I ACT-2 I Assignment - 3 I Module - 5 I

Q.6: Write a note on damage assessment techniques in brief of structures.

Ans:
Damage Assessment: Detection of damage to structures has recently received
considerable attention from the viewpoint of maintenance and safety assessment. In this
respect, the vibration characteristics of buildings have been applied consistently to obtain a
damage index of the whole building, but it has not been established as a practical method
until now. It is reasoned that this is perhaps due to restrictions on the experiment, use of an
improper method, and lack of inspection opportunity for the structures. In addition, in the
case of large-scale structures such as buildings, many variables to be considered for the
analysis contribute to a large number of degrees of freedom, and this can also be a
considerable problem for the analysis. A practical method for the detection of structural
damage using the first natural frequency and mode shape of the building is proposed in this
paper. The effectiveness of the proposed method is verified by numerical analysis and
experimental tests. From the results, it is observed that the severity and location of the
damage can be estimated with a relatively small error by using modal properties of the
building.
Damage Assessment can be carried out broadly based on two techniques namely
Destructive and Non-destructive Testing Analysis.

Destructive Testing or Destructive Physical Analysis:

Destructive testing (or destructive physical analysis, DPA) tests are carried out to the specimen's
failure, in order to understand a specimen's performance or material behaviour under different
loads. These tests are generally much easier to carry out, yield more information, and are easier
to interpret than nondestructive testing. Destructive testing is most suitable, and economic, for
objects which will be mass-produced, as the cost of destroying a small number of specimens is
negligible.

Types of Destructive Testing:

Crash Tests
Shake Table Test

Non Destructive testing:

There is no strength test, which provides the requisite information on concrete in-situ without
damaging the concrete. These and other drawbacks of destructive test methods have led to
the development of nondestructive methods of testing. Non-destructive methods are quick
and can be performed both in the laboratory and in-situ with convenience.

Types of Non-Destructive Testing:

Penetration Tests: The Windsor probe is generally considered to be the best means of
testing penetration. It consists of powder-actuated gun or driver, hardened alloy probes,
loaded cartridges, a depth gauge for measuring penetration of probes and other related
equipment. A probe of diameter 6.5 mm and length 80 mm, is driven into the concrete by
means of a precision powder charge. Depth of penetration provides an indication of the
compressive strength of the concrete. Although calibration charts are provided by the

ACT-II Assignment No.3 Page​ 1 of 6 By: Venu Nataraj (1JA18CPM19), 2nd Sem, M.Arch (CPM), SJB-SAP
manufacturer, the instrument should be calibrated for the type of concrete and type and size
of aggregate used.

Rebound Tests: ​Schmidt Test Hammer: ​The rebound hammer is a surface hardness
tester for which an empirical correlation has been established between strength and rebound
number. The only known instrument to make use of the rebound principle for concrete
testing is the Schmidt hammer, which weighs about 1.8 kg and is suitable for both laboratory
and field work. It consists of a spring-controlled hammer mass that slides on plunger within a
tubular housing. The hammer is forced against the surface of the concrete by the spring and
the distance of rebound is measured on a scale. The tests surface can be horizontal, vertical
or at any angle but the instrument must be calibrated in the position.

Pull-Out Techniques: ​Is more authentic than the concrete core test. A specially shaped
steel rod with one end enlarged is embedded in concrete in the form-work. After the concrete
hardens the rod is pulled out and in so doing it comes out with a block of concrete. The
pullout force determined by a hollow tension ram is related to the compressive strength of
concrete.

Concrete Core Test: Concrete cores are drilled from the structure and are tested in
compression testing machine. The average equivalent cube strength of the cores is equal to
at least 85% of the cube strength of the concrete specified for the corresponding age.

Radioactive Tests:​ Concrete absorbs X-rays and -rays passing through it and the degree
of absorption depends on the density of concrete. These rays, while passing through
concrete, are partly absorbed and partly scattered. The scattered radiation can be shielded
from the measuring device and the density of concrete determined by the degree of
absorption of the rays traversing a direct path of known length. Radium and radio-cobalt are
used as a source of rays. Radium has the advantage that its activity can be regarded as
constant since it takes 1000 to 2000 years for its activity to be reduced by half. However,
radio-cobalt whose activity reduces to half in just five years is preferred because it is quite
cheap.

Maturity Concept (Test on Fresh Concrete): is based on the principle that concretes
having equal maturities will have equal compressive strengths. The maturity of the in-situ
concrete at the early ages can be determined with the aid of an instrument known as
maturity meter. This is used to determine the earliest safe time for removal of formwork. The
results are authentic provided the concretes have an initial temperature between 15-26°C
and there is no loss of moisture during the period of curing.

Ultrasonic Test: The ultrasonic pulse velocity method as described for green concrete can
also be used to determine the strength of hardened concrete. The flaws, quality of concrete,
reinforcement, moisture content, the temperature of concrete materials, etc. affect the pulse
velocity and suitable adjustments should be made in evaluating the concrete strength.

ACT-II Assignment No.3 Page​ 2 of 6 By: Venu Nataraj (1JA18CPM19), 2nd Sem, M.Arch (CPM), SJB-SAP
Selection of Test Method:
1. The availability and reliability of the calibration charts
2. The effects and acceptability of surface damage
3. The accuracy desired
4. Economic consideration
5. Practical limitations such as member size and type, surface conditions and access to
test points.

Non-destructive methods have following distinct advantages over the prevalent destructive
methods of testing.
1. The measurement can be done on concrete in-situ and thus representative samples
are not required. In the destructive method of testing the change in the quality of
concrete has to be studied on a long-term basis with respect to curing or deterioration
due to certain causes. A large number of specimens are required which could be
tested to destruction, at various ages. Since it cannot be guaranteed that all
specimens are of the same quality, the results obtained may not be very reliable.
2. Non-destructive testing makes its possible to study the variation in the quality of
concrete with time and external influences.
3. In N.D.T. method the concrete is not loaded to destruction. Its quality is judged by
measuring certain of its physical properties, which are related to its quality.
4. In N.D.T. there is no wastage of material as in destructive methods of testing.

ACT-II Assignment No.3 Page​ 3 of 6 By: Venu Nataraj (1JA18CPM19), 2nd Sem, M.Arch (CPM), SJB-SAP
Q.7: Write a note on the effects of dampness on construction materials in relation to
durability, serviceability and safety.
Ans:
Dampness is the presence of hygroscopic or gravitational moisture. Dampness gives rise to
unhygienic conditions apart from a reduction in the strength of structural components of the
building.

Research in the construction industry is growing at a rapid pace. We get to see the advent of
new materials and finishes on a daily basis. However, over the last 50 years, the primary
materials in the construction of any building primarily involve steel, cement, sand,
aggregates, water (Concrete and RCC components) and wood. We will hereby try to
understand the effects of Dampness on these specific construction materials.

Effects of Dampness on Construction Materials and Surroundings:

1. Due to dampness, moisture travels through walls and ceilings and creates unsightly
patches and affect the aesthetics of the building.
2. In the case of lime plaster, moisture travel causes softening and crumbling of plaster.
3. Dampness in the wall cause efflorescence and sometimes dampness is responsible
for the disintegration of bricks, stones, tiles etc.
4. The wall decoration (like painting) gets damaged due to dampness.
5. The flooring gets loosened because of reduction in the adhesion when moisture
enters through the floor.
6. Timber fittings (such as doors, windows, almirahs) when coming in contact with damp
walls or floors, gets deteriorated because of warping, buckling, dry rutting etc of
timber.
7. Dampness in the building can be very dangerous if any form of electrical fittings
come in contact with it.
8. Floor coverings are damaged. Therefore no floor coverings should be used on damp
floors.
9. Dampness promotes and accelerates the growth of termites.
10. Dampness breeds germs of dangerous diseases such as tuberculosis, neuralgia,
rheumatism etc.
11. Dampness is responsible for the breeding of mosquitoes and creates unhealthy living
conditions.
12. Metal fitting gets corroded and rusted due to dampness.

ACT-II Assignment No.3 Page​ 4 of 6 By: Venu Nataraj (1JA18CPM19), 2nd Sem, M.Arch (CPM), SJB-SAP
Q.8: Write a note on heat and frost cycle effect on construction materials in relation to
durability, serviceability and safety.
Ans:
Heat and Frost Cycle:
Research in the construction industry is growing at a rapid pace. We get to see the advent of
new materials and finishes on a daily basis. However, over the last 50 years, the primary
materials in the construction of any building primarily involve steel, cement, sand,
aggregates, water (Concrete and RCC components) and wood. We will hereby try to
understand the effects of Heat and Frost cycle on these specific construction materials.

Effects of Heat and Frost Cycle on Construction Materials and Surroundings:

1. Heating causes an expansion in steel and Frosting causes a contraction in steel. This
expansion and contraction cause steel to lose its strength over a period of time.
2. The heating and frosting in steel tend to subject the material to wear and tear.
Joinery (welded/ riveted or bolted) is subjected to movements leading to weakening
of Structural joints and wear and tear.
3. Heat causes concrete to weaken due to the removal of evaporable water
4. Heat causes concrete to lose its strength due to the removal of combined water
5. Heat and Frost cycle causes alteration of cement paste
6. Heat and Frost cycle causes splinters in stones thereby causing an alteration of
aggregate
7. Heating causes a change of the bond between aggregate and pastes thereby
weakening the overall composition of concrete.
8. Due to the different coefficients of expansion of various construction materials a
significant difference in temperature during frosting and thawing cycles causes
materials to expand and contract at different rates causing cracks in composition.
9. The frosting and thawing cycles give rise to dampness in porous materials as the
water gets trapped inside structural members due to the capillary action.

ACT-II Assignment No.3 Page​ 5 of 6 By: Venu Nataraj (1JA18CPM19), 2nd Sem, M.Arch (CPM), SJB-SAP
Q.9: Write a note on the effects of biological agents on construction materials in relation to
durability, serviceability and safety.
Ans:
Research in the construction industry is growing at a rapid pace. We get to see the advent of
new materials and finishes on a daily basis. However, over the last 50 years, the primary
materials in the construction of any building primarily involve steel, cement, sand,
aggregates, water (Concrete and RCC components) and wood. We will hereby try to
understand the effects of biological agents on these specific construction materials.

Biological agents that can cause problems in buildings are:

1. Insects (termites, borer beetles, triatomine bugs, cockroaches, mosquitos, flies, etc.),
which either attack and destroy building materials (such as timber, bamboo, some
plastics, etc.), represent a health hazard or are simply a nuisance to the occupants;
2. Animals (rats, bats, birds, snakes, etc.), which can nest in uncontrolled cavities, and
can not only create health problems and disturb occupants but also restrict important
functions of the building, for example, by building nests which block ventilation
openings or clog drains;
3. Fungi (moulds, stains, rots, etc.), which develop in moist dark conditions on timber
and other vegetable building materials, some fungi being non-destructive (blue stain),
while others (dry rot, wet rot) lead to decay and destruction.
4. Many methods of protecting buildings and occupants against these agents exist, but
some protective measures can create new problems if implemented without sufficient
care and consideration of the consequences. Good building design and use of
materials should always be considered before resorting to using chemicals, which
can destroy fungi, insects, rats, pets, children

Effects of Biological Agents on Construction Materials and Surroundings:

1. Resins although being toxic are degradable by biological agents
2. Compressed straw slabs have high dimensional stability, and resistance to impact
and splitting, are not easily ignitable, however, when in moist condition are
susceptible to attack by biological agents resulting in weakening of slab.
3. Straw Slabs are vulnerable to biological agents (attraction and nesting of insects,
rodents, birds, and development of fungi and rot).
4. Bamboo has relatively low durability, especially in moist conditions, as it is easily
attacked by biological agents, such as insects and fungus.
5. Seasoning alone is not always sufficient to protect timbers (particularly secondary
species) from fungal decay and insect attack. Protection from these biological
hazards and fire is effectively achieved by preservative treatments with certain
chemicals.
6. Glazing Facades and roofing members are prone to damages from birds and rodents

ACT-II Assignment No.3 Page​ 6 of 6 By: Venu Nataraj (1JA18CPM19), 2nd Sem, M.Arch (CPM), SJB-SAP