CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW

Development of smart home, 3C production, and electric vehicle, the demand with active
power correction techniques for power supply and power charger are becoming necessary to
meet harmonic regulation and standards, such as IEC 61000-3-2. Until now, the boost type
converters are the first choice to implement the power factor correction for the sake of its low
cost and high performance in terms of simplicity, efficiency and unity power factor ability.
Nevertheless, for the low voltage application, the output voltage of the boost must be higher
than the peak of the input ac voltage converter. Hence, the two stage structure is considered
and adopted. Generally, the first stage aims to shape the input current to be sinusoidal form and
be in phase with input voltage. The second stage is for the output voltage regulation. Such two-
stage configuration often degrades the system efficiency. Therefore, the ac/dc step up and/or
down converters, including buck, cuk and sepic converters, are developed for different
applications.

On the other hand, for universal input voltage, the boost converter also suffers from lower
efficiency at low input voltage, which led to the development of bridgeless topology to reduce
the bridge conduction loss. A system review of performance comparison with the conventional
bridge and bridgeless PFC boost rectifiers was analyzed. Although the bridgeless boost
converter has higher efficiency than the conventional bridge boost converter, the bridgeless
boost converter also has the inherent drawbacks, including that the start-up inrush current is
high and input-output isolation cannot easily be implemented.

The boost converter operating in discontinuous current mode (DCM) has very good
inherent PFC properties as well as reduced diode reversed-recovery loss, soft turn-on of the
main switch and simple control. However, the DCM operation poses tougher requirements for
the input filter due to high peak ripple currents and voltages. To improve the demerits of the
boost type AC-DC converters, the step up/down AC-DC converters for Sepic and Cuk
converter were proposed. However, the bridge and bridgeless Sepic converters shown in
Fig.1.1 and Fig. 1.2, respectively, also have the inherent drawbacks, such as high switch current
stress which decreases the power rating and lifetime of the power converter.

1
Fig 1.1 Conventional single-phase Sepic power factor pre-regulator

Fig 1.2 (a) Bridge rectifier based flyback converter

(b) Bridgeless modified Sepic PFC rectifiers.

2
1.2 OBJECTIVES
 Capability to operate as PFC inherent.
 Lower component stress.
 Conduction losses (number of active elements in the current path) is said to be less.

1.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROPOSED SYSTEM

Fig 1.3 Block diagram

3
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

1. “A Single-Stage Single-Switch Soft-Switching (S6) Boost-Flyback PFC Converter”

Alireza Abasian, Hosein Farzanehfard and Sayed Amir Hashemi, 2018 IEEE
Transactions on Power Electronics
This paper presents a single-stage single-switch soft-switching (S6) power factor
correction (PFC) converter to enhance the current shaping performance and reduce the
total harmonic distortion. This improvement is achieved by the aid of an auxiliary winding
which is used to lower the input current harmonics and also achieve soft-switching
condition. As a result, the switching losses are reduced and harmonic content of the input
current is improved noticeably in comparison to the conventional S6 PFC converter. Also,
the total number of semiconductor elements is reduced in the proposed topology which
results in lower cost and higher efficiency. The operating modes of the proposed converter
are discussed in detail and the design procedure is presented. A 200-kHz prototype of the
proposed converter is implemented and the obtained results are provided to verify the
converter theoretical analysis and operation.

2. “An Improved Bridgeless SEPIC Converter Without Circulating Losses and Input-
Voltage Sensing” Hongbo Ma; Yuan Li ; Jih-Sheng Lai; Cong Zheng; Jianping Xu ;
IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics ( Volume:
6 , Issue: 3 , Sept. 2018 )
In order to overcome the drawbacks of conventional bridgeless single-ended primary
inductance converter (SEPIC) power factor correction (PFC) circuits, an improved
bridgeless SEPIC PFC circuit is introduced by adding an additional output diode and an
inductor. The undesired capacitive coupling loop and the circulating loss are removed.
Thus, the high efficiency can be achieved. The operation principle and design
consideration of the proposed converter are introduced in detail. Furthermore, a novel
control method is employed to control the current continuous mode bridgeless SEPIC PFC
circuit without input-voltage sensing. Meanwhile, the UCC28019-based modified
hardware implementation circuit is designed and described. A 100-W prototype with 90-
135 Vrms input line voltage and 60-V output voltage is built and tested. The corresponding
experiment shows the validity of the proposed circuit topology and control strategy. A

4
 peak efficiency of 94% and power factor above 0.99 are achieved under 65-kHz switching
frequency operation condition.
3. “The analysis of ac-dc boost pfc converter based on peak and hysteresis current
control techniques” A. Karaarslan, I. Iskender; International Journal on “Technical
and Physical Problems of Engineering” (IJTPE), Iss. 7, Vol. 3, No. 2, Jun. 2011
This paper presents two current control techniques of an ac-dc boost converter to obtain
unity power factor (PF). Single phase high power factor rectification is the most frequently
accomplished using a boost converter. This converter reshapes distorted input current
waveform to approximate a sinusoidal current that is in phase with the input voltage. There
are several current control techniques for achieving a sinusoidal input current waveform
with low distortion. Two typical techniques for power factor correction (PFC) are peak
current mode control (PCMC) and hysteresis current mode control (HCMC). These
control techniques are evaluated based on control strategy, circuit components, and total
harmonic distortion of input current. The single phase ac-dc boost converter is operated in
continuous conduction mode (CCM). Both control techniques are simulated in
Matlab/Simulink program.

4. Qiao, C. and Smedley, K.M., A topology survey of single-stage power factor corrector
with a boost type input-current-shaper, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., Jun 2001,
16(3), pp.360-368.
A topological review of the single stage power factor corrected (PFC) rectifiers is
presented in this paper. Most reported single-stage PFC rectifiers cascade a boost-type
converter with a forward or a flyback DC-DC converter so that input current shaping,
isolation, and fast output voltage regulation are performed in one single stage. The cost
and performance of single-stage PFC converters depend greatly on how its input current
shaper (ICS) and the DC-DC converter are integrated together. For the cascade connected
single-stage PFC rectifiers, the energy storage capacitor is found in either series or parallel
path of energy flow. The second group appears to represent the main stream. It is found
that many of these topologies can be implemented by combining a two-terminal or three-
terminal boost ICS cell with DC-DC converter along with an energy storage capacitor in
between. A general rule is observed that translates a three-terminal ICS cell to a two-
terminal ICS cell using an additional winding from the transformer and vice versa.
According to the translation rule, many of the reported single-stage PFC topologies can

5
 be viewed as electrically equivalent to one another. Several new PFC converters were
derived from some existing topologies using the translation rule.
5. Li, S., Qi, W., Tan, S.C. and Hui, S.R., A single-stage two-switch PFC rectifier with
wide output voltage range and automatic AC ripple power decoupling, IEEE Trans.
Power Electron., 2017, 32, (9), pp.6971-6982

Conventional single-phase power-factor-correction (PFC) rectifiers with active power

decoupling capability typically require more than three active switches in their circuits.
By exploring the concept of power-buffer cell, a new single-stage PFC rectifier with two
active switches, one inductor and one small power-buffering capacitor is reported in this
paper. The proposed converter can achieve high-power factor, wide output voltage range,
and power decoupling function without using electrolytic capacitor. Additionally, an
automatic power decoupling control scheme that is simple and easy to implement is
proposed in this paper. The operating principle, control method, and design considerations
of the proposed rectifier are also provided. A 100-W prototype with ac input voltage of
110 Vrms and a regulated dc output voltage ranging from 30 to 100 V has been
successfully designed and practically tested. The experimental results show that with only
a 15 μF power-buffering film capacitor, the proposed converter can achieve an input power
factor of over 0.98, peak efficiency of 93.9%, and output voltage ripple of less than 3%,
at 100-W output power.

6. “Analysis and Implementation of a Bridgeless Sepic AC/DC Converter with Power

Factor Correction and Extended Gain” Yi-Hung Liao, Jia-Yi Jhu; This research is
sponsored by the Ministry of Science and Technology of R.O.C. under Grant MOST
105-2221-E-346-005. ©2017 IEEE
In this paper, a bridgeless Sepic AC/DC converter is proposed. The absence of an input
rectifier bridge can reduce the conduction loss and the proposed topology separates the
input PFC current and output current, which reduces the switch current stress and
improves system thermal management compared with the traditional Sepic converter. In
addition, the switches in the proposed topology all have semi-soft switching function to
reduce the switching losses. Furthermore, the proposed converter has an output voltage
multiplier stage. Based on the circuit analysis, a feasible control scheme is developed to
achieve better input current shaping and output voltage regulation. Finally, a prototype
system is constructed and the control scheme is implemented using DSP TMS320F28335.

6
 Both simulation and experimental results verify the validity of the proposed bridgeless
Sepic AC/DC converter and the feasible control scheme.
7. Jian Sun, “On the Zero-Crossing Distortion in Single-Phase PFC Converters, IEEE
Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 19, no. 3,pp 685-692, May 2004.
Input current distortion in the vicinity of input voltage zero crossings of boost single-phase
power factor corrected (PFC) ac-dc converters is studied in this paper. Previously known
causes for the zero-crossing distortion are reviewed and are shown to be inadequate in
explaining the observed input current distortion, especially under high ac line frequencies.
A simple linear model is then presented which reveals two previously unknown causes for
zero-crossing distortion, namely, the leading phase of the input current and the lack of
critical damping in the current loop. Theoretical and practical limitations in reducing the
phase lead and increasing the damping factor are discussed. A simple phase compensation
technique to reduce the zero-crossing distortion is also presented. Numerical simulation
and experimental results are presented to validate the theory.

8. M. Mahdavi and H. Farzanehfard, “Bridgeless SEPIC PFC rectifier with reduced

components and conduction losses,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics,
vol. 58, no. 9, pp. 4153– 4160, Sep. 2011.
In this paper, a new bridgeless single-ended primary inductance converter power-factor-
correction rectifier is introduced. The proposed circuit provides lower conduction losses
with reduced components simultaneously. In conventional PFC converters (continuous-
conduction-mode boost converter), a voltage loop and a current loop are required for PFC.
In the proposed converter, the control circuit is simplified, and no current loop is required
while the converter operates in discontinuous conduction mode. Theoretical analysis and
simulation results are provided to explain circuit operation. A prototype of the proposed
converter is realized, and the results are presented. The measured efficiency shows 1%
improvement in comparison to conventional SEPIC rectifier.

7
9. Esam H. Ismail, “Bridgeless SEPIC Rectifier with Unity Power Factor and Reduced
Conduction Losses”, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 56, no. 4,
April 2009.

In this paper, a new bridgeless single-phase AC-DC converter with an automatic power
factor correction (PFC) is proposed. The proposed rectifier is based on the single-ended
primary inductance converter (SEPIC) topology and it utilizes a bidirectional switch and
two fast diodes. The absence of an input diode bridge and the presence of only one diode
in the flowing-current path during each switching cycle result in less conduction loss and
improved thermal management compared to existing PFC rectifiers. Other advantages
include simple control circuitry, reduced switch voltage stress, and low electromagnetic-
interference noise. Performance comparison between the proposed and the conventional
SEPIC PFC rectifier is performed. Simulation and experimental results are presented to
demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed technique.

10. Jae-Won Yang and Hyun-Lark Do, “Bridgeless SEPIC Converter with a Ripple-Free
Input Current”, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 28, no. 7, July 2013.
Conventional power factor correction (PFC) single-ended primary inductor converter
(SEPIC) suffers from high conduction loss at the input bridge diode. To solve this problem,
a bridgeless SEPIC converter with ripple-free input current is proposed. In the proposed
converter, the input bridge diode is removed and the conduction loss is reduced. In
addition, the input current ripple is significantly reduced by utilizing an additional winding
of the input inductor and an auxiliary capacitor. Similar to the conventional PFC SEPIC
converter, the input current in a switching period is proportional to the input voltage and
near unity power is achieved. The operational principles, steady-state analysis, and design
equations of the proposed converter are described in detail. Experimental results from a
130 W prototype at a constant switching frequency of 100 kHz are presented to verify the
performance of the proposed converter.

8
 CHAPTER 3
EXISTING SYSTEM

3.1 FLYBACK CONVERTER

The flyback converter is a power supply topology that uses mutually coupled inductor, to store
energy when current passes through and releasing the energy when the power is removed. The flyback
converters are similar to the booster converters in architecture and performance. However, the
primary winding of the transformer replaces inductor while the secondary provides the output. In the
flyback configuration, the primary and secondary windings are utilized as two separate inductors.

3.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATING OF A FLYBACK CONVERTER

When the current flowing through an inductor is cut off, the energy stored in the magnetic
field is released by a sudden reversal of the terminal voltage. If a diode is in place to conduct the
stored energy somewhere useful, the diode is called a flyback diode. This only requires one winding
on the inductor, so the inductor would be called a flyback transformer. This arrangement has the
interesting property of transferring energy to the secondary side of the power supply only when the
primary switch is off.

The basic flyback converter uses a relatively small number of components. A switching device
chops the input DC voltage and the energy in the primary is transferred to the secondary through the
switching transformer. A diode in the secondary rectifies the voltage while the capacitor smoothes
the rectified voltage. In a practical circuit, a feedback circuit is used to monitor the output voltage
and while a control circuit switching device.

3.3 DERIVATION OF THE FLYBACK CONVERTER

The flyback converter is based on the buck-boost converter. Its derivation is illustrated
in Fig.3.1. Figure 3.1(a) depicts the basic buck-boost converter, with the switch realized using
a MOSFET and diode. In Fig. 3.1(b), the inductor winding is constructed using two wires, with
a 1:1 turns ratio. The basic function of the inductor is unchanged, and the parallel windings are
equivalent to a single winding constructed of larger wire. In Fig. 3.1(c), the connections
between the two windings are broken. One winding is used while the transistor Q1 conducts,
while the other winding is used when diode D1 conducts. The total current in the two windings
is unchanged from the circuit of Fig.3.1(b); however, the current is now distributed between
the windings differently. The magnetic fields inside the inductor in both cases are identical.

9
Although the two-winding magnetic device is represented using the same symbol as the
transformer, a more descriptive name is “two winding inductor”. This device is sometimes also
called a “flyback transformer”. Unlike the ideal transformer, current does not flow
simultaneously in both windings of the flyback transformer. Figure 3.1(d) illustrates the usual
configuration of the flyback converter. The MOSFET source is connected to the primary-side
ground, simplifying the gate drive circuit. The transformer polarity marks are reversed, to
obtain a positive output voltage. A 1:n turns ratio is introduced; this allows better converter
optimization.

Fig 3.1 Derivation of the flyback converter: (a) Buck-boost converter, (b) Inductor L is
wound with two parallel wires, (c) Inductor windings are isolated, leading to the flyback
converter, (d) With a 1:n turns ratio and positive output.

3.4 ANALYSIS OF THE FLYBACK CONVERTER

The behaviour of most transformer-isolated converters can be adequately understood by
modelling the physical transformer with a simple equivalent circuit consisting of an ideal
transformer in parallel with the magnetizing inductance. The magnetizing inductance must then
follow all of the usual rules for inductors; in particular, volt-second balance must hold when
the circuit operates in steady-state. This implies that the average voltage applied across every
10
winding of the transformer must be zero. Let us replace the transformer of Fig. 1(d) with the
equivalent circuit described above. The circuit of Fig. 2(a) is then obtained. The magnetizing
inductance LM functions in the same manner as inductor L of the original buck-boost converter
of Fig. 1(a). When transistor Q1 conducts, energy from the dc source Vg is stored in LM. When
diode D1 conducts, this stored energy is transferred to the load, with the inductor voltage and
current scaled according to the 1:n turns ratio.

Fig 3.2 (a) With transformer equivalent circuit model

(b) During subinterval 1

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 (c) During subinterval 2

3.5 MODES OF OPERATION

Fig 3.3 Topology of boost flyback converter

The converter consists of a boost inductor (LB), dc-link capacitor (CB), output
capacitor (Co), and resonant capacitor (Cr), power MOSFET (Sw), input bridge diode rectifier,
high frequency diodes (D1, Do) and a three windings transformer (T) where Np, Ns, and Na
denote the primary, secondary and auxiliary windings number of turns respectively.

3.5.1 Stage 1(t0-t1)

This mode starts when the switch is turned on under zero current switching (ZCS) due
to DCM operation of the inductor LB and also the transformer leakage inductance. Diodes D1
and Do are reversed biased and LB starts charging. while VCB is applied to Lm and causes the
magnetizing inductance current (Im) to increase linearly. Concurrently, Cr which has a

12
negative initial voltage is being charged by the input inductor current and its voltage increases
until it becomes equal to VCB at the t1. The bulk capacitor current (ICB) can be obtained by
the ampere-turns of transformer. The transformer is modelled with an ideal transformer plus a
magnetizing inductance. ICB = −(Im + (Na/Np)ILB). (2) The current of power switch is equal
to sum of ICB and LB current (Isw = ILB −ICB). As discussed later, LB operates under DCM
condition and due to the transformer leakage inductance, ICB gradually increases from zero.

Fig 3.4 Mode 1

3.5.2 Stage 2(t1-t2)

This interval begins when D1 starts conducting and fixes the voltage across LB (VLB)
at a certain value which can be obtained from the below equation: VLB = Vin + VNa −VCr =
Vin + (Na/Np −1)VCB. (3) As discussed before, in the proposed converter, the aim is to keep
LB in charging mode till the switch turns off. To keep LB in charging mode, its voltage must
be positive regardless of the input voltage value, thus at the worst case (Vin = 0): (Na/Np
−1)VCB ≥ 0 ⇒ Na ≥ Np. (4) It is not desired to choose Na > Np because it increases the switch
current stress and the transformer cost. For this reason, choosing Na = Np is the most suitable
case. The power switch current can be written as below: Isw = (Na/Np)ILB + ILm.

Fig 3.5 Mode 2

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3.5.3 Stage 3(t2-t3)
This mode starts when the switch is turned off under zero voltage switching (ZVS) due
to Cr which is placed in parallel with the primary winding of transformer (Np) and then slowly
discharges in Lm. This feature is achieved due to the direct connection of Cr to power switch
and fixed voltage of VCB. In this state, VLB is equal to: VLB = Vin −VCB + (Na/Np)VCr.
Thus, until VCr reaches Na Np (VCB − Vin), VLB is positive and the input inductor current is
still increasing and then starts reducing. Due to the large size of Lm and small size of Cr, the
input inductor charge time in this interval is very short and thus it can be assumed that the input
inductor current starts reducing after turning off the switch. As described before, this results in
lower harmonic content of input current. Resonant capacitor continues its discharge until its
voltage decrease to −Np Na Vo and then Do starts conducting.

Fig 3.6 Mode 3

3.5.4 Stage 4(t3-t4)

Fig 3.7 Mode 4

At t3, Do starts conducting under ZCS due to the transformer leakage inductance (Llk)
which begins to resonant with Cr. When the resonant capacitor current (iCr) becomes equal to
LB current (ILB), D1 current reaches zero.

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3.5.5 Stage 5(t4-t5)
After D1 turns off, Lm starts discharging into the load and LB is also still discharging
into the bulk capacitor. This state ends when both LB and Lm are totally discharged. It does
not matter which one discharges first but, here it is assumed that Lm is totally discharged first.
This mode indicates the converter DCM operation. At this time, Cr is charging due to its
positive current and when its voltage reaches Na Np (VCB−Vin), D1 starts conducting again
and a new resonance between Cr and Llk would start and it would end when ICr becomes equal
to ILB. However due to discharge of LB, this resonance is damped faster than the previous
stage and with lower voltage and current. Not that the resonant energy is basically recovered
and has a minute contribution to the converter losses. The appearance of the resonance at this
mode depends on many factors such as the input voltage, the values of LB and Cr, the
transformer parameters and the load. If Lm totally discharges before the voltage of Cr reaches
Na Np (VCB − Vin), the new resonance would not happen. In order to totally eliminate this
resonance, a diode can be placed in series with the primary winding as shown in Fig.5. By
doing so, after half a resonance period, the resonant current reaches zero and D2 would turn
off and disconnects Cr from the circuit. Then, D1 continues its conduction until LB is totally
discharged. However, in addition to the extra cost of the new diode and its conducting loss, the
conducting time of D1 increases which contributes to lowering the efficiency. Also, as
discussed later, it can increase the switch current stress and thus, in general, placing this new
diode is not recommended.

Fig 3.8 Mode 5

3.5.6 Stage 6(t5-t6)
In this stage LB is still discharging into the bulk capacitor. This mode ends when LB is
totally discharged which indicates the DCM condition.

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 Fig 3.9 Mode 6

3.5.7 Stage 7(t6-t0)

The output capacitor continues to supply the load in this stage while LB is being
charged very slowly. As can be observed in Fig2.g a loop consists of LB, Lm, Cr, CB and the
input source is formed which due to the high size of Lm and opposite direction of VCB with
the rectified input voltage, a very slow charging occurs as illustrated in Fig.3. In this stage Cr
is in series with LB and its voltage is being increased. As a result, the initial value of VCr at
the beginning of the next stage is higher and reaches VCB faster which would reduce the time
interval of the first stage. Consequently, soft switching condition is provided even at low duty
cycles and limits the extra current stress on the switch. Also, the sum of ILB and ILm which is
equal to the switch current is zero because they are equal with opposite directions, thus the
slow charge of LB in this mode, would not affect the switch ZCS operation. It should be noted
that by adding the diode D2 to the topology, the input inductor never charges in this mode,
because D2 prevents the formation of the discussed current loop in stage 7 and thus the
advantages of decreasing the initial voltage of Cr is not achieved.

Fig 3.10 Mode 7

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3.6 APPLICATIONS OF FLYBACK CONVERTERS
The flyback converter are used for a wide range of electronics applications such as:

 Television sets which consume small amount of power of up to about 250W

 Standby power supplies for computers
 Cell phone and mobile device chargers
 High-voltage supplies in TV and Monitor CRTs, Lasers, Xenon flashlights, copiers,
etc.

17
 CHAPTER 4
PROPOSED SYSTEM
4.1 SEPIC CONVERTER

SEPIC is a DC to DC converter and is capable of operating in either step up or step

down mode and widely used in battery operated equipment by varying duty cycle of gate signal
of MOSFET. We can step up or step down voltage .For duty cycle above 0.5 it will step up and
below 0.5, it will step down the voltage to required value. Various conversion topologies like
buck, boost, buck-boost are used to step up or step down voltage. Some limitation like pulsating
input and output current, inverted output voltage, in case of buck converter floating switch
make it unreliable for different application. So it is not easy for conventional power converter
design to maintain high efficiency especially when it step or step down voltage. All these
characteristics are obtained in SEPIC DC to DC power conversion. Different designs are used
using active and passive components. Non- inverted output, low equivalent series resistance
(ESR) of coupling capacitor minimize ripple and prevent heat built up which make it reliable
for wide range of operation.

4.1.1 Basics of Sepic Converter

The basic converter we see in our day to-day life is buck converter. It is so called,
because it only step down the input voltage. The output is given by

Vo = DVs

Where Vo=output voltage

VIN=input voltage

D=duty cycle

By interchanging input and output we get boost converter .which only step up voltage,
hence its name boost. The output is always greater than input, but main problem is to get step
up and step down voltage from a single device depending on output. We can use two cascaded
converters (a buck and a boost).but for this two separate controller and separate switch are
required. So it is not the good solution .Buck-boost converter can give required output but here
output is inverting .These converters have more component stresses, component sizes and
lesser efficiency. To reduce the losses caused by high voltages, a circuit with buck-boost

18
conversion characteristics, small energy storage element required and smaller inductor size is
desired. But inductor should not be so less, such that ripple current is high.

Thus, the optimum converter however should have low component stresses, low energy
storage requirements and size and efficiency performance comparable to the boost or the buck
converter. One converter that provided required output is the SEPIC (single ended 12 primary
inductor converter) converter. By varying duty cycle of gate signal of MOSFET we can vary
the output. If duty cycle is greater than 50%, it will step up.so it is called as boost converter. If
duty cycle is below 50% it will step down the voltage and it operate as buck converter. Another
advantage of this converter is it provides a positive regulated output voltage from an input
voltage that varies from above to below the output voltage. It function as both like a buck and
boost converter, the SEPIC also has minimal active components, a simple controller that
provide low noise operation.

4.1.2 Circuit Operation

Single-ended primary inductor converter (SEPIC) is a type of DC-DC converter, that

allows the voltage at its output to be more than, less than, or equal to that at its input. The
output voltage of the SEPIC is controlled by the duty cycle of the MOSFET. A SEPIC is similar
to a traditional buck-boost converter, but has advantages of having non-inverted output, by
means of coupling energy from the input to the output is via a series capacitor. When the switch
is turned off output voltage drops to 0 V. SEPIC is useful in applications like battery charging
where voltage can be above and below that of the regulator output.

Fig 4.1 Circuit diagram of SEPIC Converter

19
 A SEPIC is said to be in continuous-conduction mode if the current through the
inductor L1 never go down to zero. During a SEPIC's steady-state operation, the average
voltage across capacitor Cs (VCs) is equal to the input voltage (VIN). Because capacitor Cs
blocks direct current, the average current across it (ICs) is zero, making inductor L2 the only
source of load current. Hence the average current through inductor L2 is the same as the average
load current and hence independent of the input voltage. Looking at average voltages, the
following can be written:

VIN=VL1+VCs+VL2

Because the average voltage of VCs is equal to VIN

VL1 = −VL2

For this reason, the two inductors can be wound on the same core. Since the voltages
are the equal in magnitude, their mutual inductance effect will be zero. Here it is assumed that
the polarity of the coil is correct. As the voltages are the equal in magnitude, the ripple currents
of the two inductors will be equal in magnitude. The average currents can be summed as
follows:

ID1= IL1 - IL2

Fig 4.2 SEPIC on state (continuous conduction mode)

When switch Q1 is turned on, current IL1 increases and the current IL2 increases in the
negative direction. The energy to increase the current IL1 comes from the input source. Since

20
Q1 is a short while closed, and the instantaneous voltage VCs is approximately VIN, the voltage
VL2 is approximately –VIN. Therefore, the capacitor Cs supplies the energy to increase the
magnitude of the current in IL2 and thus increase the energy stored in L2.

Fig 4.3 SEPIC Off state (Continuous conduction mode)

When switch Q1 is turned off, the current ICs becomes the same as the current IL1, as the
inductors will not allow instantaneous changes in current. Current IL2 will continue in the
negative direction, in fact it never reverse direction. It can be seen from the diagram that a
negative IL2 will add to the current IL1 to increase the current delivered to the load. By Using
Kirchhoff's Current Law

ID1 = ICs - IL2

So while Q1 is off, power is delivered to the load from both L2 and L1. Coupling
capacitor (Cs), is charged by L1 during this off cycle, and will recharge L2 during the on cycle.
The boost/buck capabilities of the SEPIC are possible because of capacitor Cs and inductor L2.
Inductor L1 and switch Q1 create a standard boost converter, which generates a voltage (VQ1)
that is higher than 15 VIN. Its magnitude is determined by the duty cycle of the switch Q1.

Since the average voltage across Cs is VIN, the output voltage (VOUT) is

VOUT=VQ1-VIN

21
 If VQ1 is less than double of VIN, then the output voltage will be less than the input
voltage. If VQ1 will be greater than double of VIN, then the output voltage will be greater than
the input voltage.

4.1.3 Specifications

The converter should meet certain standards

 6V<VIN<18V
 V OUT=10V I OUT=1A
 Fsw = 50 kHz
 An acceptable output current ripple is Io, pp< 0.5 A
 An acceptable output voltage ripple is Vo, pp< 0.1 V

4.2 BRIDGELESS SEPIC CONVERTER

A bridgeless boost converter is widely used in advantages of reduced input current ripple,
but its output voltage should be higher than the peak voltage of the input voltage. Relatively
low output voltage of PFC converters is required in many applications such as low-voltage
switched-mode power supplies. PFC buck converters are more suitable for these applications
due to their low output voltage. A SEPIC PFC converter can provide a high power factor
regardless its output voltage due to its step up/down function. In several bridgeless single-
ended primary inductor converters (SEPICs) were proposed. The efficiency of these converters
is improved by removing the input bridge diode. However, bulk input inductor or another LC
filter is required to suppress the input current ripple. The component count is reduced and it
shows high efficiency due to the absence of the full-bridge diode. However, in this converter,
an input inductor with large inductance should be used in order to reduce the input current
ripple. In addition, the conduction losses on intrinsic body diodes of the switches are caused
by using single pulse width modulation (PWM) gate signal.

4.2.1 Circuit operation

In Figure 2.4 the circuit of bridgeless SEPIC PFC is shown. During positive half cycle,
the switch S1 is turned ON. The lower switch S2 remains OFF. During the positive half cycle
the diode DO1 conducts. The components that conduct are L1, S1, DS2, Cb1, L2, DO1, Co and
R. During negative cycle, the upper switch S1 is turned OFF and lower switch S2 is turned ON.

22
The components that conduct are L1, Ds1, S2, Cb2, L3, DS2, Co and R. Thus during both the
positive half cycle and the negative half cycle only eight components conducts which is
comparatively less when compared to other power factor correction circuits. Here the converter
is designed to operate in Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM). The converters operating in
discontinuous mode offers several advantages, namely capability to operate as PFC is inherent,
suitable for low power applications and lower component stress.

Fig 4.4 Bridgeless SEPIC PFC circuit

The circuit operation of the converter during positive half cycle and negative half cycle
are similar. Operation of converter during positive half cycle consists of three subintervals
MODE 1 (d1TS), MODE 2 (d2TS) and MODE 3 (d3TS). Operation of the converter during
MODE 1, is shown in Figure 4.5. The upper MOSFET, S1, is turned on, the current flows from
the source, Vg, to the input inductor, L1 and continue to S1 and Ds2 before completing the
current path through Vg. The current through the inductor L1 increases linearly and reaches its
peak value, given by equation.

23
 Fig 4.5 Equivalent circuit during MODE 1 (d1TS)

Where d1 is the duty cycle. At the same time the second inductor, L2 discharges its energy
linearly to capacitor Cb1. A closed path for current flow is provided by MOSFET S1, capacitor
Cb1 and inductor L2. The net current flowing through switch S1 during MODE 1 is the addition
of the current through L1 and L2. The output diode is reverse-biased and the output voltage
during this interval is equal to the capacitor voltage Vo.
In Figure 4.6 the circuit operation in MODE 2 is shown. Here S1 is turned off and the
output diode Do1 is forward biased. During this interval, the current through inductor L1 falls
linearly, as it discharges it’s current to the load through iCb1 and iDo1 and create the return
path through diode Ds2. The inductor, L2 will discharge its current linearly to the load through
iDo1. The current flowing through output diode Do1 is the summation of currents through
inductors L1 & L2, iL1 and iL2 respectively. The peak current through diode Do1 is given by
equation.

Since Vcb1 ≈ Vg, equation becomes

24
 Where La = L1//L2. The peak current flowing through switch S1 is exactly the same
with Do1 due to the summation of current at inductors L1 and L2. The d2 width can be
determined by examining the ripple current at inductor L1 such that,

Fig 4.6 Equivalent circuit during MODE 2 (d2TS)

Finally, in MODE 3, both switch S1 and diode Do1 are turned off as shown in Figure 4.7.
During this interval energy at inductors L1 and L2 are equal and input voltage, Vg is equal
to VCb1. As a result, almost zero current flows. However, an almost DC current exist and
the current through inductors L1 and L2 are equal but on the opposite direction.

25
 Fig 4.7 Equivalent circuit during MODE 3 (d3TS)

By equating the average current of Do1 with the output current, io =Vo/R, the
relationship between input and output voltage is obtained. The voltage conversion ratio
for the converter is given in equation,

Where R is the resistive load value. To ensure discontinuous conduction mode operation
for each switching period, the component selection must follow this equation,

4.3 PROPOSED BRIDGELESS SEPIC CONVERTER

The bridgeless SEPIC PFC converter contains the blocking diodes, D1 and D2, and the
freewheeling diodes, Dp and Dn. With this configuration, only the single switching device Sc
can be utilized for both positive and negative input voltage cycles.

26
 Fig 4.8 Proposed bridgeless SEPIC converter

4.3.1 Mode 1

Fig 4.9 Mode 1

In this case, Dn, D2, and Do are biased reversely. In this case, four paths are existent. Path 1
consists of the input source, L1, D1, Sc, and Dp. In this path, the input energy is stored in L1.
Through path 2, C1 is charged by the energy stored in Lo. The RC damping circuit existing in
this path dampens the resonant peak caused by C1, L1, and Lo. So, it can increase the stability

27
of the circuit in the control viewpoint. For path 3, the energy exchange occurs between C1, C2,
and L2.
Again, C1 is charged while C2 is discharged. Unlike Lo, the input source does not contribute
charging of the energy for L2. In this interval, the load Ro is supplied by Co via path 4.

4.3.2 Mode 2

Fig 4.10 Mode 2

When Sc, the current conduction paths change as shown in Figure 4.10. In this case, Do
turns on, and D1, D2, Sc, and Dn are blocked and the energy stored in L1, L2, C1, C2, and Lo is
transferred to the load side including Co and Ro. Similarly, the analyses for negative input
voltage cycles which are not discussed here can be also performed.

4.4 CURRENT MODE CONTROL TECHNIQUES

Over many years, different current control techniques are usually used for controlling
the PFC converters. In this section, several known methods of PCMC and HCMC techniques
are discussed to enable the input current to be synchronized with the fundamental component
of the input voltage. The parameters used in controllers to generate the gate signals of the
switches are; input voltage, input current and output voltage. There are two loops in the
software. The inner loop is responsible for controlling the shape of the inductor current and the
outer loop controls the output voltage and keeps it constant at the pre-defined reference value.
In outer loop, the output voltage level is scaled and compared with the given reference. The

28
error obtained from this comparison makes the input of the PI controller. Output of this
particular controller is the scaling factor and is used to obtain the current reference. The
reference current, Iref, is obtained by multiplying a rectified input voltage by the output of the
voltage controller. In inner loop, the inductor current is compared with the reference current.
The error of this comparison is processed by the different current controllers to be used to
generate the gate signals of the switches.

Average current mode control and peak current mode control are the widely used
current control methods. In average current mode control, average inductor current is
controlled whereas in peak current mode control, peak inductor or switch current is controlled
to regulate the converter output voltage.

4.4.1 Peak Current Mode Control

Peak current mode control is popularly used current-mode control technique, where
fixed frequency clock initiates the duty cycle. Duty cycle is terminated when the inductor
current reaches a threshold level. The outer voltage loop decides the threshold level for the
inductor current.

Control structure for peak current mode controlled boost converter is shown in Fig.3.1.
The sensed inductor current with rising slope Sn is summed with external ramp of slope Se and
is compared with control signal Vc to generate duty cycle D to the power switch Q1. This
technique has advantages like inherent over current protection, since inductor current is
limited on a cycle-by-cycle basis, faster dynamics, input voltage independent control loop,
simpler dynamics because of simple first order control to output transfer function and easier
current sharing in paralleled converters. Peak current mode suffers from the problem of sub-
harmonic oscillations when operated at duty cycle greater than 50%. In absence of external
ramp, a perturbation of ∆iL0 in inductor current during turn ON of the switch causes a
deviation of ∆iL1 given by

29
 Fig 4.11 Control structure for Peak current mode control of boost converter

In Sn<Sf implies that the deviation in inductor current grows with every switching
cycle indicating the instability in peak current mode control for duty cycle greater than
50%. The deviation in inductor current results in sub-harmonic oscillations which vanishes
in subsequent cycles for duty value less than 50%. The perturbations in inductor current for
duty cycle greater than 50% are damped by adding an external ramp in control loop.
Advantages and disadvantages of the PCMC are summarized as:

4.4.2 Advantages
 Constant switching frequency.
 For industrial controller chips, only the switch current must be sensed and this can be
accomplished by a current transformer, thus avoiding the losses due to the sensing
resistor.
 No need for current error amplifier and its compensation network.
 Possibility of a true switch current limiting.

4.4.3 Disadvantages
 Presence of sub-harmonic oscillations at duty cycles greater than 50%, so a
compensation ramp is needed.

30
  Input current distortion which increases at peak line voltages and light loads.
 Control more sensitive to commutation noises.

4.5 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM)

A Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Signal is a method for generating an analog signal
using a digital source. A PWM signal consists of two main components that define its
behaviour, a duty cycle and a frequency. The duty cycle describes the amount of time the signal
is in a high (on) state as a percentage of the total time of it takes to complete one cycle. The
frequency determines how fast the PWM completes a cycle (i.e. 1000 Hz would be 1000 cycles
per second), and therefore how fast it switches between high and low states. By cycling a digital
signal off and on at a fast enough rate, and with a certain duty cycle, the output will appear to
behave like a constant voltage analog signal when providing power to devices.

Example: To create a 3V signal given a digital source that can be either high (on) at 5V, or
low (off) at 0V, you can use PWM with a duty cycle of 60% which outputs 5V 60% of the
time. If the digital signal is cycled fast enough, then the voltage seen at the output appears to
be the average voltage. If the digital low is 0V (which is usually the case) then the average
voltage can be calculated by taking the digital high voltage multiplied by the duty cycle, or 5V
x 0.6 = 3V. Selecting a duty cycle of 80% would yield 4V, 20% would yield 1V, and so on.
PWM signals are used for a wide variety of control applications. Their main use is for
controlling DC motors but it can also be used to control valves, pumps, hydraulics, and other
mechanical parts. The frequency that the PWM signal needs to be set at will be dependent on
the application and the response time of the system that is being powered. Below are a few
applications and some typical minimum PWM frequencies required:

 Heating elements or systems with slow response times: 10-100 Hz or higher

 DC electric motors: 5-10 kHz or higher
 Power supplies or audio amplifiers: 20-200 kHz or higher

Below are some graphs demonstrating PWM signals with different duty cycles:

31
(a) 25% Duty Cycle

(b) 50% Duty Cycle

32
 (c) 75% Duty Cycle

Fig 4.12 PWM signals with different duty cycles

4.5.1 Advantages of PWM

 The output voltage control is easier with PWM than other schemes and can be achieved
without any additional components.
 The lower order harmonics are either minimized or eliminated altogether.
 The filtering requirements are minimized as lower order harmonics are eliminated and
higher order harmonics are filtered easily.
 It has very low power consumption.  The entire control circuit can be digitized which
reduces the susceptibility of the circuit to interference.

4.5.2 Linear Modulation

The simplest method is to vary the ON time proportionally with the modulating signal.
Its advantage is that it is easy to demodulate. The modulating or information signal can be
recovered by low pass filtering. A low frequency (fm) sine wave modulating the width of a

33
fixed frequency (fs) pulse train. As can be seen a low pass filter can extract the modulating
signal (fm).

4.5.3 Saw Tooth PWM

A fixed frequency PWM can be generated by comparing with a linear slope

waveform like a saw tooth waveform. As seen in the figure the output goes high when the sine
wave amplitude is greater than saw tooth. It can be achieved by comparator with logic HIGH
when non-inverting input is greater than the inverting one.

4.5.4 Rectangular PWM

This scheme works by generating a switching edge at the intercept of carrier and
modulating signal. In the intercepts of sampled sine values with the triangular wave gives the
edges of the pulses.

4.5.5 Structure of PWM generator

Fig 4.13 PWM Diagram and Waveform

34
 Generation of the desired output voltage is achieved by comparing the desired reference
waveform (modulating signal) with a high-frequency triangular ‘carrier’ wave as depicted
schematically. Depending on whether the signal voltage is larger or smaller than the carrier
waveform, either the positive or negative dc bus voltage is applied at the output. Note that over
the period of one triangle wave, the average voltage applied to the load is proportional to the
amplitude of the signal (assumed constant) during this period. The resulting chopped square
waveform contains a replica of the desired waveform in its low frequency components, with
the higher frequency components being at frequencies of a close to the carrier frequency.
Notice that the root mean square value of the ac voltage waveform is still equal to the dc bus
voltage, and hence the total harmonic distortion is not affected by the PWM process. The
harmonic components are merely shifted into the higher frequency range and are automatically
filtered due to inductances in the ac system. When the modulating signal is a sinusoid of
amplitude Am, and the amplitude of the triangular carrier is Ac, the ratio m=Am/Ac is known
as the modulation index in fig 4.13.
Note that controlling the modulation index therefore controls the amplitude of the
applied output voltage. PWM amplifiers run cooler than standard linear power amps, requiring
substantially less heat sink mass. At about 90% efficiency, PWM makes electromagnetic
motion feasible at power levels where hydraulics used to be the only option.

4.6 PERMANENT MAGNET DC MOTOR OR PMDC MOTOR

In a DC motor, an armature rotates inside a magnetic field. The basic working principle
of DC motor is based on the fact that whenever a current carrying conductor is placed inside a
magnetic field, there will be mechanical force experienced by that conductor. All kinds of DC
motors work under this principle. Hence for constructing a DC motor, it is essential to establish
a magnetic field. The magnetic field is established by using a magnet. You can use different
types of magnets – it may be an electromagnet or it can be a permanent magnet. A Permanent
Magnet DC motor (or PMDC motor) is a type of DC motor that uses a permanent magnet to
create the magnetic field required for the operation of a DC motor.

35
 Fig 4.14 PMDC motor

The motor that drives these toys is nothing but a permanent magnet DC motor or PMDC
motor. These types of motors are simple in construction. They are commonly used as a starter motor
in automobiles, windshield wipers, washers, for blowers used in heaters and air conditioners, to raise
and lower windows – and they are extensively used in toys.
As the magnetic field strength of a permanent magnet is fixed it cannot be controlled
externally, field control of this type of DC motor cannot be possible. Thus permanent magnet DC
motor is used where there is no need to control the speed of the motor (which is usually done by
controlling the magnetic field). Small fractional and sub-fractional KW motors are often constructed
using a permanent magnet.

4.6.1 Construction of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

As it is indicated in name of permanent magnet DC motor, the field poles of this motor are
essentially made of permanent magnet. A PMDC motor mainly consists of two parts. A stator and an
armature. Here the stator which is a steel cylinder. The magnets are mounted in the inner periphery
of this cylinder.

36
 Fig 4.15 Internal structure of PMDC motor

The permanent magnets are mounted in such a way that the N-pole and S-pole of each magnet
are alternatively faced towards armature as shown in the figure below. That means, if N-pole of one
magnet is faced towards armature then S-pole of very next magnet is faced towards armature. In
addition to holding the magnet on its inner periphery, the steel cylindrical stator also serves as low
reluctance return path for the magnetic flux. Although field coil is not required in permanent magnet
DC motor but still it is sometimes found that they are used along with permanent magnet. This is
because if permanent magnets lose their strength, these lost magnetic strengths can be compensated
by field excitation through these field coils. Generally, rare earth hard magnetic materials are used in
these permanent magnet.The rotor of a PMDC motor is similar to other DC motor. Armature core is
made of number of varnish insulated, slotted circular lamination of steel sheets.
By fixing these circular steel sheets one by one, a cylindrical shaped slotted armature core is
formed. The varnish insulated laminated steel sheets are used to reduce eddy current loss in armature
of permanent magnet DC motor. These slots on the outer periphery of the armature core are used for
housing armature conductors in them. The armature conductors are connected in a suitable manner
which gives rise to armature winding. The end terminals of the winding are connected to the
commutator segments placed on the motor shaft. Like other DC motor, carbon or graphite brushes
are placed with spring pressure on the commutator segments to supply current to the armature.

4.6.2 Working Principle of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

As we said earlier the working principle of PMDC motor is just similar to the general working
principle of DC motor. That is when a carrying conductor comes inside a magnetic field, a mechanical

37
force will be experienced by the conductor and the direction of this force is governed by Fleming’s
left hand rule. As in a permanent magnet DC motor, the armature is placed inside the magnetic field
of permanent magnet; the armature rotates in the direction of the generated force. Here each conductor
of the armature experiences the mechanical force F = B.I.L Newton where, B is the magnetic field
strength in Tesla (weber / m2), I is the current in Ampere flowing through that conductor and L is
length of the conductor in metre comes under the magnetic field. Each conductor of the armature
experiences a force and the compilation of those forces produces a torque, which tends to rotate the
armature.

4.6.3 Equivalent Circuit of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

Fig 4.16 Equivalent circuit

As in PMDC motor the field is produced by permanent magnet, there is no need of drawing
field coils in the equivalent circuit of permanent magnet DC motor.The supply voltage to the armature
will have armature resistance drop and rest of the supply voltage is countered by back emf of the
motor.

Hence voltage equation of the motor is given by,

Where,
I is armature current and R is armature resistance of the motor.
Eb is the back emf and V is the supply voltage.

38
4.6.4 Advantages of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

1. No need of field excitation arrangement.

2. No input power in consumed for excitation which improve efficiency of DC motor.
3. No field coil hence space for field coil is saved which reduces the overall size of the
motor.
4. Cheaper and economical for fractional kW rated applications.

4.6.5 Disadvantages of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

1. The armature reaction of DC motor cannot be compensated hence the magnetic strength
of the field may get weak due to the demagnetizing effect of the armature reaction.
2. There is a chance of getting the poles permanently demagnetized (partial) due to
excessive armature current during the starting, reversal, and overloading conditions of
the motor.
3. The field in the air gap is fixed and limited – it cannot be controlled externally. This
makes it difficult for this type of motor to achieve efficient speed control of DC motor in
this type of motor is difficult.

4.6.6 Applications of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

PMDC motor is extensively used where small DC motors are required and also very effective
control is not required, such as in automobiles starter, toys, wipers, washers, hot blowers, air
conditioners, computer disc drives and in many more.

4.7 POWER FACTOR

The power flowing through an alternating current (AC) load isn’t always pulling its full
weight. Every AC circuit has some degree of non-working power as part of its total power reading
and this can affect the amount of power a system is truly drawing.

39
 Active power (measured in kW), also known as real power or true power, is the working
power in a circuit and reactive power (measured in kVAR) is the non-working power. Active power
and reactive power together make up apparent power (measured in kVA).

If a circuit were 100% efficient, demand would be equal to the power available. When demand
is greater than the power available, a strain is placed on the utility system. Many utilities add a demand
charge to the bills of large customers to offset differences between supply and demand (where supply
is lower than demand). For most utilities, demand is calculated based on the average load placed
within 15 to 30 minutes. If demand requirements are irregular, the utility must have more reserve
capacity available than if load requirements remain constant.

The relation between active and reactive power is represented by a ratio, a number between -
1 and 1. This number is our power factor, which is quotient of active power divided by apparent
power.

Fig 4.17 Represents Real, Reactive and Apparent power

Resistive loads, such as those in electric heaters and most lighting systems, are more efficient
with the power they draw. Reactive power (kVAR) is smaller proportion of apparent power and the
power factor is closer to 1. Electric motors, generators, and ballasts on the other hand use inductive
loads and require more power in order to operate correctly. Reactive power is a larger proportion of
total apparent power and has a power factor closer to 0. Knowing how much working and non-
working power being used in a system can help you troubleshoot various efficiency problems you
might be having in your building. When it comes to your monthly electricity bill, every kVAR counts.

40
4.8 POWER FACTOR CALCULATIONS
For sinusuidal current, the power factor PF is equal to the absolute value of the cosine of the
apparent power phase angle φ (which is also is impedance phase angle):

PF = |cos φ|
PF is the power factor.
φ is the apprent power phase angle.
The real power P in watts (W) is equal to the apparent power |S| in volt-ampere (VA) times the power
factor PF:

P(W) = |S(VA)| × PF = |S(VA)| × |cos φ|

When the circuit has a resistive impedance load, the real power P is equal to the apparent power |S|
and the power factor PF is equal to 1:

PF(resistive load) = P / |S| = 1

The reactive power Q in volt-amps reactive (VAR) is equal to the apparent power |S| in volt-ampere
(VA) times the sine of the phase angle φ:

Q(VAR) = |S(VA)| × |sin φ|

Single phase circuit calculation from real power meter reading P in kilowatts (kW), voltage V in volts
(V) and current I in amps (A):

PF = |cos φ| = 1000 × P(kW) / (V(V) × I(A))

Three phase circuit calculation from real power meter reading P in kilowatts (kW), line to line
voltage VL-L in volts (V) and current I in amps (A):

PF = |cos φ| = 1000 × P(kW) / (√3 × VL-L(V) × I(A))

Three phase circuit calculation from real power meter reading P in kilowatts (kW), line to line
neutral VL-N in volts (V) and current I in amps (A):

PF = |cos φ| = 1000 × P(kW) / (3 × VL-N(V) × I(A))

4.9 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

41
 Power factor correction is an adjustment of the electrical circuit in order to change the power
factor near 1. Power factor near 1 will reduce the reactive power in the circuit and most of the power
in the circuit will be real power. This will also reduce power lines losses.
The power factor correction is usually done by adding capacitors to the load circuit, when the circuit
has inductive components, like an electric motor.

4.10 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION CALCULATION

The apparent power |S| in volt-amps (VA) is equal to the voltage V in volts (V) times the
current I in amps (A):

|S(VA)| = V(V) × I(A)

The reactive power Q in volt-amps reactive (VAR) is equal to the square root of the square of the
apparent power |S| in volt-ampere (VA) minus the square of the real power P in watts (W)
(pythagorean theorem):

Q(VAR) = √(|S(VA)|2 - P(W)2)

Qc (kVAR) = Q(kVAR) - Qcorrected (kVAR)
The reactive power Q in volt-amps reactive (VAR) is equal to the square of voltage V in volts (V)
divided by the reactance Xc:

Qc (VAR) = V(V)2 / Xc = V(V)2 / (1 / (2πf(Hz)×C(F))) = 2πf(Hz)×C(F)×V(V)2

So the power factor correction capacitor in Farad (F) that should be added to the circuit in parallel is
equal to the reactive power Q in volt-amps reactive (VAR) divided by 2π times the frequency f in
Hertz (Hz) times the squared voltage V in volts (V):

C(F) = Qc (VAR) / (2πf(Hz)·V(V)2)

42
 CHAPTER-5

SIMULATION AND RESULT

5.1 GENERAL

MATLAB is a software package for computation in engineering, science, and applied

mathematics. It offers a powerful programming language, excellent graphics, and a wide range
of expert knowledge. MATLAB is published by and a trademark of The Math Works, Inc.

The focus in MATLAB is on computation, not mathematics: Symbolic expressions and

manipulations are not possible (except through the optional Symbolic Toolbox, a clever
interface to maple). All results are not only numerical but inexact, thanks to the rounding errors
inherent in computer arithmetic. The limitation to numerical computation can be seen as a
drawback, but it’s a source of strength too: MATLAB is much preferred to Maple,
Mathematical, and the like when it comes to numeric.

On the other hand, compared to other numerically oriented languages like C++ and
FORTRAN, MATLAB is much easier to use and comes with a huge standard library.1 the un-
favourable comparison here is a gap in execution speed. This gap is not always as dramatic as
popular lore has it, and it can often be narrowed or closed with good MATLAB programming
(see section 6). Moreover, one can link other codes into MATLAB, or vice versa, and
MATLAB now optionally supports parallel computing. Still, MATLAB is usually not the tool
of choice for maximum-performance Computing. The MATLAB niche is numerical
computation on workstations for non-experts in computation. This is a huge niche—one way
to tell is to look at the number of MATLAB-related books on mathworks.com. Even for
supercomputer users, MATLAB can be a valuable environment in which to explore and fine-
tune algorithms before more laborious coding in another language. Most successful computing
languages and environments acquire a distinctive character or culture. In MATLAB, that
culture contains several elements: an experimental and graphical bias, resulting from the
interactive environment and compression of the write-compile-link-execute analyse cycle; an
emphasis on syntax that is compact and friendly to the interactive mode, rather than tightly
constrained and verbose; a kitchen-sink mentality for providing functionality; and a high
degree of openness and transparency (though not to the extent of being open source software).
43
5.2 GRAPHICAL VERSUS COMMAND-LINE USAGE

MATLAB was originally entirely a command-line environment, and it retains that

orientation. But it is now possible to access a great deal of the functionality from graphical
interfaces—menus, buttons, and so on. These interfaces are especially useful to beginners,
because they lay out the available choices clearly.2 as a rule, graphical interfaces can be more
natural for certain types of interactive work, such as annotating a graph or debugging a
program, whereas typed commands remain better for complex, precise, repeated, or
reproducible tasks. One does not always need to make a choice, though; for instance, it is
possible to save a figure’s styles as a template that can be used with different data by pointing
and clicking. Moreover, you can package code you want to distribute with your own graphical
oriented tools. In the end, an advanced MATLAB user should be able to exploit both modes of
work to be productive point them out. In particular, feel free to right-click (on Control-click on
a Mac) on various objects to see what you might be able to do to them.

5.3 SIMULINK

Simulink (Simulation and Link) is an extension of MATLAB by Math works Inc. It

works with MATLAB to offer modelling, simulating, and analysing of dynamical systems
under a graphical user interface (GUI) environment. The construction of a model is simplified
with click-and-drag mouse operations. Simulink includes a comprehensive block library of
toolboxes for both linear and nonlinear analyses. Models are hierarchical, which allow using
both top-down and bottom-up approaches. As Simulink is an integral part of MATLAB, it is
easy to switch back and forth during the analysis process and thus, the user may take full
advantage of features offered in both environments. This tutorial presents the basic features of
Simulink and is focused on control systems as it has been written for students in my control
systems.

To start Simulink session, you'd need to bring up Mat lab program first. From Mat lab
command window, enter:

>> Simulink

Alternately, you may click on the Simulink icon located on the toolbar as shown

44
 Fig 5.1 Shows the toolbar of MATLAB

In fig 5.1 to see the content of the block set, click on the "+" sign at the beginning of
each toolbox. To start a model click on the NEW FILE ICON as shown in the screenshot above.
Alternately, you may use keystrokes CTRL+N.

A new window will appear on the screen. You will be constructing your model in this
window. Also in this window the constructed model is simulated. A screenshot of a typical
working (model) window that looks like one shown below in fig 5.2.

Fig 5.2 Shows the workspace model of MATLAB

45
 To become familiarized with the structure and the environment of Simulink, you are
encouraged to explore the toolboxes and scan their contents.

You may not know what they are all about but perhaps you could catch on the organization
of these toolboxes according to the category. For instant, you may see Control System Toolbox
to consist of the Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system library and the MATLAB functions can
be found under Function and Tables of the Simulink main toolbox. A good way to learn
Simulink (or any computer program in general) is to practice and explore. Making mistakes is
a part of the learning curve. So, fear not, you should be.

5.4 SIM POWER SYSTEM

Sim Power Systems and other products of the Physical Modelling product family work
together with Simulink® to model electrical, mechanical, and control systems.

Sim Power Systems operates in the Simulink environment. Therefore, before starting
this user’s guide, you should be familiar with Simulink. For help with Simulink, see the
Simulink documentation. Or, if you apply Simulink to signal processing and communications
tasks (as opposed to control system design tasks), see the Signal Processing Block set
documentation.

Electrical power systems are combinations of electrical circuits and electromechanical

devices like motors and generators. Engineers working in this discipline are constantly
improving the performance of the systems. Requirements for drastically increased efficiency
have forced power system designers to use power electronic devices and sophisticated control
system concepts that tax traditional analysis tools and techniques. Further complicating the
analyst’s role is the fact that the system is often so nonlinear that the only way to understand it
is through simulation.

Land-based power generation from hydroelectric, steam, or other devices is not the only
use of power systems. A common attribute of these systems is their use of power electronics
and control systems to achieve their performance objectives.

Sim Power Systems is a modern design tool that allows scientists and engineers to
rapidly and easily build models that simulate power systems. Sim Power Systems uses the
Simulink environment, allowing you to build a model using simple click and drag procedures.
Not only can you draw the circuit topology rapidly, but your analysis of the circuit can include

46
its interactions with mechanical, thermal, control, and other disciplines. This is possible
because all the electrical parts of the simulation interact with the extensive Simulink modelling
library. Since Simulink uses MATLAB® as its computational engine, designers can also use
MATLAB toolboxes and Simulink block sets. Sim Power Systems and Sim Mechanics share
a special Physical Modelling block and connection line interface.

5.5 SIM POWER SYSTEMS LIBRARIES

You can rapidly put Sim Power Systems to work. The libraries contain models of
typical power equipment such as transformers, lines, machines, and power electronics. These
models are proven ones coming from textbooks, and their validity is based on the experience
of the Power Systems Testing and Simulation Laboratory of Hydro-Québec, a large North
American utility located in Canada, and also on the experience of École de Technologies
Supérieure and University Laval. The capabilities of Sim Power Systems for modelling a
typical electrical system are illustrated in demonstration files. And for users who want to
refresh their knowledge of power system theory, there are also self-learning case studies.

The Sim Power Systems main library, power lib, organizes its blocks into libraries
according to their behaviour. The power lib library window displays the block library icons
and names. Double-click a library icon to open the library and access the blocks. The main Sim
Power Systems power lib library window also contains the Power system block that opens a
graphical user interface for the steady-state analysis of electrical circuits. Nonlinear Simulink
Blocks for Sim Power Systems Models The nonlinear Simulink blocks of the power lib library
are stored in a special\block library named power lib, models. These masked Simulink models
are used by Sim Power Systems to build the equivalent Simulink model of your circuit. See
Chapter 3, “Improving Simulation Performance” for a description of the power lab models
library

You must have the following products installed to use Sim Power Systems:

• MATLAB

• Simulink

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5.6 PROPOSED SYSTEM

5.6.1 Block Diagram

Fig 5.3 Block diagram

Description

• Bridgeless SEPIC converter receives supply from AC mains; it performs AC-DC

conversion.

• PWM generator draws attention from peak current control technique to generate pulses.

• The generated pulse holds the entire circuit operation.

• A voltage gain can be extended without extreme duty cycle operation.

• The proposed bridgeless rectifier topology configuration results in high overall

efficiency and power density.

• Finally, a lossless DC power is fed to the dc load.

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5.6.2 Simulink Diagram

Fig 5.4 Represents the performance of proposed system

5.6.3 Input & Output characteristics

The configuration of motor with its conversion techniques are studied using MATLAB
and its output waveform for each section describes clearly in this section.

The below waveform briefly explains about input voltage and current. This graph
justifies voltage and current is either in phase or not.

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Fig 5.5 Input voltage and current

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 Fig 5.6 PWM generation

The pwm is e used in the simulation block to generate pwm generation and it explains how
much amount of pulse generated from PWM generator as shown in the figure 5.6.

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 Fig 5.7 DC output

The motor rotational motion depends upon the quality and quantity of power supplied
by the converter. In this section the dc power generated from the converter is shown in above
figure 5.7.

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 Fig 5.8 Shows Speed, Torque, Current

A comparison of rated speed, current and torque is represented above. In normal

operating conditions the graph is plotted.

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 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

In this paper, a new Bridgeless PFC circuit based on SEPIC converter has been
proposed and verified by simulation and experimental works. It is showed that the proposed
circuit is capable to achieve high power factor under universal input voltage condition. The
capability to reshape the input current is inherent when the circuit is operated in various
operating modes. This circuit would be most suitable to be used as a switch mode power supply
application for low power equipment’s especially those requiring high quality input power. The
input current ripple of the proposed converter is significantly reduced. The theoretical analysis,
simulation results were provided.

FUTURE SCOPE

A simulation study on new Bridgeless PFC circuit based on SEPIC converter has been
proposed in this phase. A real time bridgeless SEPIC converter will be execute in next phase.

54
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2. W.-Y. Choi, J.-M. Kwon, E.-H. Kim, J.-J. Lee, and B.-H. Kwon, “Bridgeless boost
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