PHYSICS PROJECT REPORT ON

BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
Submitted by

B.RAGHU ADHITHYA,
(ROLL NO: 20)

CLASS: XI B

PROJECT GUIDE

MR. R.VEERA KUMAR, M.Sc; M.PHIL; B.Ed.,

KSHATRIYA VIDHYASALA ENGLISH MEDIUM SCHOOL,

(Affiliated to CENTRAL BOARD OF EDUCATION, NEW DELHI.)

VIRUDHUNAGAR – 626002.

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 KSHATRIYA VIDHYASALA ENGLISH MEDIUM SCHOOL,
VIRUDHUNAGAR – 2.

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Project entitled, “PHYSICS PROJECT REPORT ON

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION” submitted by Mr.B.RAGHU ADHITHYA , (Roll. No. 20), XI“B”

KSHATRIYA VIDHYASALA ENGLISH MEDIUM SCHOOL, VIRUDHUNAGAR, is a record of

project work carried out by him in our school .

Signature of the Project Guide Signature of the Principal

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 DECLARATION

I declare that the Project entitled “PHYSICS PROJECT REPORT ON BERNOLLI’S

THEOREM” is the result of a study originally carried out by me under the guidance of

MR. R.VEERA KUMAR, M.Sc; M.PHIL; B.Ed.,, KSHATRIYA VIDHYASALA ENGLISH

MEDIUM SCHOOL, VIRUDHUNAGAR.

Signature of the Candidate

(B.RAGHU ADHITHYA)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

“Thankfulness is to God immense who gives us the triumph”

I wish to record my sincere thanks to The Management, Principal and Staff

members KSHATRIYA VIDHYASALA ENGLISH MEDIUM SCHOOL, VIRUDHUNAGAR for

their valuable help rendered to me in providing me the facilities.

It is impossible to express my indebtedness to my Guide MR. R.VEERA KUMAR,

M.Sc; M.PHIL; B.Ed.,, KSHATRIYA VIDHYASALA ENGLISH MEDIUM SCHOOL,

VIRUDHUNAGAR for the dynamic guidance, constant help, sincere and compassionate

advices, patience and insightful discussion and parental care for completion of this

project work.

Last but not the least, I express my gratitude to Almighty for giving me strength and

health to finish this work successfully.

(B.RAGHU ADHITHYA)
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 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW EQUATION

3. SIMPLIFIED FORM

4. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW OF EQUATION

5. APPLICATIONS

6. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Introduction

In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid
occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential
energy.The principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli who published it in his
book Hydrodynamica in 1738. Although Bernoulli deduced that pressure decreases when the
flow speed increases, it was Leonhard Euler who derived Bernoulli's equation in its usual form
in 1752. The principle is only applicable for isentropic flows: when the effects of irreversible
processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes (e.g. heat radiation) are small and can be
neglected.

Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types of fluid flow, resulting in various
forms of Bernoulli's equation; there are different forms of Bernoulli's equation for different types
of flow. The simple form of Bernoulli's equation is valid for incompressible flows (e.g.
most liquid flows and gases moving at low Mach number). More advanced forms may be applied
to compressible flows at higher Mach numbers (see the derivations of the Bernoulli equation).

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 Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This
states that, in a steady flow, the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid along a streamline is the
same at all points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy, potential
energyand internal energy remains constant. Thus an increase in the speed of the fluid – implying
an increase in its kinetic energy (dynamic pressure) – occurs with a simultaneous decrease in (the
sum of) its potential energy (including the static pressure) and internal energy. If the fluid is
flowing out of a reservoir, the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines because
in a reservoir the energy per unit volume (the sum of pressure and gravitational potential ρ g h) is
the same everywhere.

Bernoulli's principle can also be derived directly from Isaac Newton's Second Law of
Motion. If a small volume of fluid is flowing horizontally from a region of high pressure to a
region of low pressure, then there is more pressure behind than in front. This gives a net force on
the volume, accelerating it along the streamline.

Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their own weight. If a fluid is flowing
horizontally and along a section of a streamline, where the speed increases it can only be because
the fluid on that section has moved from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower
pressure; and if its speed decreases, it can only be because it has moved from a region of lower
pressure to a region of higher pressure. Consequently, within a fluid flowing horizontally, the
highest speed occurs where the pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the
pressure is highest.

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Incompressible flow equation
In most flows of liquids, and of gases at low Mach number, the density of a fluid parcel can be
considered to be constant, regardless of pressure variations in the flow. Therefore, the fluid can
be considered to be incompressible and these flows are called incompressible flows. Bernoulli
performed his experiments on liquids, so his equation in its original form is valid only for
incompressible flow. A common form of Bernoulli's equation, valid at any arbitrary point along
a streamline, is:

where:

v is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline,

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g is the acceleration due to gravity,

z is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive z-direction pointing
upward – so in the direction opposite to the gravitational acceleration,

p is the pressure at the chosen point, andρ is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.

The constant on the right-hand side of the equation depends only on the streamline chosen,
whereas v, z and p depend on the particular point on that streamline.

The following assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply:

the flow must be steady, i.e. the flow parameters (velocity, density, etc...) at any point cannot
change with time,

ρ is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.

The constant on the right-hand side of the equation depends only on the streamline chosen,
whereas v, z and p depend on the particular point on that streamline.

The following assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply

the flow must be steady, i.e. the flow parameters (velocity, density, etc...) at
any point cannot change with time,

 the flow must be incompressible – even though pressure varies, the

density must remain constant along a streamline;
 friction by viscous forces must be negligible.

For conservative force fields (not limited to the gravitational field),

Bernoulli's equation can be generalized as:

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By multiplying with the fluid density ρ, equation (A) can be rewritten as

where

 q = 1/2ρv2 is dynamic pressure,

 h = z + p/ρg is the piezometric head or hydraulic head (the sum of the elevation z and
the pressure head) and
 p0 = p + q is the total pressure (the sum of the static pressure p and dynamic pressure q).

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Simplified form
In many applications of Bernoulli's equation, the change in the ρgz term along the streamline is
so small compared with the other terms that it can be ignored. For example, in the case of aircraft
in flight, the change in height z along a streamline is so small the ρgz term can be omitted. This
allows the above equation to be presented in the following simplified form:

where p0 is called "total pressure", and q is "dynamic pressure". Many authors refer to
the pressure p as static pressure to distinguish it from total pressure p0 and dynamic
pressure q. In Aerodynamics, L.J. Clancy writes: "To distinguish it from the total and
dynamic pressures, the actual pressure of the fluid, which is associated not with its motion
but with its state, is often referred to as the static pressure, but where the term pressure alone
is used it refers to this static pressure.

The simplified form of Bernoulli's equation can be summarized in the following memorable
word equation:

static pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure

Every point in a steadily flowing fluid, regardless of the fluid speed at that point, has its
own unique static pressure p and dynamic pressure q. Their sum p + q is defined to be
the total pressure p0. The significance of Bernoulli's principle can now be summarized as
"total pressure is constant along a streamline".

If the fluid flow is irrotational, the total pressure on every streamline is the same and
Bernoulli's principle can be summarized as "total pressure is constant everywhere in the
fluid flow". It is reasonable to assume that irrotational flow exists in any situation where
a large body of fluid is flowing past a solid body. Examples are aircraft in flight, and
ships moving in open bodies of water. However, it is important to remember that
Bernoulli's principle does not apply in the boundary layer or in fluid flow through
long pipes.
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Compressible flow equation
Bernoulli developed his principle from his observations on liquids, and his equation is applicable
only to incompressible fluids, and steady compressible fluids up to approximately Mach
number 0.3.] It is possible to use the fundamental principles of physics to develop similar
equations applicable to compressible fluids. There are numerous equations, each tailored for a
particular application, but all are analogous to Bernoulli's equation and all rely on nothing more
than the fundamental principles of physics such as Newton's laws of motion or the first law of
thermodynamics.

Note that w = ε + p/ρ where ε is the thermodynamic energy per unit mass, also known as
the specific internal energy. So, for constant internal energy ε the equation reduces to the
incompressible-flow form.

The constant on the right hand side is often called the Bernoulli constant and denoted b. For
steady inviscid adiabatic flow with no additional sources or sinks of energy, b is constant along
any given streamline. More generally, when b may vary along streamlines, it still proves a useful
parameter, related to the "head" of the fluid (see below).

When the change in Ψ can be ignored, a very useful form of this equation is:

where w0 is total enthalpy. For a calorically perfect gas such as an ideal gas,
the enthalpy is directly proportional to the temperature, and this leads to the concept of the total
(or stagnation) temperature.

When shock waves are present, in a reference frame in which the shock is stationary and the flow
is steady, many of the parameters in the Bernoulli equation suffer abrupt changes in passing
through the shock. The Bernoulli parameter itself, however, remains unaffected. An exception to
this rule is radiative shocks, which violate the assumptions leading to the Bernoulli equation,
namely the lack of additional sinks or sources of energy.

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Applications

Condensation visible over the upper surface of an Airbus A340 wing caused by the fall in
temperature accompanying the fall in pressure.

In modern everyday life there are many observations that can be successfully explained by
application of Bernoulli's principle, even though no real fluid is entirely inviscide and a small
viscosity often has a large effect on the flow.

 Bernoulli's principle can be used to calculate the lift force on an airfoil, if the behaviour of
the fluid flow in the vicinity of the foil is known. For example, if the air flowing past the top
surface of an aircraft wing is moving faster than the air flowing past the bottom surface, then
Bernoulli's principle implies that the pressure on the surfaces of the wing will be lower above
than below. This pressure difference results in an upwards lifting force. Whenever the
distribution of speed past the top and bottom surfaces of a wing is known, the lift forces can
be calculated (to a good approximation) using Bernoulli's equations – established by
Bernoulli over a century before the first man-made wings were used for the purpose of flight.
Bernoulli's principle does not explain why the air flows faster past the top of the wing and
slower past the underside. See the article on aerodynamic lift for more info.

 The carburettor used in many reciprocating engines contains a venturi to create a region of
low pressure to draw fuel into the carburettor and mix it thoroughly with the incoming air.

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 The low pressure in the throat of a venturi can be explained by Bernoulli's principle; in the
narrow throat, the air is moving at its fastest speed and therefore it is at its lowest pressure.
 An injector on a steam locomotive (or static boiler).
 The pitot tube and static port on an aircraft are used to determine the airspeed of the aircraft.
These two devices are connected to the airspeed indicator, which determines the dynamic
pressure of the airflow past the aircraft. Dynamic pressure is the difference
between stagnation pressure and static pressure. Bernoulli's principle is used to calibrate the
airspeed indicator so that it displays the indicated airspeed appropriate to the dynamic
pressure.
 A De Laval nozzle utilizes Bernoulli's principle to create a force by turning pressure energy
generated by the combustion of propellants into velocity. This then generates thrust by way
of Newton's third law of motion.
 The flow speed of a fluid can be measured using a device such as a Venturi meter or
an orifice plate, which can be placed into a pipeline to reduce the diameter of the flow. For a
horizontal device, the continuity equation shows that for an incompressible fluid, the
reduction in diameter will cause an increase in the fluid flow speed. Subsequently,
Bernoulli's principle then shows that there must be a decrease in the pressure in the reduced
diameter region. This phenomenon is known as the Venturi effect.
 The maximum possible drain rate for a tank with a hole or tap at the base can be calculated
directly from Bernoulli's equation, and is found to be proportional to the square root of the
height of the fluid in the tank. This is Torricelli's law, showing that Torricelli's law is
compatible with Bernoulli's principle. Viscosity lowers this drain rate. This is reflected in the
discharge coefficient, which is a function of the Reynolds number and the shape of the
orifice.

 The Bernoulli grip relies on this principle to create a non-contact adhesive force between a
surface and the gripper.

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REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPGY

1. www.wikipedia .com
2. NCERT Textbook
3. www.google.com
4. Move fast with Physics – S.L.Arora

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