******** ASSIGNMENT 1 **********

1. Characteristics of a computer includes:

 Speed= computers can work very fast. It takes only few seconds to a computer for
calculations that we take hours of time for. Computers can perform millions of
instructions in a single second.
 Accuracy= the degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is
performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy is determined on the basis of design of
computer. The errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data and not due to
computer's inaccuracy.
 Diligence= A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can
work for hours without creating any error.
 Versatility=It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. it can
work different tasks at a single time
 Power of Remembering: - Computer has the power of storing any amount of information
or data. Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any
numbers of years. You can also remove the data. This memory is sometimes even
called as storage.
Storage=The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of
data. You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can
be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers.

2. Block diagram of computer is as follows.

 Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system.
Computer is an electronic machine it takes as inputs raw data and performs some
functions and give us output.
  Storage: The process of saving data is known as storage. Data has to be fed into the
system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central
Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same
speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and
processing.
 Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is
called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from
the storage unit and perform calculations based on the instructions given and the type of
data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.
 Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful
information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be
kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form.
Again the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing.
 Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are
performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed
by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations inside the
computer.

3. There are five generations of computer:

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations
of computing devices. Each of the five generations of computers is characterized by a major
technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in
increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and more efficient and reliable computing
devices.

 First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a
time.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices
The main features of First Generation are:
Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
Supported Machine language only
Very costly
Generate lot of heat
Slow Input/output devices
Non portable
Consumed lot of electricity

 Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The
transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late
1950s.The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become
smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation
predecessors.
Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to
damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still
relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or
Assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-
level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions
of COBOL and FORTRAN.
The main features of Second Generation are:
Use of transistors
Reliable as compared to First generation computers
Smaller size as compared to First generation computers
Generate less heat as compared to First generation
computers
Consumed less electricity as compared to First generation
computers
Faster than first generation computers
Still very costly
A.C. needed
Support machine and assembly languages

 Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
Drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through
Keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to
Run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Computers for the first time became accessible to a
mass audience because they were smaller
And cheaper than their predecessors.
The main features of Third Generation are:
IC used
More reliable
Smaller size
Generate less heat
Faster
Lesser maintenance
Still costly
A.C needed
Consumed lesser electricity
Support high level language

 Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls—on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user.
The main features of Fourth Generation are:
VLSI technology used
Very cheap
Portable and reliable
Use of PC's
Very small size
Pipeline processing
No A.C. needed
Concept of internet was introduced
Great developments in the fields of networks
Computers became easily available
  Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use
of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation
computing is to develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-
organization.
The main features of Fifth Generation are:
ULSI technology
Development of true artificial intelligence
Development of Natural language processing
Advancement in Parallel Processing
More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
Compact computers at cheaper rates

4. The method of design flow to solve a problem is using FLOWCHARTS.

FLOWCHART=flowcharts are easy to understand diagrams that show how the steps of a
process fits together. They are graphical representation of algorithm. These flowcharts play a
vital role in the programming of a problem and are quite helpful in understanding the logic of
complicated and lengthy problems. Once the flowchart is drawn, it becomes easy to write the
program in any high level language.
Flowcharts are usually drawn using some standard symbols:
5. Program=in computing, a program is a specific set of ordered operations for a computer to
perform. In the modern computer that John von Neumann outlined in 1945, the program
contains a one-at-a-time sequence of instructions that the computer follows. Typically, the
program is put into a storage area accessible to the computer. The computer gets one
instruction and performs it and then gets the next instruction. The storage area or memory can
also contain the data that the instruction operates on.
Example of a program(a “c language” program):

6. A programming language is a formal language that specifies a set of instructions that can be
used to produce various kinds of output .Programming languages generally consist of
instructions for a computer. Programming languages can be used to create programs that
implement specific algorithms.

There is a need of programming languages because:

1. To advance your ability to develop real algorithms: Most of the languages comes with lot of
features for Programmer which when used in a proper manner gives best results.
2. To Improve Customize Your Existing Programming Language: By considering the basic
features of your existing Programming Language one can simplify things to better and hence
you can write resourceful Codes.
3. To Increase Your Vocabulary Of beneficial Programming Constructs: Some peoples use
Programming languages to definite thoughts , but language also helps the two structure how a
person thinks and how does other works accordingly.
Examples of programming languages include: C, C++, .NET,JAVA,PYTHON etc.
7. Classification of programming languages is as follows:
 There are three types of programming language:
1. Machine language (Low-level language)
2. Assembly language (Low-level language)
3. High-level language
• Low-level languages are closer to the language used by a computer, while high-level languages
are closer to human languages.

1. Machine Language
• Machine language is a collection of binary digits or bits that the computer reads and interprets.
• Machine languages are the only languages understood by computers.
• While easily understood by computers, machine languages are almost impossible for humans
to use because they consist entirely of numbers.
Example

2. Assembly Language
• A program written in assembly language consists of a series of instructions mnemonics that
correspond to a stream of executable instructions, when translated by an assembler that can be
loaded into memory and executed.
• Assembly languages use keywords and symbols, much like English, to form a programming
language but at the same time introduce a new problem.
• The problem is that the computer doesn't understand the assembly code, so we need a way to
convert it to machine code, which the computer does understand.
• Assembly language programs are translated into machine language by a program called an
assembler.

3. High Level Language

• High-level languages allow us to write computer code using instructions resembling everyday
spoken language (for example: print, if, while) which are then translated into machine language
to be executed. • Programs written in a high-level language need to be translated into machine
language before they can be executed.
• Some programming languages use a compiler to perform this translation and others use an
interpreter.
Comparison

8. Binary number system is very much associated with the computer system. All work that
happens in a computer is all made of binary codes only. There are many reasons for using binary
number system but the major reason in using binary number system is that least amount of
necessary circuitry is used, which results in the least amount of space, energy consumption, and
cost. “A single switch can be on or off, enabling the storage of 1 bit of information. Switches can
be grouped together to store larger numbers. This is the key reason why binary is used in digital
systems." Numbers can be encoded in binary format and stored using switches. The digital
technology which uses this system could be a computer, calculator, and digital TV decoder box.
Binary number system basically acts like a switch in which if you provide value as ‘1’ so switched
on that means system is working and if you provide value as ‘0’ so switched off the system is not
working.
9. Assembler
An assembler is a type of computer program that interprets software programs written in
assembly language into machine language, code and instructions that can be executed by a
computer.
An assembler enables software and application developers to access, operate and manage a
computer's hardware architecture and components.
An assembler is sometimes referred to as the compiler of assembly language. It also provides
the services of an interpreter. An assembler is a program that takes basic computer instructions
and converts them into a pattern of bits that the computer's processor can use to perform its
basic operations.

COMPILER
The compiler works on a basic principle. It simply reads the whole program written on it. Then it
converts the whole program to the machine/computer language. For this process, the compiler
takes a lot of time to read the whole program or to analyze the whole program. The compilers
are generally the memory eaters. They need a lot of memory to complete their process.
Because they create the object code by analyzing the program written on them. They work fast
as compared to the interpreters. Because they have the very less execution time. In this
process, the whole program doesn’t require to be created/compiled every time. Languages like
to C and the C++ commonly used the compilers.

COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPILER AND ASSEMBLER

 The compiler is a simple program which converts the source code written by the humans to
a machine language. While the assembler has a little bit different work, it converts the
assembly language to the machine language.
 Compilers work more directly than the assemblers. The compilers can convert the human
written code in the machine language directly. But the assembler can’t do this at once. It
converts a source code to an object code first then it converts the object code to the
machine language with the help of the linker programs.

10. Syntax of a language

The syntax of a language is the set of rules that defines the combinations of symbols that are
considered to be a correctly structured document or fragment in that language. This applies both
to programming languages, where the document represents source code, and markup
languages, where the document represents data. The syntax of a language defines its surface
form.[1] Text-based computer languages are based on sequences of characters, while visual
programming languages are based on the spatial layout and connections between symbols
(which may be textual or graphical). Documents that are syntactically invalid are said to have
a syntax error.

Figure: syntax of programming language ‘C’