See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/286102596

Impact of using infrared irradiation energy in food processing

Article · March 2014

CITATIONS READS
2 1,234

1 author:

Simin Hagh Nazari

University of Zanjan
14 PUBLICATIONS   137 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Optimization date fruit syrup production by ultrasound View project

Effect of Inductive pasteurization technology on milk quality View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Simin Hagh Nazari on 05 August 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Impact of using Infrared irradiation technology in food

processing operations

S. Hagh Nazari

Assistant Professor in Food Science and Technology

Food Science and Technology Dep. Agriculture Faculty,

University of Zanjan, Zanjan. Iran.

Haghnazary2@yahoo.co.uk, Mob. Tel: +989124412867

Short version of title: The Infrared irradiation in Food Processing

1
 ABSTRACT

A number of novel food preserving technologies are currently being investigated as

possible alternatives to traditional techniques for delivery of safe and nutritious foods

with ability of economical preference. Infrared heating is an alternative preservation

method with higher thermal efficiency which transfers thermal energy in the form of

electromagnetic waves. Recent applications of infrared heating indicate this technology is

a viable alternate for the pasteurization of liquid foods. Likewise, infrared radiation has

many applications in processing of solid foods, in the case of blanching, dehydration,

freeze-dehydration, thawing, roasting, baking, and cooking some grains. Infrared

irradiation technology can also decontaminate foodstuffs prior to final packaging or in-

package of both liquid and solid foods with retaining higher levels of health promoting

compounds. This paper provides the potential of profitability of infrared irradiation

technology in food production operations and even its uses in Chemical analyze and

monitoring the microbiological status of a product.

Keywords: Infrared, irradiating, thermal efficiency, food safety

2
1. Introduction:

Food preservation with improving its safety and quality has been a prime goal of food

processors. The use of heat through thermal processing operations, such as pasteurization,

sterilization, drying and evaporation, is still the preferred method for achieving

microbiological safety of food products. However, concurrent with the global increase in

energy cost; the cost of delivering a traditional thermal process have risen significantly

over the past decade. Thus, research efforts and technological developments occurring in

that timeframe have been directed towards new preservation techniques, many of which

have emerged as serious candidates to replace thermal-based preservation processes

(Pereira and Vicente 2010).

Food production, processing, transportation, storage, distribution and marketing are

impacted by environmental conditions while simultaneously exerting pressures upon the

environment. Corresponding with this observation is the great concern for

environmental pollution (Kroyer 1995) resulting from food processing operations. Over

the past decade the food processing industry in the industrialized nations, where the

adverse impact is most pronounced, have sought to reduce environmental damage caused

by their manufacturing and distribution activities. “Sustainability,” practices for

achieving improved efficiency and minimizing environmental impact has become a major

emphasis for the food processing industry. New and advanced food preservation and

packaging technologies are anticipated to reduce significantly the carbon footprint of

food processing and related activities.

3
The acceptance of a new food technology is not simply related to the characteristics of

the process itself, but also the needs, beliefs and attitudes of individual food consumers

and the nature of the economic, political and social environment in which food choices

take place. Consequently, it is difficult to make generalizations about consumer

acceptance/rejection of particular food technologies (Henson 1995).

Infrared (IR) heating is gaining popularity because of its higher thermal efficiency and

fast heating rate/response time in comparison to conventional heating techniques.

Infrared radiation transfers thermal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. IR

heating has many advantages including uniform heating, high heat transfer rate, reduced

processing time and energy consumption, and improved product quality (Zhu and Pan

2009). In spite of these advantages, application of infrared energy in food processing is

rather scarce.

Recent applications of infrared heating for pasteurizing honey, milk, beer, and orange

juice have been shown successful. Likewise, infrared radiation has many potential

applications for use with solid foods, such as blanching, dehydration, freeze-dehydration,

thawing, roasting, baking, and cooking (Rastogi 2012). This technology is also being

used for heating and cooking soybeans, cereal grains, cocoa beans and nuts, “ready-to-

eat” products, braising meat and frying (Nowak and Lewicki 2004). Infrared irradiation

technology can also be used for microbial decontamination of foodstuffs prior to final

packaging, as in an aseptic processing system.

4
2. Infrared radiation

As we know, the electromagnetic spectrum has been divided into several regions from

low to high energy. These regions are long radio wave, short radio wave, microwave,

infrared (IR), visible, ultraviolet (UV), X rays, and gamma rays. Visible light is actually a

very narrow region within the spectrum, ranging from about 380 – 700nm (Hui and Nip

2006). By contrast the IR region is very large, (700 nm – 1.0 mm) and divided into near-

infrared radiation (NIR), mid-infrared radiation (MIR), and far-infrared radiation (FIR)

between 0.5 and 1,000 µm (Rosenthal et al 1996), according to ISO 20473 is shown in

table 1.

The differences in photon energy between the visible and IR range are also significant.

The photon energy of the visible range is 1.7 – 3.3 eV as compared to 1.24 meV - .7eV

for the IR range. IR interacts with foods due to reflection, absorption, transmission, and

scattering associated energy within the constituent molecules of the food matrix. The

dissipation of energy as heat within the treated substrate results in surface temperatures

and thermal penetration depths specific to the products being treated. These heating

characteristics are highly dependent on the IR wavelength, food composition, water

activity (Aw), and product thickness. Transmission energy can even be dissipated within a

powder, due to scattering and absorption, which can be important for thicker samples

(Staack et al 2008). This is an important observation given recent reports indicating the

presences of Chronobacter sakazakii, a serious human pathogen, in powdered infant

formula (Buchanan et al 2003).

5
 Near-infrared radiation heating can be achieved by use of a Halogen lamp. Halogen

emits radiation is near the visible light spectrum (wavelength 0.7–5 µm) with higher

frequency (Seyhun et al 2009) and deeper penetration depth than typical infrared sources

that emit in the mid-infrared and far infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum

(Sumnu et al 2005).

A typical halogen oven consists of an enclosed glass container, a power source,

halogen bulbs and a high-powered fan. The halogen light bulbs heat the air inside the

container, and then the fan circulates heated air around the food being processed.

Temperatures can be set to varying levels and thereby accommodate several cooking

styles: broiling, roasting, steaming, grilling, air-frying, dehydrating and baking. Some

halogen ovens feature built-in microwave and convection oven options making the oven

an exceedingly versatile cooking apparatus. This piece of technology certainly offers the

most convenient way to cook.

Most of the applications of IR spectroscopy are found in the mid-infrared region of the

spectrum (Xiaonan et al. 2011). Mid-IR spectra can be divided into four major regions.

Aliphatic C―H stretching modes absorb in 3,000–2,800 cm−1 (region 1); although most

components of food (proteins, carbohydrates, etc.) contain aliphatic C―H groups, this

region is most frequently correlated with fatty acids. Region 2 (1,800–1,500 cm−1)

contains the C═O stretching band of lipids at ca 1,740 cm−1 and the amide I and II bands

of proteins and peptides at ca 1,650 and 1,550 cm−1, respectively. The amide bands

provide structural information about α-helix, β-sheet and random coil conformations in

proteins. Many cellular components have absorption bands between 1,500 and 1,200

cm−1 (region 3), for example, nucleic acids and phospholipids. The spectral interval

6
between 1,200 and 900 cm−1 (region 4) provides information about the structure of

polysaccharides (Lu et al 2011).

Far-infrared radiation can be used for the heating of food systems and inactivation of

pathogens because of higher absorption of energy in the far-infrared wavelength range (3

to 1,000 µm) by microorganism and food components. Therefore, infrared heating has the

potential to inactivate microorganisms in foods (Krishnamurthy et al 2010).

2.1 Infrared applications

2.1.1: Processing

Infrared radiation is an effective and efficient source of thermal energy and is used

broadly by many food processing industries (Anonymous) as can be seen in the listing

below (12/27/2/12):

 Baking of bread and cakes

 Roasting without fat

 Cooking sausages

 Heating wafers prior to embossing

 Setting coatings on chicken strips

 Browning waffles

 "Relaxing" shellfish

 Melba toast

 Blackening vegetables

 Browning of hams

 Popping corn for cereals

 Branding of meat and cheese

7
Infrared (IR) radiation is easily absorbed by water and organic materials, which are the

main components of food, and has been widely applied to the heating and drying of food.

The application of IR irradiative heating during thermal processing is expected to

improve the hygiene of working environments as a heating medium (Sawai et al 2009)

2.1.1.1 Baking: As discussed previously near-infrared radiation can be provided by

halogen lamp. The radiated energy from the lamp can be focused at the surface of the

product causing it to heat up. Using this technique temperatures required for surface

browning reactions can be obtained (Turabi et al 2008). A longer shelf life of baked

bread can be achieved by infrared heating systems without the addition of preservatives

or other shelf life extending chemicals. In figure 1 Infrared radiation trays can be seen.

An innovative design involves the combination of IR and microwave heating for a

baking oven. Combining microwave and IR heating in the oven is reported to result in

about a 75% reduction in baking time compared to a conventional oven. The

combination IR and microwave oven features a rotary table within the oven to improve

uniformity of heating. Halogen lamps are installed at both the top and bottom of the oven

produce infrared radiation at the same power as during IR baking according to figure 2

(Sumnu et al 2004). The halogen lamp at the top is located about 15 cm above the cake’s

surface while the halogen lamp at the bottom is placed in close proximity to the underside

of the rotary table. Cake batter is baked at combined microwave power and IR power.

In a 2004 study, Turabi et al compared the quality of cakes baked in microwave,

infrared (IR) and IR-microwave combination ovens. Quality parameters evaluated were

weight loss, specific volume, firmness and color of cakes. Conventionally baked cakes

8
were used as controls. Cakes baked in a microwave oven had the lowest quality. IR-

microwave combination baking reduced weight loss and firmness while it increased the

volume of microwave baked cakes. Halogen lamp-microwave combination ovens

produced cakes having similar firmness and color values as those baked conventionally.

The best conditions for baking of cakes in IR-microwave combination oven was 5 min at

70% halogen lamp and at 50% microwave power levels. When an IR-microwave

combination oven was used, at this condition conventional baking time of cakes was

reduced to about 75% (Turabi et al 2008).

The most acceptable quality of gluten-free cakes can be obtained by infrared-

microwave combination oven. Turabi et al (2008) studied response surface methodology

to design gluten-free cakes made from rice flour and baked in infrared-microwave

combination oven. Two cake formulations containing different types of gums (xanthan

gum and xanthan–guar gum blend) were used in the experiments. The independent

variables were emulsifier content (0, 3, and 6% of flour weight), upper halogen lamp

power (50, 60, and 70%), and baking time (7, 7.5, and 8 min). Specific volume, surface

color change, firmness and weight loss of the cakes were determined for optimization.

Cakes formulated with xanthan gum had better quality characteristics than cakes

containing xanthan–guar gum blend. Cakes formulated with xanthan gum and 5.28%

emulsifier and baked using 60% halogen lamp power for 7 min had the most acceptable

quality (Turabi et al 2008).

Tireki et al investigated the possibility of using infrared-assisted microwave drying for

production of bread crumbs and to determine drying conditions in halogen lamp-

microwave combination oven to produce bread crumbs with the highest quality. Bread

9
crumb dough were dried from about 40.9 to 8% moisture content by conventional,

microwave, infrared and infrared-assisted microwave drying separately and in

combinations. Halogen lamp and microwave power levels of 30, 50 and 70% were used.

Percent reduction in the drying time were 80.2–94.0 for infrared, 96.5–98.6 for

microwave and 96.8–98.6 for infrared-assisted microwave drying. The observed ΔE

values were lower in microwave drying and higher in infrared drying. Infrared-assisted

microwave dried crumbs generally had similar color values to conventionally dried bread

crumbs. Power was not observed to produce a quantifiable effect on color change (Tireki

et al 2006).

The physicochemical properties of breads baked in infrared-microwave combination

ovens have been shown to be similar to those of conventionally baked breads. Staling of

breads baked in different ovens (microwave, infrared-microwave combination and

conventional) was evaluated using mechanical (compression measurements),

physicochemical (DSC, X-ray, FTIR) and rheological (RVA) methods. After baking, the

staling parameters of breads were monitored over a 5 day storage interval. The hardness,

retro gradation enthalpy, setback viscosity, and crystallization values of microwave-

baked samples were found to be highest among other heating modes. Using IR-

microwave combination heating made it possible to produce breads with similar staling

degrees as conventionally baked bread, in terms of retro gradation enthalpy and FTIR

outputs related to starch retro gradation (Ozge et al 2009).

2.1.1.2 Drying: During drying, heat is transferred from the hot air to the product by

convection and water is evaporated from the product back to the air also by convection.

10
In convective drying, resistances to the heat and mass transfer in the boundary layer and

their magnitude is dependent on air velocity, or more generally on the Reynold’s number

(Nowak and Lewicki 2004). Convective drying is usually a lengthy process that results in

many undesirable changes in the treated substrate (Lewicki 1998).

One of the ways to shorten the drying time is to supply heat by infrared radiation. This

method of heating is especially suitable to dry thin layers of material with large surface

areas exposed to radiation. Application of infrared heating to food drying is recently of

special interest because of the progress in radiator construction (Nowak and Lewicki

2004). Radiator efficiency is between 80% and 90%. The emitted radiation is in a narrow

wavelength range and they are miniaturized (Sandu 1986).

Generally, solid materials absorb infrared radiation in a thin surface layer. During

drying, radiation properties of the material are changing due to decreasing water content.

As a consequence, its reflectivity increases and the absorptivity decrease (Nowak, D.,

Lewicki 2004).

Infrared radiation is transmitted through water at short wavelength, while at long

wavelength; it is absorbed on the water’s surface (Sakai and Hanzawa 1994). Thus,

drying of thin layers is more efficient at far-infra red radiation spectrum (FIR (25–100

Am). Since air is transparent to infrared radiation, the process can be done at ambient air

temperature. Drying of seaweed, vegetables, fish flakes and pasta is also done in tunnel

infrared dryers (Nowak, D., and Lewicki 2004).

Infrared-assisted microwave drying is a new technology and it combines the time-

saving advantages of microwave drying with surface moisture removal advantages of

infrared drying. It was shown that excess moisture that may accumulate on the food

11
surface during microwave drying can be removed by combining microwave heating with

infrared power. Moisture accumulation on the surface of foods is the main problem

caused by microwave drying methods (Tireki et al 2006). By using halogen lamp

microwave combination oven for drying, it is possible to remove moisture from the

surface of cake or breads.

Modeling of convective drying of carrot slices with infrared heat source was done by

Mihoubi et al in 2009 [24]. Desorption isotherms of carrot were determined at 30, 40 and

60 ◦C. The GAB model was used to modeling the measured desorption isotherm. The

shrinking factor of carrot slice was determined experimentally. A relationship between

solid displacement and moisture content of carrot was determined. A simultaneous heat

and moisture transfer’s model taking into account the product deformation and based on

the Fick diffusion equation was developed. The model accurately predicts moisture

content and temperature evolutions as a function of drying time and position in the carrot

slices (Mihoubia et al 2009).

IR radiation heating can be done in a continuous heating mode for achieving

simultaneous infrared dry-blanching and dehydration (SIRDBD) for producing high-

quality blanched and partially dehydrated fruits and vegetables. Pan et al (2008)

investigated the effects of various processing parameters on apple slices exposed to

infrared. The investigated parameters were radiation intensity, slice thickness and

processing time. High radiation intensity and/or thin slices had faster increase of product

temperature, and quicker moisture removal and inactivation of PPO and POD, than did

low radiation intensity and/or thick slices. It has been concluded that SIRDBD with

continuous heating could be used as an alternative to the current processing methods for

12
producing high-quality blanched and partially dehydrated fruits and vegetables (Pan et al

2008).

Fruit slices may be dried in shortened time up to 50% with infrared energy rather than

by convection under equivalent conditions. In one investigation by Nowak ((Nowak, D.,

Lewicki 2004)), Apple slices were dried with infrared energy. Kinetics of infrared drying

was dependent on the distance between emitters and the heat-irradiated surface and air

velocity. Drying kinetics was inversely proportional to both the distance and the air

velocity. It was found that both surfaces of apple slice participate in water evaporation.

However, the heat-irradiated surface evaporates much more water than that not heated by

infrared energy until 80% of water is removed from the material. At the final stages of

drying, there is no difference between upper and bottom surfaces of the apple slice as far

as the flux of evaporated water is concerned. Comparison of infrared drying with

convective drying done at equivalent parameters showed that time of the process can be

shortened by up to 50% when heating is done with infrared energy (Nowak, D., and

Lewicki 2004).

Also, Study of banana dehydration was done using sequential infrared radiation

heating and freeze-drying by Pan et al (2008). The drying and quality characteristics of

banana slices processed with a sequential infrared radiation and freeze-drying (SIRFD)

method were investigated. Cavendish bananas slices with 5 mm thickness were pre

dehydrated using IR heating at each one of three radiation intensities, 3000, 4000, and

5000 W/m2 or hot air at 62.8 °C. The pre dehydrated samples with 20% and 40% weight

reductions obtained using 4000 W/m2 IR intensity were then further dried using freeze-

drying for various times to determine the effect of pre dehydration on the drying rate

13
during freeze-drying. To improve the quality of dried banana chips, the banana slices

were also treated with a dipping solution containing 10 g/l ascorbic acid and 10 g/l citric

acid before the IR pre dehydration. Control samples were produced using regular freeze-

drying without the pre dehydration. The quality characteristics of dried banana chips,

including color, thickness shrinkage and crispness, were evaluated. The pre-dehydration

results showed that the drying rate of IR heating was significantly higher than the hot air

drying and increased with the increase of IR intensity. For example, it took 10 and 38 min

to achieve 40% weigh reduction by using IR at 4000 W/m2 and hot air drying,

respectively. However, the banana slices with IR pre dehydration dried slower during

freeze-drying compared to the samples without pre dehydration, which was due to texture

changes that occurred during the pre-dehydration. Acid dipping improved product color

and also reduced freeze-drying time compared to non-dipped samples. It has been

concluded that SIRFD can be used for producing high crispy banana chips and additional

acid dipping improved product color and reduced required freeze-drying time (Pan et al

2008).

Far Infrared Drying of pharmacologic plants may be increased their therapeutic

effects. Kim and his co-researchers investigated the Effect of far Infrared Drying on

Antioxidant Property, Anti-inflammatory Activity, and Inhibitory Activity in A549 Cells

of Gamguk (Chrysanthemum indicum L.) Flower in 2012. This research demonstrated

and compared the effects of shade and far infrared drying (FIRD) on total phenolic (TP),

total flavonoid (TF) content, anticancer and anti-inflammatory activities. The research

data revealed that the TP and TF contents were highest in FIRD treated CE flower

extracts similarly, the effect of CE on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced nitric oxide

14
(NO) production in RAW264.7 cells showed in a dose dependent manner. Further, the

CE inhibited the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) - α, cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 expressions,

and prostaglandins’ E2 (PGE2) production. The anticancer activity was monitored in

A549 lung cancer cell. Results showed that FIRD treated CE inhibited cell proliferation

significantly (p<0.05) higher in dose and time dependent manner (Kim et al 2012).

2.1.1.3 Cooking: Several cooking styles can be chosen in Infrared device by manipulation

of various time and temperature parameters. Some halogen ovens have built-in

microwave and convection oven options making it the most versatile cooking appliance.

Halogen ovens cook foods fast and evenly. No need to worry about the food being

overcooked on one side, and raw on another.

The hot air is circulated evenly around the food. There are several other benefits of using

a halogen oven (Anonymous 2012)].

 Cooking time is significantly reduced. Halogen ovens cook foods up to two times

faster than conventional microwave ovens.

 The glass container is spacious. You can cook up to about 8lbs of meat and with an

Extender Ring, cooking 16lbs of meat is possible.

 Portability and space are not an issue. A halogen oven is smaller, lighter and more

compact than conventional ovens so storage won’t be a problem. Because of its size

and weight you can easily bring it to gatherings.

15
 It is energy-saving. Compared to conventional ovens, a halogen oven uses 75% less

energy to cook foods. Also, you can conserve energy because of the lessened

cooking time.

 No need to defrost foods. Directly from the freezer, foods can be cooked in a halogen

oven.

 Cooking is smokeless and won’t heat up the whole kitchen.

The prediction of the evaporative mass losses and diffusion coefficient of beef patties can

be determined during the cooking by far-infrared radiation. Heat and mass transfer during

the cooking of beef patties by long wavelength, far-infrared radiation was studied by

Shilton et al (2002). One-dimensional model based on an infinite slab is described; the

model was solved using the finite difference technique. The results obtained from the

model were compared to experimental results over a range of fat contents from 0% to

30%. Heat transfer results for the 0% fat content, using a conduction model showed very

good agreement with the experimental data (r2 ¼ 0:99). However, when the same model

was used for the higher fat contents, model prediction was poor. By including a term to

account for internal fat and moisture convection in the beef patties during cooking, the

heat transfer process could be predicted for fat contents ranging from 10% to 30% fat,

with good agreement obtained with the experimental data (r2 ¼ 0:99). In the prediction of

the evaporative mass losses, prediction of the diffusion coefficient based on temperature

and moisture content, allowed for excellent agreement with the experimental data (r2 ¼

0:99). Thus it was concluded that the model described the cooking of beef patties using

far-infrared radiation over a range of fat contents. The effects of internal fat and

16
convective mass transfer during cooking were accounted for during development of the

model (Shilton et al 2002).

2.1.1.4 Roasting: Roasting is an essential phenomenon in enhancing the flavor of many

meats. Flavor enhancement can be produced by browning meat products in an infrared

device. Browning also enhances the appearance for the meats. Infrared heat finds

particular application in modern meat preparation. Sandwich meat, hamburgers and hams

are made to look even more appetizing without additional fat as it shows in figure 3 for

hamburger roasting.

2.1.1.4 Chocolates and Confections: Processing of filled chocolates requires large amounts

of heat. Chocolate halves are heated once before they are filled, and then again to seal

them. The edges of two chocolate half shells are slightly melted so that they can be firmly

joined together. What's more, the plastic moulds can be preheated prior to filling or

warmed; this allows cleaning before the chocolate-making process begins again. Each of

these heating stages must be carried out at a precise temperature for a precise time.

Infrared heaters have very fast response times and can be very closely controlled. Infrared

is ideal for assuring the quality of fine chocolates.

2.1.2 IR Heating Effect on Microbial Activity:

2.1.2.1 Activation of microbial growth: During the baking of bread, rolls and other baked

products, the dough or baking yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) must be able to ferment

without the propagation of unwanted mildew or other undesirable microbes. Yeast, a

17
leavening agent, allows dough to rise and become aerated. However, if yeast grows well,

conditions are also ideal or suitable for fermentation of dough. To promote the activity

of yeast, an infrared device supplies mild heat to trays of bread dough.

FIR radiation may also be absorbed by microbial spores and activate its bioactive

constituents involved in germination. The influence of infrared radiation on the viability

and heat-activation of Bacillus subtilis spores, suspended in phosphate-buffered saline,

was investigated by Sawai et al (2009). Near-infrared (NIR) and far-infrared heaters were

utilized with main wavelengths of approximately 1 μm and 3–6 μm, respectively. Use of

the FIR heater resulted in heat activation of the spores during the early stage of

irradiation at a low bulk temperature (40–60 °C) over several minutes. Although both

irradiation treatments decreased the number of B. subtilis colonies at a bulk temperature

of approximately 75 °C, the mode of action was clearly different. In the case of the NIR

heater, the number of colony-counts decreased gradually. Consequently, FIR irradiation

inactivated 90% of B. subtilis spores more effectively as compared to NIR irradiation for

20 min with a suspension volume of 20 ml and irradiation energy of 7.57 kW m−2. Even

at the same irradiation energy, the influence of infrared radiation on spore germination

was dependent on the IR spectral distribution. Bacterial spores undergoing germination

lose their resistance to stressors, such as heat (Sawai et al 2009).

2.1.2.2. Inactivation of microbial growth: The application of IR irradiative heating during

thermal processing is expected to improve the hygiene of working environments by

eliminating the need for a heating medium, e.g., water, steam, or oil. Although IR

heating is not widely used for pasteurization or disinfection alone, IR heating is known to

increase the shelf life of foodstuffs (Sawai et al 2009).

18
 Experimental equipment for dry-heat inactivation of bacterial spores in an open

system using Infrared (IR) radiation for energy transfer was developed by Molin and

Ostland (1975). The dry-heat-inactivation kinetics for Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633

spores were studied in the temperature range of 120-180°C. The z value (z = 23°C) was

constant in the temperature range investigated. Molin, G., & Ostlund (1975) noted the

advantages offered by using IR radiation in sterilization systems. They noted that cell

wall damage, cytoplasmic membrane shrinkage, cellular content leakage, and

disintegration of microbial cells all resulted from infrared irradiation.

Infrared heat and Pulsed UV light-treated Staphylococcus aureus cells were analyzed

using transmission electron microscopy to identify the cell damage due to the treatment

process (Krishnamurthy et al 2010). A 5-s treatment with pulsed UV light resulted in

complete inactivation of S. aureus even after enrichment. The temperature increase

during the pulsed UV light treatment was insignificant, which suggested a non-thermal

mechanism of inactivation. S. aureus was also infrared heat treated using an infrared

heating system with six infrared lamps. Five milliliters of S. aureus cells in phosphate

buffer was treated at 700°C lamp temperature for 20 min. The microscopic observation

clearly indicated that there was cell wall damage, cytoplasmic membrane shrinkage,

cellular content leakage, and mesosome disintegration after both pulsed UV light and

infrared treatments. Fourier transform infrared micro spectrometry was successfully used

to classify the pulsed UV light and infrared heat-treated S. aureus by discriminate

analysis (Krishnamurthy et al 2010).

19
 There is a lack of knowledge regarding the heating of powdered food by IR, and the

effects of IR heat flux and wavelength and of Aw of the product on microbial inactivation

and product quality (Staack et al 2008).

Near- or medium-IR heating of spice powders can be used to improve their safety by

decreasing their microbial populations. Staack et al (2008) explored Infrared radiation as

a technique for decontaminating of paprika powder. The effect of water activity (Aw) and

IR heat flux on paprika temperature and water loss were measured during near- or

medium-IR heating. Paprika was evaluated in terms of color, Aw, natural flora, and

inoculated Bacillus cereus spores. Surface temperatures were considerably higher than

temperatures inside the powder, especially at low Aw; greater differences were observed

with medium- than with near-IR. Surface darkening was observed, though the overall

color was not considerably affected. IR effectively removed water from paprika,

especially at Aw 0.5 and 0.8, resulting in unsatisfactory spore reduction. However, at Aw

0.8, the load of the natural flora was reduced (P < 0.05). In Aw 0.96 powder, areas with

high remaining Aw displayed a reduction >6 log10CFU/g for B. cereus (P < 0.05). In

addition, no microbial counts of the natural background flora were observed in the

paprika (Staack et al 2008).

Investigation of far infrared radiation heating as an alternative technique for surface

decontamination of strawberry was done by Tanaka et al (2007). FIR heating achieved

more uniform surface heating than air convection heating, with a maximum temperature

well below the critical limit of about 50 °C at the same average temperature. In this

configuration, the resulting surface FIR heating rate was, however, smaller or only equal

to the air convection heating (at 0.2 m s_1), depending on the heater temperature used. A

20
better configuration consisted of FIR heaters on four sides combined with a cyclic

heating operation (Tanaka et al 2007).

In other research for extending the shelf life of Figs, Hamanaka and his co-researchers

investigated surface decontamination of fig by combination of infrared radiation heating

with ultraviolet irradiation (2011). The sequential treatment of IR heating and UV

irradiation was effective in the surface decontamination of fig fruits. The fungal counts

detected after sequential treatments were lower than those obtained after a single

treatment or in control samples. The number of fruit damaged by the growth of mold and

yeast was also reduced after 30 s IR heating followed by 30 s UV irradiation. The

sequential treatment was found to be highly suitable for decontamination of fig fruit

surface, since few unfavorable effects were observed with regard to the surface color,

hardness score, and respiration of fruits during storage. Single treatment with IR heating

or UV irradiation had little effect on the inactivation of isolated Rhodotorula

mucilaginosa cells. However, R. mucilaginosa cells were successfully inactivated by

sequential treatment with IR and UV. The killing efficiencies appeared to be independent

of the order in which IR heating and UV irradiation were applied to the samples. It was

hypothesized that the DNA damage caused by UV irradiation and the inhibition of its

repair might be enhanced by the thermal energy of IR heating to a sub-lethal level, since

the temperature monitored during IR heating was considerably lower than the lethal level

of R. mucilaginosa cells.

Liquid foods may be pasteurized or even sterilized using far infrared radiation heating

equipment at low temperatures. In 2011, Weijie Maoa, Yuko Oshima et al worked on

mathematical simulation of liquid food pasteurization using far infrared radiation heating

21
equipment (Maoa et al 2011). With the liquid food passing down an angled trough and

FIR applied from above, the temperature changed with the radiation intensity (electricity

supplied), the angle of the incline, and the flow rate. As the liquid film became thinner,

the temperature could be heated to nearly 80°C. The pasteurization effect was verified

using lactic acid bacteria as the target microorganism; the heat resistance of the bacteria

was measured, the death of bacteria was confirmed, and the effectiveness of the

equipment was verified. Furthermore, a mathematical model for FIR pasteurization was

developed using a heat transfer equation and thermal death equation. The simulation

could make predictions about temperature and the viable count of bacteria that compared

very well with the experimental results. Moreover, the model simulated the change of

temperature and viable count of bacteria at different flow rates and showed that it is

possible to sterilize at low temperatures with this equipment (Maoa et al 2011).

A new intervention method has been developed using infrared heating to pasteurize

the surface of turkey frankfurters contaminated with potentially fatal Listeria

monocytogenes prior to final packaging (Huang 2004). A laboratory infrared heating

device was constructed to treat turkey frankfurters coated with approximately ten 6–7

cells/cm2 of a four-strain mixture of freshly prepared L. monocytogenes. The surface

temperature of frankfurters was increased from refrigerated conditions to a final

temperature of 70, 75 and 80 C, achieving an average of 3.5F0.4, 4.3F0.4 and 4.5F0.2

(mean FS.E.) log-reductions in bacterial counts. No noticeable physical damage to the

heat-treated samples was observed. Although the heat-treated samples were slightly

browner than the control by visual observation, experimental results of this study

suggested that infrared surface pasteurization potentially could be used as an intervention

22
technology to kill L. monocytogenes contaminated on the surface of frankfurters

immediately prior to final packaging and reduce the risk of foodborne listeriosis caused

by these products (Huang 2004).

The sequential infrared and hot air (SIRHA) roasting is a new and effective method

for production of dry-roasted pasteurized nuts. The use of infrared heating for improving

the microbial safety and processing efficiency of dry roasted almonds was investigated by

Yang (2010). Almonds were roasted at 130, 140 and 150 °C with three different methods:

IR roasting, sequential infrared and hot air (SIRHA) roasting, and traditional hot air roast

(HA). The heating rate and pasteurization efficacy of almonds were evaluated under

different roasting methods and temperatures. Pediococcus sp. NRRL B-2354 was used as

a surrogate for Salmonella enteriditis PT 30 for evaluating the pasteurization efficacy of

different processing methods and conditions.

When SIRHA roasting was used to produce medium roasted almonds at 130, 140 and

150 C roasting temperatures, 4.10-, 5.82- and 6.96-log, bacterial reductions were

achieved with 38%, 39% and 62% time saving compared to HA roasting at each

temperatures, respectively. The decimal reduction time of the bacteria at all roasting

temperatures were calculated for SIRHA roasting as 8.68, 3.72 and 1.42 min,

respectively, with a correlation coefficient greater than 0.92 and the thermal resistance

constant was found as 25.4 C. No significant difference (p > 0.05) was observed in

sensory quality of medium roasted almonds processed with different roasting methods. It

can be concluded that the SIRHA roasting is a promising new method for the production

of dry-roasted pasteurized almonds (Yang et al 2010).

23
2.1.3 Assessment of food quality and Nutritional Value

Recent technological advances in hardware design and data mining techniques have

assisted the potential of near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to become a tool of choice for

routine analyses of agricultural products (Wang and Paliwal 2007). So, NIRS technology

has been widely employed in a variety of disciplines including areas of food, agricultural,

chemical, pharmaceuticals, textiles, polymers, cosmetics and medical and etc. (Lin and

Ying 2009). NIRS results in broad information of the internal quality of fruits; while

instead, other methods of analysis like chemical assays often yield data on a single

quality attribute. NIRS is a noninvasive/destructive measurement and NIR instruments

are usually versatile in their application for an assortment of different types of fruit

samples. NIRS methods are also rapid, free of reagents, as well as low-cost, all

contributing to its promising status (Wang and Paliwal 2007).

A NIR spectrometric system mainly consists of four component parts, i.e., light

source, light analyzer or light isolator, detectors, and sampling devices. NIR

instrumentation can be categorized into diode-based instruments, optical filter

instruments, electronically tunable filter instruments, grating monochromatic instruments,

and Fourier Transform (FT) NIR instruments. The NIR spectrometry measures the

absorption of light by the samples. Light sources rich in NIR radiation illuminate samples

in transmittance (for liquids) or diffuse reflectance (for solids) modes. The light

transmitted directly through a sampling cell or diffusely reflected light from the sample,

which is then collected by optical probe or integrating spheres, is detected by optic-

electronic sensors. Three types of data acquisition configurations: reflectance,

transmittance and interact modes (Lin and Ying 2009). A typical NIRS acquisition device

is shown in Figure 4:

24
 The term of diffuse reflectance is used by some workers rather than the interactance

mode. A Fourier transform-NIR (FT-NIR) system is based on Michaelson’s

interferometer to acquire an inter-Ferro-gram, and uses Fourier transform to deconvolve

frequency information encoded in it. The FT-NIR instrument has multiplex and

throughput advantage over aforementioned dispersive systems. Excellent wavelength

resolution and accuracy are additional advantages for a FT system (Wang and Paliwal

2007).

A process analytical technique named Thermal Imaging (TI) is used widely in the food

industries. Thermal imaging is a technique to convert the invisible radiation pattern of an

object into visible images for feature extraction and analysis (Jha et al 2011). Thermal

imaging is well recognized as an important sensing technology for detection, monitoring

and diagnosis in medical and military applications. However, recently, thermal imaging

has found applications in other biological systems including agriculture and food

processing including process monitoring, product development and storage analysis.

Thermal imaging (TI) is a non-destructive, non-contact system of recording temperature

by measuring infrared radiation emitted by a body surface (Arora et al. 2008). TI or

infrared (IR) thermography is a two-dimensional, non-contact diagnostic technique for

measuring surface temperature of materials which can be usefully employed in non-

destructive quality evaluation (Giorleo and Meola 2002; Gowen et al. 2010). Thermal

imaging utilizes the radiation emitted to produce a pseudo image of the thermal

distribution of a body’s surface. In thermography, a large number of point temperatures

are measured over an area and processed to form a thermal map or thermogram of the

25
target surface. Thermography with high spatial resolution is a powerful tool for analyzing

and visualizing targets with thermal gradients (Jha et al 2011).

For the first time, FT–IR spectroscopy has been used to rapidly monitor the population

dynamics of bacteria by Oberreuter et al (2003) in a food system. The bacterial cheese

surface flora from two different batches was examined throughout the production process

starting with the inoculum. The ripening process was monitored over 12 or 29 days. One

hundred bacterial isolates were investigated at each sampling point resulting in a total of

1307 isolates. Classical microbiological methods and Fourier–transform infrared (FT–IR)

spectroscopy, partly supplemented by partial 16S rDNA sequencing, were used for

identification. In the smear brine of cheese A, Staphylococcus equorum was found to

dominate, while Corynebacterium dominated the smear liquid of cheese B. The flora

consisted mainly of the coryneform bacteria Corynebacterium casei and C. variabile,

which made up 80–90% of the aerobic surface flora after 5–6 days of ripening and stayed

in that order of magnitude until the end of ripening. The other flora components consisted

of staphylococci, gram-negative bacteria, Catalase-negative bacteria, and aerobic

sporeformers. Only 1% of the coryneform bacteria could not be identified by FT–IR

spectroscopy. The results demonstrate that FT–IR spectroscopy is a suitable method for

the rapid monitoring of the population dynamics of coryneform bacteria on the surface of

smeared cheeses. Generally, application of this method will enable a food producer to

obtain a detailed overview on the microbiological status of a product down to the species

level, which allows for corrective measures to be taken early on in the process.

Coryneform isolates only questionably identified by FT–IR spectroscopy were identified

26
by comparative partial 16S rDNA gene sequence analysis according to figure 5

(Oberreuter et al 2003).

Chemical analyzes such as total soluble solids (TSS) and acidity can be determined by

NIRS. Potential uses of NIRS in the wavelength range of 900–1700 nm for determination

of sweetness (TSS); sourness (acidity) and their ratio for 5 apple cultivars was studied by

Jha and Ruchi (2010). MLR models were found to be the best for prediction after treating

the spectral data with multiple scatter correction technique. The multiple correlation

coefficients for calibration and validation were found to be 0.887, 0.745 °Brix for TSS,

0.890, 0.752 % for acidity and 0.893, 0.751 for acidity/TSS ratio, respectively. The

standard errors of calibration, prediction, biases and differences in them were low, which

indicated that NIRS has potential to predict internal quality of apple non-destructively

(Jha and Ruchi 2010).

Thermal imaging (TI) is a technique to convert the invisible radiation pattern of an object

into visible images for feature extraction and analysis. Also, TI is an emerging tool for

food quality and safety assessment in the industry. Research shows that opportunities

exist for its potential application in food quality and safety control. Non-destructive

evaluation techniques provide information of product properties such as structure;

dimensions and metrology; physical and mechanical properties; composition and

chemical analysis; stress and dynamic response. Comparison of spectrophotometric

methods must be studied from the view of overall reproducibility and accuracy to choose

the simple, fast and accurate method for quantitative chemical analyzes. For this reason,

two spectroscopic techniques, namely, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and near

infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, have been investigated and compared to UV-visible

27
spectrophotometry to measure the β-carotene content of crude palm oil (CPO) by Moha

et al (Moha, et al, 1999). In this study, calibration curves ranging from 200 to 800 ppm

were prepared by extracting β-carotene from original CPO using open-column

chromatography. Separate partial least squares calibration models were developed for

predicting β-carotene based on the spectral region from 976 to 926 cm−1 for FTIR

spectroscopy and 546 to 819 nm for NIR spectroscopy. The correlation coefficient (R2)

and standard error of calibration obtained were 0.972 and 25.2 for FTIR and 0.952 and

23.6 for NIR techniques, respectively. The validation set gave R2 of 0.951 with standard

error of performance (SEP) of 25.78 for FTIR technique and R2 of 0.979 with SEP of

19.96 for NIR technique.

The overall reproducibility and accuracy did not give comparable results to that of

spectrophotometric method; however, the standard deviation of prediction was still

within 5% β-carotene content over the range tested. Because of their rapidness and

simplicity, both FTIR and NIR techniques provide alternative means of measuring β-

carotene content in CPO. In addition, these two spectroscopic techniques are

environmentally friendly since no solvent is involved (Moha et al 1999).

2.2 Environmental impact of Infrared:

During the last 25 years, consumer demands for more convenient and varied food

products, the need for faster production rates, improved quality and extension in shelf life

have grown exponentially. Of course the traditional food processing technologies cannot

response to these requests. So the development of new food technologies must be

directed to well-established preservation processes (Pereira and Vicente 2010). The

28
environmental impact of some of the most promising novel food preservation

technologies may represent in terms of energy efficiency, water savings, and wastewater

treatment and reduced emissions. The emergence of novel thermal and non-thermal

technologies allows producing high quality products with improvements in terms of

heating efficiency and, consequently, in energy savings.

Most of these technologies are locally clean processes and therefore appear to be more

environment friendly, having less environmental impact than the traditional ones. Novel

processing technologies are increasingly attracting the attention of food processors once

they can provide food products with improved quality and a reduced environmental

footprint, while reducing processing costs and improving the added-value of the products

(Pereira and Vicente 2010).

Each step in the food industry’s system of production, processing, transportation,

storage, distribution and marketing has some impact on the environment and there is

much concern about environmental pollution (Kroyer 1995). Due to the highly

diversified nature of the food industry, various food processing, handling and packaging

operations create wastes of different quality and quantity, which, if not treated, could lead

to increasing disposal problems and severe pollution problems. Additionally, they

represent a loss of valuable biomass and nutrients if not recovered by appropriate

methods and technologies for upgrading, bioconversion or reutilization. Research should

be intensified to improve efficiency in waste treatment, and to minimize waste in food

processing and manufacturing operations through advanced manufacturing practices, and

constructive utilization of what is unavoidable by bioconversion of by-products and

29
waste into edible food, feed or industrial chemicals in order to decrease environmental

loadings as a consequence of better integrated waste management ( Kroyer 1995).

30
 3. Conclusion

The food processing industry, though exceedingly complex and with many very

complicated supply chains, can benefit greatly from the uptake and use of infrared

technology. Infrared systems have found use in a number of areas. It is difficult to make

generalizations about consumer acceptance/rejection of particular food technologies

because the needs, beliefs and attitudes of individual food consumers and the nature of

the economic, political and social environment of related technologies are different.

Legislation and regulations, both national and international, also play an important role in

this acceptance and rejection equation.

Infrared heating is gaining popularity because of its higher thermal efficiency, short

processing time, energy consumption and high product quality in comparison of

conventional heating processes. IR technologies are currently used for blanching,

dehydration, freeze-dehydration, thawing, roasting, baking, cooking of liquid and solid

foods and improve the hygiene and safety of foodstuffs by pasteurization and

sterilization. Additionally IR technologies have been shown to exert a beneficial impact

on decontamination of food contact surfaces as well as food contact packaging. Foods

processed using IR techniques have also been shown to retain higher levels of vitamins,

nutrients and other health promoting compounds.

31
Recent technological advances in hardware design techniques have assisted the potential

of near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) for Chemical analyzes, Fourier transform-NIR

system to rapidly monitor the population dynamics of bacteria, Thermal Imaging for

thermography with analyzing and visualizing targets with thermal gradients, FT–IR

spectroscopy as a supplemented by partial 16S rDNA sequencing, have become a tool of

choice for routine analyses of agricultural products.

4. Acknowledgement: Hereby greatly thanks from Dr Larry Keener, President and Chief

Executive of International Product Safety Consultants for helping me in editing this

article.

5. References

 Hamanaka, D., Noimura, N., Baba, N., Mano, K., Kakiuchi, M., Tanaka, F., Uchino,

T., (2011). Surface decontamination of fig by combination of infrared radiation

heating with ultraviolet irradiation. Food Control. 22: 375-380.

 Henson, S., (1995). Demand-side constraints on the introduction of new food

technologies: The case of food irradiation. Food Policy. Volume 20, Issue 2, April,

Pages 111–127.

 Huang, L., (2004). Infrared surface pasteurization of Turkey frankfurters. Innovative

Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 5: 345– 351.

 Hui, Y.H., Nip, Wai-Kit. (2006). Food biochemistry and food processing. Blackwell

Publishing Professional, 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014, USA. 978-0-8138-

0378-4. First edition.

32
 Jha, S.N., Ruchi, G., (2010). Non-destructive prediction of quality of intact apple

using near infrared spectroscopy. J Food Sci Technol 47(2):207–213.

 Jha, S. N., Narsaiah, K., Basediya, A. L., Sharma, R., Jaiswal, P., Kumar,R.,

Bhardwaj, R., (2011). Measurement techniques and application of electrical

properties for nondestructive evaluation of foods. J Food Sci Technol 48(4):387–

411.

 Kim, W. W., Ghimeray, A.K., Wu, J. Ch., Eom, S. H., Lee, B .G., Kang, W.S., Cho,

D. Ha., (2012). Effect of Far Infrared Drying on Antioxidant Property, Anti-

inflammatory Activity, and Inhibitory Activity in A549 Cells of Gamguk

(Chrysanthemum indicum L.) Flower. Food Sci. Biotechnology. 21(1): 261-265.

 Krishnamurthy, K., Tewari, J.C., Irudayaraj, J., Demirci, Ali., (2010). Microscopic

and Spectroscopic Evaluation of Inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus by Pulsed

UV Light and Infrared Heating. Food Bioprocess Technol 3:93–104.

 Krishnamurthy, K., Tewari, J.C., Irudayaraj, J., Demirci, A., (2010). Microscopic

and Spectroscopic Evaluation of Inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus by Pulsed

UV Light and Infrared Heating. Food Bioprocess Technol 3:93–104.

 Kroyer, G.T., (1995). Impact of food processing on the environment an overview.

LWT - Food Science and Technology. Volume 28, Issue 6, July, Pages 547–552,

1995.

 Kroyer, G. Th., (1995). Impact of food processing on the environment-an overview.

LWT - Food Science and Technology. Volume 28, Issue 6, , Pages 547–552, July.

33
 Lewicki, P.P., (1998). Effect of pre-drying, drying and rehydration on plant tissue

properties. A review. International Journal of Food Properties, 1, 1- 22.

 Lin, H., Ying, Y., (2009). Theory and application of near infrared spectroscopy in

assessment of fruit quality: a review. Sens. & Instrumen. Food Qual. 3:130–141.

 Lu Xiaonan, Al-Qadiri, H.M., Lin, M., Rasco, B.A., (2011). Application of Mid-

infrared and Raman Spectroscopy to the Study of Bacteria. Food Bioprocess Technol

4:919–935.

 Maoa, W., Oshima, Y., Yamanaka, Y., Fukuoka, M., Sakai N., (2011). Mathematical

simulation of liquid food pasteurization using far infrared radiation heating

equipment. Journal of Food Engineering 107, 127–133.

 Mihoubia, D., Timoumia, S., Zagrouba, F., (2009). Modelling of convective drying

of carrot slices with IR heat source. Chemical Engineering and Processing 48 808–

815.

 Moha, M.H., Che, Mana., Y.B, Badlishahb, B.S, Jinapc, S., Saadd, M.S., Abdullah,

W.J.W., (1999). Quantitative Analysis of Palm Carotene Using Fourier Transform

Infrared and Near Infrared Spectroscopy. JAOCS, Vol. 76, no. 2.

 Molin, G., Ostlund, K., (1975). Dry-heat inactivation of Bacillus subtilis spores by

means of infra-red heating. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 41, 329-335.

 Nowak, D., Lewicki, P. P., (2004). Infrared drying of apple slices. Innovative Food

Science and Emerging Technologies 5, 353– 360.

 Nowak, D., Lewicki, P.P., (2004). infrared drying of apple slices. Innovative Food

Science & Emerging Technologies. Volume 5, Issue 3, September, Pages 353–360.

34
 Nowak, D., Lewick,i P.P., (2004). Infrared drying of apple slices. Innovative Food

Science and Emerging Technologies 5 353–360.

 Oberreuter, H., Brodbeck, A., Stetten, S.V., Goerges, S., Scherer, S., (2003).

Fourier-transform infrared (FT–IR) spectroscopy is a promising tool for monitoring

the population dynamics of microorganisms in food stuff. Eur Food Res Technol

216:434–439.

 Ozge, S., Ozkoc, S.S., Sumnu, G., Sahin, S., Turabi, E., (2009). Investigation of

physicochemical properties of breads baked in microwave and infrared-microwave

combination ovens during storage. Eur Food Res Technol. 228:883–893.

 Pan, Z., Shih, C., McHugh, T.H., Hirschberg, E., (2008). Study of banana

dehydration using sequential infrared radiation heating and freeze-drying. LWT -

Food Science and Technology. Volume 41, Issue 10, , Pages 1944–1951.

 Pereira, R.N., Vicente, A.A., (2010). Environmental impact of novel thermal and

non-thermal technologies in food processing. Food Research International 43,

1936–1943.

 Rastogi, N.K., (2012). Infrared Heating of Fluid Foods. Novel Thermal and Non-

Thermal Technologies for Fluid Foods., Pages 411–432.

 Rosenthal, I., Rosen, B., Bernstein, S., (1996). Surface pasteurization of cottage

cheese. Milchiwissenschaft, 51(4), 196–201.

 Sakai, N,. Hanzawa, T., (1994). Application and advances in far infrared heating in

Japan. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 5(11), 357–362.

35
 Sandu, C., (1986). Infrared radiative drying in food engineering: A process analysis.

Biotechnology Progress, 2(3), 109– 119.

 Sawai, J., Matsumoto, K., Saito, T., aki, T., Isomura, Y., Wada, R., (2009). Heat

activation and germination–promotion of Bacillus subtilis spores by infrared

irradiation. International Bio deterioration & Biodegradation. Volume 63, Issue 2, ,

Pages 196–200.

 Sawai, J., Matsumoto, K., Saito, T., aki, T., Isomura, Y., Wada, R., (2009). Heat

activation and germination–promotion of Bacillus subtilis spores by infrared

irradiation. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation. Volume 63, Issue 2,

March, Pages 196–200.

 Seyhun, N., Ramaswamy, H., Sumnu, G,. Sahin, S., Ahmed, J., (2009). Comparison

and modeling of microwave tempering and infrared assisted microwave tempering of

frozen potato puree. Journal of Food Engineering 92, 339–344.

 Shilton, N., Mallikarjunan, P., Sheridan, P., (2002). Modeling of heat transfer and

evaporative mass losses during the cooking of beef patties using far-infrared

radiation. Journal of Food Engineering 55 217–222.

 Staack, N., Ahrne, L., Borch, E., Knorr, D., (2008). Effect of infrared heating on

quality and microbial decontamination in paprika powder. Journal of Food

Engineering 86, 17–24.

 Staack, N., Ahrne, L., Borch, E., Knorr, D., (2008). Effect of infrared heating on

quality and microbial decontamination in paprika powder. Journal of Food

Engineering. 86 17–24.

36
 Sumnu, G., Sahin, S., Sevimli, M., (2005). Microwave, infrared and infrared-

microwave combination baking of cakes. Journal of Food Engineering 71 150–155.

 Tanaka, F., Verboven, P., Scheerlinck, N., Morita, K., Iwasaki, K., Nicolaı, B.,

(2007). Investigation of far infrared radiation heating as an alternative technique for

surface decontamination of strawberry. Journal of Food Engineering 79 445–452.

 Tireki, S., Sumnu, G., Esin, A., (2006). Production of bread crumbs by infrared-

assisted microwave drying. Eur Food Res Technol. 222: 8–14.

 Turabi, E., Sumn, G., Sahin, S., (2008). Optimization of Baking of Rice Cakes in

Infrared–Microwave Combination Oven by Response Surface Methodology. Food

Bioprocess Technol 1:64–73.

 Wang, W., Paliwal, J., (2007). Near-infrared spectroscopy and imaging in food

quality and safety. Sens. & Instrumen. Food Qual. 1:193–207.

 Yang, j., Bingol, G., Pan, Zh., Maria, T., Brandl, d., Tara, H., McHugh, c., Hua,

Wang., (2010). Infrared heating for dry-roasting and pasteurization of almonds.

Journal of Food Engineering 101 273–280.

 Zhu, Y., Pan, Zh., (2009). Processing and quality characteristics of apple slices

under simultaneous infrared dry-blanching and dehydration with continuous heating.

Journal of Food Engineering 90 441–452.

37
 Web references

 Food Sci Net: Education resources online [Internet]. Columbus, OH: Food Science

Education Association; c1999-2008 [Accessed 2008 Oct 17]. Available from:

http://foodscinet.org. Form of citation in text: (FoodSciNet 2008)

 Anonymous. http://thehalogenoven.com/. Copyright © 2012 the Halogen Oven.

10/16/2012.

 Anonymous. http://www.noblelight.net/infrared_systems/index.shtm. IR in Food

Processing. Assessed in 12/27/2012.

38

View publication stats