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 Fundamental Principles
of
Agricultural Engineering
Practice

Segun R. Bello [MNIAE, MNSE]

Engineering Programme,
Federal College of Agriculture,
PMB 7008, Ishiagu Ebonyi State, Nigeria,
E-mail: segemi2002@yahoo.com
+234 08068576763, +234 08062432694

iii
 Fundamental Principles
of
Agricultural Engineering
Practice
Copyright © 2007 by:
Segun R. Bello

ISBN 978-080-015-8

All Rights Reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or

transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronics, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the copyright holder.

The marketing and distribution of this book is handled by Dominion

Stores, Shop #8 Students’ Shopping Center Federal College of Agriculture
Ishiagu Ebonyi State Nigeria.

First Published in January, 2007

Published IN NIGERIA by
CLIMAX PRINTERS
(A division of Climax Functions Ltd)
#26/30 College Road, Ogui New Layout Enugu.
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iv
E- mail: climaxprinters @yahoo.com

DEDICATION

To the glory of God Almighty

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Glory is to God Almighty, the author of life and the giver of knowledge and understanding. I
sincerely want to thank all the students and ex-students of agricultural engineering department
and agricultural technology departments of federal colleges of agriculture, Moor plantation
Ibadan and Ishiagu, and also students of Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike and
also all who has come in contact with this book for their encouraging feed-back as they found the
book useful in their studies.
Your various comments and criticisms were noted, hence the improvement on this edition.
The author a deeply appreciate the kindness of the Executive Director, National Root Crops
Research Institute Umudike, the first edition was dedicated to him and also to Dr. Adegbulugbe
T.A. of the FCA, Moore plantation, Ibadan who wrote the forward to the first edition and proof
read through the second edition.
My special thanks go to my only dear friend Wife, Mojirayo for actually being a Help Meet. I am
grateful for her understanding and tolerance in taking full responsibility of running our home
during the entire review exercise and other works. To our children, Ayomikun, Oluwapelumi and
Damilola, they were so wonderful and cooperative during this period, God shall reward them.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENT
DEDICATION v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi
TABLE OF CONTENT vii
CHAPTER ONE 1
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING PROFESSION AND DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA 1
Introduction to Agricultural Engineering 1
Evolution of Agricultural Engineering in Nigeria 2
Regulatory Body for Engineering Profession 2
West African Society of Agricultural Engineers (WASAE) 5
Institutional Regulatory Bodies (NUC and NBTE) 5
Notable Agricultural Engineering Bodies outside Nigeria 5
The Faith of Engineer 7
Advancements is Agricultural Engineering Specialization 9
REVIEW QUESTIONS 14
FURTHER READING 15
CHAPTER TWO 15
MECHANISATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ENGINEERING UTILITIES 15
Mechanization 16
Objectives of Mechanization 18
Problems of Mechanization 18
Appropriate Mechanization 19
Operating Costs (Variable Costs) 26
Timeliness Costs 29
REVIEW QUESTIONS 29
FURTHER READING 31
CHAPTER THREE 32
FARM POWER DEVELOPMENT 32
Power Units on The Farm 33
Factors to Consider In Tractor Procurement 68
Engine Systems Classification 71
FURTHER READ1ING 98
CHAPTER FOUR 98
Land Clearing 104
Factors Affecting Extent Of Land Clearing 104
Factors Affecting the Choice of Land Clearing 105
Land Clearing Attachments and Detachable 106
CHAPTER FIVE 118
FARM MACHINERY AND TILLAGE OPERATION 118

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Development Of Farm Machinery 119
Primary Tillage Operation 121
Secondary Tillage Operation 124
CHAPTER SIX 132
Seeders and Planters 133
Harvest and Packaging 155
Types of Combines 157
Special Combines 158
REVIEW QUESTIONS 161
CHAPTER SEVEN 164
HANDLING OF AGRICULTURAL MATERIALS AND PROCESSING 164
Engineering Properties Of Agricultural Materials 165
Background Study Of Rheology 167
Physical And Rheological Properties Of Forage Crops 168
Causes And Effects Of Damage 169
Drying Of Agricultural Materials 169
Natural Drying 170
Artificial Drying 171
Moisture Exchange Of Fruits And Vegetables With Air 174
Wavering And Pressing Of Agricultural Materials 175
How A Pellet Mill Works 179
Dewatering Of Agricultural Material 179
Cutting Of Agricultural Material 180
Cutting Methods 180
Energy Requirements In Cutting 181
Mechanical Methods Of Size Reduction 183
Crop Residue Machines 183
Grinding (Comminution) Methods 185
Kneading and Cutting 190
Equipment For Straw Collection, Loading And Transport 191
Potato Destoner With Prewasher 197
Other Processing Machines 197
Soybean Blanching Unit 201
Pressing/ Extraction 203
Clarification 204
Grain Cleaning 206
Winnowing And Vacuum Cleaning 207
Types Of Conveyors 209
FURTHER READING 212
CHAPTER EIGHT 214

viii
STORAGE STRUCTURES FOR AGRICULTURAL MATERIALS 214
Temporary Storage For Fertilizer, Bagged Seed, Etc 215
Storage Bins 218
Single-Purpose Circular Grain Storage 220
Rectangular Multipurpose Buildings 221
Hay And Straw Storage 221
Grain Flow Analysis In Storage Bins 222
Fruits And Vegetable Processing And Storage 223
Postharvest Handling Of Fruits And Vegetables 227
Fruit And Vegetable Handling Systems And Packaging 227
Harvest And Postharvest Operations 228
Fruit And Vegetable Processing Technologies 233
Equipment For Physical Processes (Unit Operations) 238
Recent Developments In Fruit And Vegetable Processing 243
Postharvest Storage Considerations 243
Types of Cooling 243
New Postharvest Opportunities And Advances 244
REVIEW QUESTIONS 246
CHAPTER NINE 249
FARM STEAD PLANNING AND WASTE MANAGEMENT 249
Farm Stead Planning And Farm Layout 251
Building Requirement 255
Waste Water Management System 258
Best Waste Management Practices 261
Earthen Embankments For Animal Liquid-Waste Containment 262
FURTHER READING 273
CHAPTER TEN 274
AUTOMOTIVE POWER AND FARM TRANSPORT 274
Vehicle Guidance In Precision Agriculture 278
Types Of Guardian Systems (Sensing Systems) 280
Future Of Automatic Guidance 281
Farm Transportation Standards And Specification 285
FURTHER READING 287
CHAPTER ELEVEN 288
SOIL AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 288
Erosion Soil Loss (Erosion) Control 289
Crop Water Supply (Irrigation) 296
Excess Water Removal (Drainage) 297
Soil and Water Relationship 298
Terms Associated With Groundwater 301

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Water Well And Borehole Development 301
Test Boreholes And Well Logs 302
Types Of Water Well 302
Well Completion (Development And Test For Yield) 304
Surface Water 304
Purpose For Which A Dam May Be Developed 304
Feasibility Studies Of Dam Development 305
Selection Of Type Of Dam 305
Forces On Dam 306
Design Criteria Of Gravity Dam 308
Causes Of Earth Dam Failure 309
Control Structures For Seepage In Earth Dams 312
Reservoir And Its Physical Characteristics 313
Hydraulics Of Open Channel Flow 314
Hydraulic Of Pressure Conduits 315
Forces Acting On A Pipe 318
Conveyance Of Irrigation And Drainage Water 319
Choosing A Pump 323
Pumps and Power Units 323
REVIEW QUESTIONS 324
FURTHER READING 324
CHAPTER TWELVE 325
PRINCIPLES OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE 325
Sources And Quality Of Irrigation Water 326
Water Requirement And Irrigation Efficiency 326
Component Of Irrigation Efficiency 327
Irrigation Management Under Variable Rainfall Conditions 328
Planning And Selection Of Irrigation System 329
Economic And Financial Feasibility Of Irrigation Project 329
Environmental And Social Considerations 331
Classification of Sprinkler System 338
Low Energy Precision Application (LEPA) And Low Elevation Spray Application(LESA) 341
Subsurface Drip Irrigation (Sdi) 341
Drip Irrigation System Components 343
Design Considerations of Field Layout for Surface Systems 348
Design of Furrow Irrigation Layout 348
Design of Border Strip Irrigation 349
Sprinkler Systems Design 349
Center Pivot Sprinkling System 353
Drip Irrigation System Components 354

x
Stage Investigations In Drainage Systems 355
Types Of Drainage Systems 357
REVIEW QUESTIONS 359
FURTHER READING 359
INDEX 360

xi
 CHAPTER ONE

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING PROFESSION AND DEVELOPMENT IN

NIGERIA

Introduction to Agricultural Engineering

Agricultural Engineering can be regarded as the application of engineering principles gained
from the knowledge of basic (natural) sciences and mathematical modeling, to the solving of
agricultural based operations involving primary, secondary and tertiary production processes. It
is concerned with the utilization of the knowledge of basic sciences; physics, chemistry and
biology, social sciences such as economics, geography etc, and technology in the art, and
business of crop production, animal handling and husbandry as well as handling, processing and
preservation, storage, manufacture and distribution of food products, shelter and their benefits
to mankind for survival.
Agricultural Engineering has been the application of scientific principles for the optimal
conversion of natural resources into agricultural land, machinery, structure, processes, and
systems for the benefit of man. Machinery, for example, multiplies the tiny power (about 0.07
kW) of a farmer into the 70 KW power of a tractor which makes possible the production of food
several hundred times more than what a farmer can produce manually. Processing technology
reduces food loss and adds much more nutritional values to agricultural products than they
originally had.
The role of agricultural engineering has increased with the dawn of the century. Agriculture
will have to supply not only food, but also other materials such as bio-fuels, organic feed stocks
for secondary industries, and even medical ingredients. Furthermore, new agricultural
technology is also expected to help reduce environmental destruction.
The Agricultural Engineer: Agricultural engineers apply the knowledge of basic sciences and
engineering principles to the design of systems as solutions to engineering problems
encountered in agricultural production process. They design agricultural machinery and facilities
such as tractors, implements, animal confinements, storage and handling facilities, irrigation and
drainage systems, and soil conservation measures.
Agricultural engineers are hired by builders of storage facilities, farmsteads, and commercial
buildings; agricultural machinery companies; irrigation and drainage system manufacturers;
federal, state, and local research, regulatory, and educational agencies; manufacturers of control
systems and measuring devices; consulting firms; power utilities; and alternate fuel producers.

1
 To be an agricultural engineer, you should enjoy solving problems and have the ingenuity to
envision new designs or solutions. You must have a good understanding of physical and
chemical properties of agricultural materials well enough to apply them as you solve specific
problems. In the high school/college/university (training programme), you will take courses in
mathematics, physics, chemistry, communications, computer science, economics, and a wide
variety of engineering sciences including heat flow, mechanics of machine and dynamics,
environmental engineering, soil-water management, fluid mechanics, instrumentation and
controls, properties of agricultural materials, engineering analysis and design etc.

Evolution of Agricultural Engineering in Nigeria

Agricultural engineering education in Nigeria started in the colleges of agriculture and
polytechnics, with training in farm mechanization with emphasis on tractorization and later
expanded to cover all aspects of agricultural engineering. Agricultural engineering training was
substantially done overseas until about the early 1960s when local opportunities started to be
available. In the early days of agricultural engineering services, the first set of Nigerian
agricultural engineers was produced through the re-training of professionals in civil engineering
and agronomy.
Prior to the 1960s, the expertise and services of agriculturists and civil engineers were used to
solve engineering problems on Nigerian farms. The interest and challenges of engineering
services on the farm, made some of them to seek for opportunities to retrain themselves in what
today forms the agricultural engineering curriculum. Some of the pioneer agricultural engineers
in Nigeria then were therefore also specialists of other disciplines.
Gradually, the relevance of agricultural engineering began to be appreciated both by the
government and those engaged in agricultural practices and local opportunities for full-fledged
training of agricultural engineers were considered desirable. Local training of agricultural
engineers in Nigeria started with the teaching of parts of the present day agricultural engineering
curriculum to students in the schools and colleges of agriculture such as in Akure, Ibadan and
Zaria, and faculties of agriculture in some universities. Some of such graduates were awarded
degrees, diplomas and certificates in agricultural mechanization but not agricultural engineering
(Mijinyawa, 2005).

Regulatory Body for Engineering Profession

A professional Regulatory body is a body established by a decree or law whose primary function
is to regulate the training of members of the profession and the professional practice while a
professional Society is an association formed by members of the profession with the primary
objective of providing a forum where members of the profession can interact to share ideas. The
professional regulatory body for agricultural engineering in Nigeria is the Council for the

2
Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN). The Nigerian Institution of Agricultural Engineers
(NIAE) provides a forum for Agricultural Engineers to interact among themselves while the
Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE), is the umbrella association of all engineering disciplines in
Nigeria which provides a bigger forum where in addition to interacting with each other,
agricultural engineers can interact with other engineering professionals.
The Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN)
The Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN) is not a society but a regulatory
body established under the Federal Government of Nigeria Decree No. 55 of 1970 and amended
by Decree No 27 of 1992, to control and regulate the practice of the engineering profession in
Nigeria.
The primary responsibility of this body is to determine who can be engineers through the
screening of academic qualifications; evaluation of practical experience and performance in a
written examination and/or oral interview. Those found suitable are admitted as engineers and
their particulars included in the Register of Engineers, which is a register that contains the names
of all persons who have been considered by the Council as satisfying the requirements for
registration as professional engineers.
To be qualified for registration as an Engineer by COREN, a candidate must have attended an
approved course of training in any of the branches of Engineering in an approved Institution
within or/and outside Nigeria at the end of which the candidate has been successful and is
awarded a certificate or degree recognized by the Council. Candidates intending to be registered
as Engineers obtain relevant application forms from the Council which when duly completed is
returned along with a Post-graduate engineering experience Report of the candidate. Such
candidates may be required to sit for an examination and an interview the successful outcome of
which would determine their registration.
As the regulatory body for engineering practice in Nigeria, it is an offence for an individual who is
not registered with this Council to address himself as an Engineer, hold an engineering position in
any establishment or supervise the execution of engineering projects.
The Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE)
The Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE) is the national umbrella organization for the Engineering
Profession in Nigeria. It was founded in 1958 with the objective to promote the advancement of
engineering education, research and practice in all its ramifications. This is with a view to
maintaining and enhancing the professional capabilities of its members so as to better equip
them to fulfill the needs of the profession for the good of the public and the nation.
Membership of the Society is open to all those who possess qualifications that are acceptable to
the Council of the Society and registrable by the Council for the Regulation of Engineering in
Nigeria (COREN). There are seven grades of membership namely Honorary Fellow, Fellow,
Corporate Members, Associate, Graduate, Student and Corporate Firm. The highest policy

3
making body in the Society is the Council which is elected by Corporate Members and headed by
the PRESIDENT. The Society operates a Secretariat, currently housed at the National Engineering
Centre, Lagos. A full time Executive Secretary heads the Secretariat. Overall Co-ordination of the
Society's activities is carried out from the Secretariat.
The Nigerian Institution of Agricultural Engineers (NIAE)
Attempts to have a forum for agricultural engineers in Nigeria dated back to 1965.That year,
Professor Cargill of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Mr. Hewitt of BEWAC Nigeria Limited,
Dr.Layide Onafeko, Engr Deji Osobu and Professor F.O.Aboaba got together to start a
professional society to be known as the Nigerian Society of Agricultural Engineers (NSAE). It was
decided to include non-graduates such as technologists with National Diploma or certificate in
agricultural engineering as members. Such members included Messrs Achike, Otuyalo and
Solagbade. Mr. Hewitt was elected chairman while Professor Aboaba was the secretary.
The society took off with regular holding of meetings and held the first conference in Benin City
in 1967.It was during the conference that the state of Biafra was declared which marked the
beginning of the Nigerian civil war from 1967 to 1970. The Nigerian civil war prevented the
society from functioning until 1975 when with the incoming of a crop of young and dynamic
Nigerian agricultural engineers resuscitated the society with Professor Ayo Makanjuola as
president. The society effectively took off once again with the following objectives:
i. To promote the science and art of engineering in agriculture.
ii. To encourage agricultural research.
iii. To foster and promote agricultural engineering education.
iv. To advance in every possible ways the standards of agricultural engineering.
v. To promote the intercourse of agricultural engineers among its members and with allied
technologies.
vi. To encourage the enhancement of professional competence of its members.
Membership of the society is opened to those who have either undertaken or are undergoing a
professional Agricultural Engineering Curriculum and others who may not necessarily be
Agricultural Engineers by training but who in the course of their employment or research have
contributed or are contributing to the advancement of Agricultural Engineering. Between when it
was founded and 1999, the institution existed as a society and was then known as the Nigerian
Society of Agricultural Engineers (NSAE).
Considering the benefits derivable from being a division under the umbrella organization for the
engineering profession in Nigeria; a merger with the Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE) was, a
formal merger agreement was signed on the 27th July 1999 between NSE and NSAE. Upon signing
the agreement, the name was changed to The Nigerian Institution of Agricultural Engineers
(NIAE) and it became a Division of the NSE with national secretariat within the premises of the
National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM), Ilorin, Kwara state. The Institution

4
organizes annual conferences, which have transformed into an international event. Since 2003,
the Institution also started an annual public lecture series. The Institution has a journal, the
Journal of Agricultural Engineering Technology, which is published biannually and a quarterly
newsletter.

West African Society of Agricultural Engineers (WASAE)

Institutional Regulatory Bodies (NUC and NBTE)

There are two organs or institutions funded by the federal government responsible for the
supervision and coordination of the universities, the polytechnics/colleges of agriculture,
Colleges of Education in Nigeria. These organs are Nigerian Universities Commission (NUC) and
the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) respectively, and it is through them that funds
are disbursed to all the institutions. The Nigerian Universities Commission was established by
decree No. 1 of 1974 which has been amended at various times as the need arises to enable the
commission function effectively.
Minimum academic standards for all academic programmes in Nigerian institutions of learning
were set by NUC and NBTE in collaboration with the various professional bodies. These standards
are also regularly reviewed to accommodate new frontiers of knowledge. Regular visitation to
ensure adherence to the minimum standard is a major responsibility of these bodies.

Notable Agricultural Engineering Bodies outside Nigeria

Professional organizations and associations provide a wide range of resources for planning and
navigating a career in Agricultural Engineering. These groups can play a key role in your
development and keep you abreast of what is happening in your industry. Associations promote
the interests of their members and provide a network of contacts that can help you find jobs and
move your career forward. They can offer a variety of services including job referral services,
continuing education courses, insurance, travel benefits, periodicals, meeting and conference
opportunities. Examples include
(a) American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (www.asabe.org) The
American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers is an educational and scientific
organization dedicated to the advancement of engineering applicable to agricultural, food, and
biological systems. Founded in 1907 and headquartered in St Joseph, MI, ASABE comprises 9,000
members in more than 100 countries.
(b) The Canadian Society for Bioengineering (www.csae-scgr.ca) The Canadian society for
engineering in agricultural, food, environmental, and biological systems.
(c) European Society of Agricultural Engineers (www.eurageng.net) The European Society of
Agricultural Engineers (EurAgEng) exists to promote the profession of Agricultural and Biosystems

5
Engineering and the people who serve it. The Society is active in Conferences, Special Interest
Groups, Publications, Networking and International lobbying.
(d) International Commission of Agricultural Engineering (www.cigr.org) The International
Commission of Agricultural Engineering (CIGR, Commission Internationale du Génie Rural) was
set up by a Constituent Assembly on the occasion of the first International Congress of
Agricultural Engineering, held in Liege, Belgium in 1930. It is an international, non-governmental,
non-profit organization regrouping, as a networking system, Regional and National Societies of
Agricultural Engineering as well as private and public companies and individuals all over the
world.
Code of Engineering Conduct
The purpose of the society is clearly stated in the memorandum of association and so therein
stated under article 80 of the memorandum is the code of conduct of engineering practice which
were highlighted as follows:
Every member is expected in his general conduct to uphold and enhance the honour and dignity
of the Engineering profession and the reputation of the Nigeria Society of Engineer and to act
always in consonance with that interest.
i. A member shall make available his professional knowledge and experience in accordance
with the code as a consultant or adviser, or a salaried employee, or a teacher of Engineering
Science, or in design, or manufacture, or construction as a faithful agent trustee of the client,
employer, or other people connected with the works.
ii. A member shall not practice in a dual capacity as a consultant and as a contractor for the
same project except with the prior written consent of the client.
iii. It shall be considered unprofessional and inconsistent with honorable and dignified conduct
and contrary to the public interest for any member of the Nigeria Society of Engineer:
a. To exert undue influence or to offer, solicit or accept compensation for the purpose of
affecting negotiations for an engineering engagement.
b. To use the advantages of a salaried position to compete unfairly with other engineer.
c. To accept remuneration for services rendered other than from his clients or his
employer.
d. To attempt to supplant another Engineer in a particular engagement after define
steps have been taken towards his employment.
e. To review the work of another Engineer for the same client except with the
knowledge of such Engineer, unless such Engineer’s engagement on the work which is
subject to review has been terminated.
f. To attempt to injure, falsely or maliciously, the professional reputation, business, or
employment position of another Engineer.

6
iv. A member shall no place orders on his own behalf in respect of a project on which he is
engaged but shall only do so explicitly on behalf of his client.
v. A member shall not be the medium of payments made on his client’s behalf unless especially
so requested in writing by his client, but shall only issue certificate for payments.

The Faith of Engineer

The following is described as the faith of an engineer which could be regarded as an oath of
ethics and conducts of engineer in order to hold the profession into a high esteem.
I am an Engineer. In my profession, I take deep pride, but without vainglory; to it I woe solemn
obligations that I am eager to fulfill. I will participate in none but honest enterprises. To him that
engaged my services, as employer or client, I will give the utmost of performance and fidelity.
When needed, my skill and knowledge shall be given without reservation for the public good.
From special capacity springs the obligation to use it well in the service to humanity; and I accept
the challenge that this implies.
I will strive to protect the interests and the good name of any engineer that I know to be
deserving; but will not shrink should duty dictate, from disclosing the truth regarding anyone
that, by unscrupulous act has shown himself unworthy of the profession.
I Promise to dedicate myself to the dissemination of engineering knowledge and especially to the
instruction of younger members of my profession in all its art and tradition.
To my fellows I pledge integrity and fair-dealing; tolerance and respect, and devotion to the
standards and the dignity of our profession; with the consciousness, always that our special
expertness carries with it the obligation to serve humanity with complete sincerity.
I’m proud to be associated with engineering profession and the Nigeria Society of Engineers
(NSE)
Areas of Agricultural Engineering Specialization
The following areas of agricultural engineering specialization is identified in Nigeria today
1. Farm Power and Machinery Engineering (FPME): Most
fruits and fiber comes from the farm, which means that plants must be grown and animals
produced to supply man’s needs. Anyone who has grown plants or worked with any of the
sources of power in preparation of seedbed, planting, cultivating, irrigation, thinning etc. has
done a hard work. It is generally agreed that there will be some elements of drudgery to such
tasks and the farmer will strive to lessen the work to reduce drudgery. Progress was then made
by the application of power-operated machinery. This option is divided into farm power and farm
machinery.
2. Soil and Water Conservation Engineering (SWE): Soil and
water conservation engineering employs engineering principles to the solving of soil and water

7
management problems. The conservation of these vital resources implies utilization without
waste so as to make possible a high level of production, which can be, continued indefinitely. The
agricultural engineers and other scientists have humorous duty in developing new practices that
will permit storage in the soil profile of greater percentage of the available precipitation. Design
of effective level bench terrace system with special water catchments areas, tillage practices that
modifies the soil surface configuration so as to refrain precipitation and reduce the total
evaporation potential and surface evaporation control through the use of mulching and films are
all challenges for engineers.
3. Irrigation and Drainage Engineering: Irrigation is defined
as the application of water to land using means other than the natural rain, the purpose of which
is to provide sufficient water for plant growth and productivity. Irrigation is necessary to provide
enough water to fill the deficit arising from the depletion of soil moisture from the combine
action of two separate phenomena of evaporation and transpiration.
Land drainage deals with the control of water logging and soil salinization in agricultural
lands. In flatlands, a first problem emerges if soil infiltration rates are low and rainfall or irrigation
water stands on the ground surface in small depressions or at the edges of the irrigation basin.
This problem can be solved by leveling and smoothing the land and providing it with a uniform
slope for excess water to flow through furrows or shallow ditches toward the surface drainage
outlet. Surface water is discharged into a collector drain through pipes to prevent the erosion of
the open ditch bank.
4. Post Harvest Systems Engineering: This deals with the
processes and machines required to convert agricultural raw materials or products into finished
consumer goods. It involve, harvesting, transporting, handling, storage, processing and packaging
5. Farm Structures and Environmental Control Engineering:
Farm structures include farmstead, settlements, animal houses, storage structures farm and
allied products, machinery and processing equipment house etc. These structures need
specialized designs. Control of environmental factors, external and within in the structures, waste
disposal systems, biogas generation etc are also involved. Operations and management of food
processing machines such as rice mills, flourmills, vegetable oil processing outfits, beverages and
biscuit manufacturing, bread and other confectioneries.
6. Wood Products Processing Engineering: This branch of
engineering has not been fully developed in Nigeria educational curriculum. It involves the study
of engineering properties of woods, composite products from wood and associated wood
products processing; design of machines required for forestation projects and for exploiting
forestry products. This includes machines for planting, pruning, logging, transporting, milling and
other wood processing machines.

8
 7. Emerging Technologies in Agricultural Engineering: The
discipline is currently undergoing major and important changes as it responds to global economy.
These emerging technologies (ET) include: Information technology (IT); Biotechnology
Environmental and renewable energy sources. The use of computer and communication (ICT)
equipments for Data acquisition, machine control, information management and simulation and
prediction of agricultural systems are becoming popular. Biotechnology involves the engineering
of biological systems. Waste recycling, alternative to fossil fuel- vegetable and fruit oil-fuels etc.
Renewable energy resources such as harvesting and utilization of solar, water wind energy for
agricultural production, processing and handling.

Advancements is Agricultural Engineering Specialization

Agricultural Engineering has advanced to the extent that the scope has been widened to embrace
the various emerging technologies in the field and thus the following specialized categories have
been identified:
1. Biological Engineering
Biological engineering is one of the most rapidly growing sub-disciplines of agricultural
engineering that applies engineering practice to problems and opportunities presented by
living things and the natural environment. Areas of interest range from environmental
protection and remediation, food and feed production, medicine and plant-based
pharmaceuticals and packaging materials. Others may develop techniques and strategies for
natural pest control and treatment of hazardous wastes, for composting, and for enzyme
processing of biomass, food, feed, and waste
2. Natural Resource Engineering
These agricultural engineers are equipped with expertise in environmental work to better
understand the complex mechanics of these resources, so that they can be used efficiently
and without degradation. These engineers determine crop water requirements and design
irrigation systems. They are experts in agricultural hydrology principles, such as controlling
drainage, and they implement ways to control soil erosion and study the environmental
effects of sediment on stream quality. Natural resources engineers design, build, operate and
maintain water control structures for reservoirs, floodways and channels. They also work on
water treatment systems, wetlands protection, and other water issues.
3. Power Systems and Machinery Design Engineering
These agricultural engineers focus on designing advanced equipment, making it more
efficient and less demanding of our natural resources. They develop equipment for food
processing, highly precise crop spraying, agricultural commodity and waste transport, and
turf and landscape maintenance. This is in addition to the tractors, tillage equipment,
irrigation equipment, and harvest equipment that have done so much to reduce the drudgery

9
 of farming. Their work remains challenging as technology advances, production practices
change and equipment manufacturers expand globally.
4. Structures and Environmental Engineering
These agricultural engineers understand the importance of creating and maintaining a
healthy environment for growing agricultural commodities and for the labourers who
produce them. They also understand that our natural resources must not be diminished, in
quality or availability, by agricultural operations. Toward these ends, these agricultural
engineers are equipped with expertise in structures and environment to design animal
housing, storage structures, and greenhouses, with ventilation systems, temperature and
humidity controls, and structural strength appropriate for their climate and purpose. They
also devise better practices and systems for storing, recovering, reusing, and transporting
waste products.
5. Food and Bioprocess Engineering
Food, fiber, and timber are only the beginning of a long list of products that benefit from
efficient use of our natural resources. The list includes biomass fuels, biodegradable
packaging materials, pharmaceutical and other products. These engineers understand
microbiological processes and use this expertise to develop useful products, to treat
municipal, industrial and agricultural wastes, and to improve food safety. They are experts in
pasteurization, sterilization, and irradiation, and in the packaging, transportation and storage
of perishable products. Food and processing agricultural engineers combine design expertise
with manufacturing methods to develop economical and responsible processing solutions for
the industry as well as look for ways to reduce waste by devising alternatives for treatment,
disposal and utilization.
6. Information and Electrical Technologies Engineering
The application of information and electrical technologies in agriculture is very versatile. It is
applied to virtually all the other sub-disciplines of agricultural engineering, from machinery
design to soil testing to food quality and safety control. Geographic information systems,
global positioning systems, machine instrumentation and controls, electro-magnetics, bio-
informatics, bio-robotics, machine vision, sensors, spectroscopy are some of the exciting
information and electrical technologies being developed and used today in agriculture and
agro-based industry.
7. Forest Engineering
Agricultural engineers apply engineering principles to solve natural resource and environment
problems in forest production systems and related manufacturing industries. Engineering
skills and expertise are needed to address problems related to equipment design and
manufacturing, forest access systems design and construction; machine-soil interaction and
erosion control; forest operations analysis and improvement; decision modeling; and wood

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 product design and manufacturing. Forest engineers are involved in a full range of activities in
natural resource management and forest production systems.
8. Energy Engineering
Energy is needed to power the machines, devices, and systems in our homes and workplaces.
But many of the energy sources are nonrenewable and create undesirable byproducts.
Agricultural engineers are at the forefront of the effort to identify and develop viable energy
sources such as biomass, methane, and vegetable oil and to make these and other systems
cleaner and more efficient. These engineers also develop energy conservation strategies to
reduce costs and protect the environment, and they design traditional and alternative energy
systems to meet the needs of agricultural operations.
9. Aquacultural Engineering
As natural fish supplies are threatened, agricultural engineers are needed to help design farm
systems for raising fish and shellfish, as well as ornamental and bait fish. They specialize in
water quality, biotechnology, machinery, natural resources, feeding and ventilation systems,
and sanitation. They seek ways to reduce pollution from aquacultural discharges, to reduce
excess water use, and to improve farm systems. They also work with aquatic animal
harvesting, sorting, and processing.
10. Nursery & Greenhouse Engineering
Nursery and greenhouse operations like large-scale production agriculture have many similar
needs such as irrigation, mechanization, disease and pest control, and nutrient application.
However, other engineering needs also present themselves in nursery and greenhouse
operations such as equipment for transplanting; control systems for temperature, humidity,
and ventilation; and plant biology issues, such as hydroponics, tissue culture, and seedling
propagation methods.
11. Safety and Health in Agricultural Engineering
Farming is one of the few industries in which the families work and live on the premises and
are at risk for injuries, illness, and death. Agricultural engineers analyze health and injury
data, the use and possible misuse of machines, and equipment in compliance with standards
and regulation. They constantly look for ways in which the safety of equipment, materials and
agricultural practices can be improved and for ways in which safety and health issues can be
communicated to the public.
Advances in Agricultural Engineering
Advances in Agricultural Engineering technologies have been listed by the American National
Academy of Engineering as one of the most significant engineering achievements of the
millennium. These advances in technologies have constituted one of the most important inputs
into agricultural production which is the basis for human survival. In a world of steadily changing
demands, the face of agricultural engineering has changed dramatically over the last hundred

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years and further new challenges will have to be faced in future (Lawrence, 2000). In the
following areas, Agricultural Engineering technologies have made significant advancement.
i.Education and training: Education and training in agricultural engineering has provided the
human foundation for further development of this important technical discipline by assuring
food security for future generations and a sustainable use of the natural resources. Academic
curricula are being updated today so that it would better correspond to market demands and
expected developments in the agro-industrial sector. For example, Japan and the United States
of America and many more EU institutions have modified and expand the names of their
Faculties of agriculture, to such names as “Natural and Land Resources”,
Bioresources/Biosystems Engineering, or Biological Systems Engineering etc.
ii.Farm Implements and Machinery: Various developments and advances have been made in
such areas as land leveling with the laser-beam technology (Laser-guided Leveller). This
technology has recorded 73% variation in the land levels before and after bed preparation.
Without the laser-guided beam technology, percentage variation in the levels documented was
only 8% before and after the test. Other recent developments include two-row vegetable
transplanter, Flail-type Forage Harvester-cum-Chopper which could harvest forage of 80-mm
size. Flail-type Chopper-cum-Spreader. Cultivator frame Banana-Clump Remover has been
developed for removing banana suckers, Light-weight power-tiller for hill side agriculture etc
iii.Self-propelled and Animal-drawn Machinery: Eight-row Pre-germinated Rice-seeder, Walking-
type Sprayer- A 8-row pre-germinated rice-seeder, IISR Bullock-drawn Single-row Potato Planter,
Bullock-drawn Groundnut-planter, Bullock-drawn Cultivator/Blade-harrow among order
innovations has been recorded.
iv.Stationary Machinery High-capacity Pigeon pea Thresher, Pedal-operated Potato-slicer,
cassava lifter, grain cleaners etc. Design-refinement in Mills etc was other areas of rapid
developments which are indigenous to Nigerian engineers.
v.Ergonomics studies have also increased in the evaluation of the commercially available
human-machine interface systems such as pedal operated systems, Manually-operated Hanging-
type equipments etc.
vi.Post-harvest engineering and technology has led to the development of candies and bars
from mango, guava, banana and pineapple with different combinations of soymilk, soyflour,
cashew nut, pilot-scale puffing machine to process 20-kg raw-potatoes. a stepwise-expanding
pitch-fruit grader, solar air-heater to dry high moisture rice, Colour Meter to measure maturity
of mango on the tree , determining maturity of intact mango on tree etc
vii.Electronics and Mechatronics Systems: Replacing mechanical functionality with electronic
functionality might also reduce manufacturing costs. Just as electromechanical servomotors are
computer-tuned to get responses based upon their industrial application; agricultural equipment

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components can be similarly adjusted. For example, the same electro-hydraulic valves might give
different optimal performances in different applications.
viii.Other advances include plastic mulch for economizing irrigation-water in baby corn resulting
in 36.0% increase in yield over ridge-planting, Biorational approach for pest management,
Processing of Jute-sisal Blends in Jute Machinery Machine for Compaction of Cotton-stalks. Bio-
diesel from oil of non-edible plants etc
Career Opportunities in Agricultural Engineering
In the course of his career, an agricultural engineer received training in mechanics of machine
heat transfer and thermodynamics of engine, fluid mechanics and dynamics, theory and design of
machine and machine elements, engineering drawing design of structures, thermal environment,
energy utilization, hydrology, soil and water conservation, surveying, systems control and
analysis, principles of crop production, properties of agricultural materials, management
principles and motivation economics and industrial engineering. He is therefore equipped to
carry out designs and operation of machines, undertake waste management and sewage
disposal, design and analysis of agricultural buildings such as poultry houses and associated
structures and many more.
Engineering technology graduates are prepared to work as part of the engineering team to
implement and improve existing technology. The agricultural engineering technology prepares
students to be part of the engineering technology function for governmental agencies,
manufacturing, sales and service companies. The environmental engineering technology option
prepares students to solve technical environmental problems. They work to reduce the release of
pollutants to the environment, to prevent harmful effects of pollution, to clean up contaminated
areas and to design products and production systems that minimize the generation of waste.
Agricultural engineering graduates have in the past found jobs in the following areas of the
economy;
1. Government ministries and parastatals: As water resources, environment, works engineers
and instructors.
2. Private companies: services of engineers are needed in such companies as Tractor and
Equipment (a division of UAC), SCOATRAC (a division of SCOA), Diezengoff, Leventis, etc
3. Educational Institutions: educational institutions in Nigeria include Colleges of Agriculture,
Education, Technology including university and polytechnic.
4. Research and Development Institutions under the ministries of Agriculture and water
resources such as Raw Material and Development Council (RMRDC),
5. International Organization: Including United Nations Development Promgrame (UNDP),
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), United State Agency for International
Development (USAID) etc equally employs engineers in their development programmes.

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 6. Self Employment: this area has not been fully explored. Though notable engineers such as
Sahara Engineers in Ibadan etc. there is also the wide range of opportunities in storage,
maintenance and sales of agricultural machinery etc.
Agricultural Engineering and National Development
Agricultural Engineering has become one of the most effective and powerful tool in national
agriculture development. This recognition has led to more research and more advancement in
agricultural engineering particularly in machinery design, post-harvesting technologies and
greenhouses, ergonomics and safety, work organization, environmental protection and
sustainable land development over the years. Agricultural Engineering plays a pivotal role in the
development of the country through
1. Food Security- obtainable when food is abundantly
produced above subsistence level and all other factors of production duly monitored.
2. Reduce drudgery in agricultural operations.
3. Development of rural infrastructure
4. Conservation of natural resources such as soil and water etc.
5. Environmental management
6. Industrial development
7. Subsistence agriculture

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Question 1
a. Give the definition the following terms
i. Agricultural Engineering
ii. The Agricultural Engineer
Question 2
a. List at least 5 areas of agricultural engineering specialization in Nigeria
b. Explain the role of two of the listed specializations
c. Agricultural Engineering has advanced to the extent that the scope has been widened to
embrace the various emerging technologies in the field list three of such specialized
categories which have been identified:
Question 3
a. In which areas has Agricultural Engineering technologies made significant advancements?

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 b. In what ways has Agricultural Engineering play a pivotal role in the development of the
country

FURTHER READING
Agricultural engineering Practice in Nigeria: NIAE book of Achievements (2001). Edited by Prof. A.
P. Onwualu. Pubished by The Nigeria Institution of Agricultural Engineers (NIAE).
Mijinyawa Y.( 2005). Agricultural Engineering Education in Nigeria. Agricultural Engineering
International: the CIGR Ejournal. Invited Overview Paper No. 10. Vol. VII.
NSE articles of association (1996).Memorandum and article of association of The Nigerian Society
of Engineers (Revised May, 1996)
Oduwole O. S. V. (2006). Basic Introduction to Agricultural Engineering. Pub. Vintage Publishers
Owerri, Nigeria.
Ooi Ho Seng (2006). Advancement of Agriculture Engineering in Malaysia. Agricultural and Food
Engineering Technical Division
Pierluigi Febo and Da-Wen Sun (2000). The University Structure and Curricula on Agricultural
Engineering-An Overview of 36 Countries Pub International Commission Of Agricultural
Engineering (Cgir), the European Society of Agricultural Engineers (Eurageng) and the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations
Sloan Career Cornerstone Center (2005). Agricultural Engineering Overview
(www.careercornerstone.org)

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