7 12 6

FEATURES OF A SOLID
  Oblique prisms and pyramids have their axes inclined to their bases. (Not in syllabus)
 Prisms and pyramids are named according to the shape of their bases, as triangular,
square, pentagonal, hexagonal etc.

Solids of revolution:
Cylinder
Cone
Sphere
Cylinder
A right circular cylinder is a solid generated by the revolution of a rectangle about one
of its sides which remains fixed.
• It has two equal circular bases.
• The line joining the centers of the bases is the axis. It is perpendicular to the
bases.
 Figure 1-Prism

Figure 2-Pyramid
Solids of Revolution :

when some of the plane figures are revolved about one of their sides – solids of revolution is
generated some of the solids of revolution are:
 1. Cylinder: when a rectangle is revolved about one of its sides, the other parallel side
generates a cylinder.
2. Cone: when a right triangle is revolved about one of its sides, the hypotenuse of the right
triangle generates a cone.
3. Oblique cylinder: when a parallelogram is revolved about one of its sides, the other
parallel side generates a cylinder.
4. Sphere: when a semi-circle is revolved about one of its diameter, a sphere is generated..
5. Truncated and frustums of solids – when prisms, pyramids, cylinders are cut by cutting
planes, the lower portion of the solids (without their top portions) are called, either
truncated or frustum of these solids.

PROBLEM

Draw the projection of a cone, base 45 mm diameter and axis 50 mm long, when it is resting on
the ground on a point on its base circle with the axis ma king an angle of 30° with the H.P.

A regular pentagonal pyramid with the sides of its base 30 mm and height 80 mm rests on an
edge of the base. The base is tilted until its apex is 50 mm above the level of the edge of the base
on which it rests.