Laboratory Exercises for College Physics Electricity, Magnetism, and Optics (Physics 120 LB)Contents Invedvcton page 3 Tutorial on Error 5 Tutorial on Laboratory Exercises Elecicty & Magnetism ying Wire... 19 the Electron 23 y 6Tis collection of Laboratory Exercises isthe intoductory physics laboratory manual used by Hunter College. The orginal exercises wore developed by the Physics Faculty over thay years ago. A number of revisions have since been made. In particular, the revision 1 1994 lod by Professor Rober A. Marino, troduced several new exercises involving modern optical and electronic equipment. We are indebted tothe faculty and students who participated in the creation and revision ofthe manual over the years. Physics Faculty unter College ‘uly, 1999 (© 1998, 1999 by Department of Physics and Astronomy, Hunter College ofthe City University of New York Allright reserved.Besese BP RRSREREREREEEREERERERE intRoDUCTION How to Succeed in Physics Lab Read the lab manual belore coming 10 class to become familar with the experiment. {isgure and Lab are NOT in perfect synch, s0 you may have to give the textbook a look ‘You should take responsibity to lear sale operating procedures from the lb instructor. “The lab manvals algo occasionaly a good source of saety tips. With electrical ccs, ro power isto be supplied unless OKC by nttucter or lab tech. Report any accidents immediatly! ‘You wil wrk with lb partner to take data, but you ae individually responsible fr Your ‘own ‘data. All subsequent calculations, graphs, ete. are also yout own indivi responsbisy Orginal data MUST be ik you change your mind, cross out wih a single stroke ‘Do not eave the ab rom without abiairing the instructor's signature on your original data Sheet, Without, your lab report wil nol be accepted. No exceptions. 1s boon designed to be a Tow pressure” experience. We hope it is an Gnjoyable one as you Take the time to become familar with new equipment and. fxperiences. Sil. you should aim to completo all data-taking, all necessary calculations, feach al conclusions, and at least sketch al graphs before you leave. Its well Known (0 {hose who Know t wel) that once you walk OU that door, ll work on lab reports wil take longet Besides, most of the grade for he course wil come fom the lecture part, 60 spend your time accordingly. The lab Befoe taking good data, run through the experiment once or twice fo see how it.goes. It nique lo sketen data a8 You go along, whenever appropriate is often good ‘The Report: Your Lab Report shouldbe se contained: It should still make sense fo you when you pass ton fo your grandchildren. It should include: 1) Front page: your orginal data sheet with your name, parinrs and date, The original tata MUST be In ink.” Report not acceptable if original data is in penal orf data sheet was not signed by your instructor. (So... don't leave lab room without) ') Additional pages with data and calculation in neat tabular form. Ifthe original came fut messy, you should rewrite your data before continuing with calultion. ©) Any graphs. Nesiness counts I's one ofthe aims ofthis lab to produce students that know how to produce a decent graph. 9) Answers to any Questions 2) An Appendix made up othe pages from the lab manual that describes the experiment. Inciyéing them reteves you Irom having fo rewrite the essential points ofthe procedure, cecriton of equipment tcll Lab reports are due the next time the lab met ts. At the beginning of the period! I is ce in handing i lab reports. This 18 10 partment poly to penalize you for latenes “hw lab experience no longer fresh in Your Gacourage you from working on stale data wit mind. A schedule wil be announced. Laboratory Grade: The lab instructor will make u Your lab reports, and 10% on hisher personal evaluat Inboratory. This grade is then reported to your lecturer for inctusi (rade (15% weight factor). The lst below will give you an idea ofthe crt wp a grade 90% based on the average of jon of your performance In the join the final course teria used by Your lab instructor in grading your lab report 1 Qualty of measurements. Logical presentation of report contents Accuracy and correctness of calevitons resulting from proper use of data and ‘completion of calculations (Orderly and logical presentation of data in tabular frm, where appropriate. 3 4 Goodslooking graphs, easiness to read, good choice of scales and labels. 5. Comparison with theory 6, Answers to Questions; Conclusions. 7. Chatty, Neatness, Prompiness _ eaeTUTORIAL #1 On Errors and Significant Figures Errors We could distinguish among three diferent kinds of errors” in your lab measurements 1. Mistakes or blunders. We all make these. But with any kind of luck, and some care, we catch them and then repeat the measurement. 2. Systematic Erors. These are due elther to a fauty instrument ( a moter stick that ‘Shank) or by an observer wih a consistent bias in reading an instrument. 3. Random Errors. Small accidental errors present in every measurement we make at the limit othe instrument's precision. [Aer blunders are eliminated, the precision of a measurement can be improved by feducing random errors ( by statistical means or by substituting a more precise instrument, Le., one that yields more significant figures for the same measurement.) ‘Recuracy can be increased by reducing any systematic errors as well as by increasing the precision. Significant Figures No measurement of @ physical quantty can ever be made wit infinite accuracy. AS an fonest experimentalist’ you should relay to the reader just how good you think yout reasurement is. One simple way to relay ths information is by the number of significant figures you quote. For example, 3.4 cm says one thing, 3.40 cm tells a different story. ‘The last sigt you write down ean be your best estimate made between the markings of a Scale, butt sill represents a wilfully reported number, i stil s a significant figure. ‘The placement of the decimal point does not change the number of significant figures. For example, 20.8 grams and 0.00208 grams each have three significant figures; each is. ‘assumed 10 be uncertain by at least +1 in the last figure, i.e, +1 part in 208, which is about 1%. Normally, figuring out how many significant figures are in a stated number gives: no problems, except when zeros are involved. For example, is it obvious how many Significant figures are expressed in $500 feet, 250 years, or $1,300,000 ? A good way 0 tell the reader whichis, in fact, the last significant figure is by using scientific notation. For example, 5.50 x 10° feet, 25 x 10" years, and 1.300 Megabucks, telegraph thatthe number of digits in which any confidence can be placed was three, two, and four, respectively Computations using raw dataHow do you combine your carefuly gathered data wth other numbers in an expression? With a tle common sense, and a hand calculator, you ean veiy thatthe folowing rules shouldbe followed: Mutiptication and Division: Report only as many signiicant figures in your final answer as there were in the least precise value. For example, 8.481 x 1.75 gets reported as 6.08, not 6.092. OF course, you should only round off the final answer. If a number is used again in {another computation, you should not round it off n between, or you may make a small but significant eror. ‘Adion and Subtraction: Again, common sense rules: 1.11 x 10° + 3.33 x 10'is, unfortunately, just 3.44 x 10* Note: To see this you have to write it out in ordinary notation (even better: line-up one under the other} 1,110 + 93,300 = 34,410 mathematically but the tens position is not significant in one of the terms, so it cannot be significant in the final sum. The answer is 34,400, or 3.44 x 10 ‘A more sophisticated way to “propagate errors" is 1o derive the proper expression using the methods of differential calculus. For those labs where this becomes necessary, You willbe given the answer.Mm My and 7m my = au = = mi a at x xl oa m hn 1] wl TUTORIAL #2 Making a Good Graph by Hand = The Square of the Period ‘tart thinking about a nic tie, #9. Pandolum vos Length ()" [A shorter 9 or "A. a function traght: It you need to plot “A vs 6° Koop your ax0s st ‘nthe vertical axis and Bs on the horizontal The crucial partis choosing the range and scale for eae a) 0105 sec; 5 graph boxes 3) -300 to 2200 degrees: 2 boxes =100 degrees The range must be p ada The scale should be: spread out on and labeled so poting (and magnitudes. The Label the x and y axis withthe appropr tahich cover the entse range of vic cove any boxes. you are trying to show that y is propestional to ‘fore, ort you are not told otherwise, zero is rang be located at anette The numbers should be evenly space, tre oreo same increase in numbers inclucing the space between ta sose an appropriate numberof boxes between Nun ume otween numbers than 4 since i easier to inte Sima 10 is beter than 8, and 2 beter th the second, your measurements on this graph. Where appropiate, you shou wr cncertainy in your measurements. These eror Bas are tainty on the scale dictated by Plot the results of Include eror bars to indicate th Include irra size but shouldbe ofthe size of your Unc the numbers on the axis of your graph.When you draw the line that best fs your data, the ne should be a smooth one that reed nat go trough any point. In genera, there should be as many points on one side Ofte line as on the other. I you have done your work properly the ine should pass inside ofthe eror bars Yor each point. (IH doos not that may be an indication that there i something wrong wih the point in question. Perhaps you miss recorded @ ‘measurement, or your estimate of the error Was 100 small, oF there was something ‘wrong with the apparatus, or with the technique you applied, etc.) If your graph shows that one quantity is propertional to another, I should be a straight fine that stars atthe ‘tpi and passes through the plotted data with as many points on one side as the other. It you are asked to find the slope ofthe line, choose two points on the fine which far apart as possible. This wil minimize the error that is introduced in reading the value of those points. The slope is the difference between the vertical values of those points ‘vided bythe ciference inthe horizontal valves of those poins. ‘A common mistake is to measure the slope of the segment connecting two actual data points: this does not yl the slope ofthe straight line you fited to your datal Note: Normally, the slope of your graphs has its own units. e.g. The slope of graph of velocity vs. time has units of (mis) Here isa graph so messy, you can surely do better with.Ohm's Law Objectives erty Ohm's Law. Study the conection of ammeter, votmetrs and swiches in tlectrcal creuts Equipment and supplies ohm resistor; A DC ammeter, 10 V DC voltmeter, Switch; 6 Volt DC power supply 200 rheostat (variable resisto) Discussion ‘Ohm found thatthe currant that lows tough an electrical conductor varies directly with the potential ifference across The law is usually writen this way VaR o where, Vis the potential ference across the conductor; V is measured in volts. Tis the current through the conductor; Jis measured in amperes (A) Fine constant of proportionally, called the “resistance” ofthe conductor. For Fane sets balance in Eq. (1), Aimust be measured in vol/amperes, which was named the ohm (2 (Note: resistors a physical object which has electrical resistance. A resistors always {iso a conductor, unless is resistance is ifirte.) ‘You will be provided with an ammeter and a voltmeter to measure /and V, respectively. Ye Mould know, however, that these instruments are connected very differently in a circuit 1a) To sense the current flowing through a resistor, the ammeter must be Connected in series withthe resistor. b) To sense the voltage across a resistor, the voltmeter must be connected in parallel withthe resistor. See Figure on next page. bath inserts need to be connected tte same ne, hae are wo poss ‘as shown below: pho: meeFigure 1 In both methods there wil be some eror I the resistance is obtained by dividing the volmeter reading Vby the ammeter reading J 1) nthe igure onthe let the votmeter reads the potential diference across both the ammeter and the resistor. Hence, the rato (V7) would equal R only if the ammeter tance were exactly zero. In fact, (Vil) wil more nearly equal R, the smaller the meter resistance in comparison wih In the figure on the right the ammeter reads the sum of the currents through the resistance and through the votmeter. Hence, in this case, (VJ) would equal R only i the voltmeter resistance were infinite. So, (VIZ) wil more neary equal R. the greater the resistance ofthe votimetr In comparson with R. For the types of insttuments used in your laboratory, the method of Figure 1 gives the smabr error unless Ris Vory small A rheostat 's @ device you wil be using ll. Its a three-terminal element, which we ould label A, B and G. 28 shown in Figure 2. The resistance between the endpoints A fand B is @ constant, its call t Re. However, C is connected 10 a sling contact ‘Therefore, the resistance between C and either endpoint can be vatied between 0 and the maximum value A. The net result is that @ yheostat can be used as a variable resistance, by connecting it rom Co ether A or B. Make sure you understand this point belore continuing, Ask your instructor fr assistance, i necessary. ProcedureBESBSBEREEERERSREEREERPII Note: AU circuits MUST be approved by your instructor before connecting to the se ge DO power supply Tor the volago nee Fn sere whe po nid an ammeter by the mothod of Figure Ffaluding wil enable you to vary the c a Power + ‘i Supply [=< 2. Wie up the circuit you designed in Part 1. above. Do not turn on the power unt our erout has been approved by your instructor. A i oe et readngs tar caren balwoon 0 and out 1.0 ampereCelculations and ConclusionsLABORATORY EXERCISE # 22 DC Circuits Objectives: ‘Study series and paral cout. Equipment and supplies 6-Volt DC power supply, lamp socket, theostat, 1 A DC ammeter, 10 V DC volimeter, wires with Banana plugs Discussion Resistors in series ‘When two or more resistors are connected end to end as shown | Figure 1, they are id to bo in sors. Any charge that pastes trough A wil also pass through Rn and then Ry Hence the same current / passes through each resistor. We fet V represent the voltage across all thre resistors, and V;, Va and Vs be the potential diferences, Vie across each of the resisiors. Fy, Re, and Ry respectively. By Ohm's law, VonlR and VieIRy. Because the resistors are connected ond to end, the total voltage vav+¥,4V IR, +IR [series 0 The equivalent single resistance Ra that would draw the same current would be related. to Vby Vem, We equate ths express with Eq, (1) and fing RAR +R +k, [series] @ 1228 in series, the total resistance isthe sum of the ‘Thus when we put several resista separate resistances. Figure 1 Resistors in series.t © Procedure ew sockets for small incandescent light bulbs of the resistance of a light bub with a voltmeter and an Figure 3.ECCLELCLELEAEEEEEZESv and the thi one in series as shown in Figure 5, Set up the ammeter and votmeter to measure the toa crt, the total wage drop, V, ofthe cicut, and tho curent rough and voltage drop across each of he ight Bulbs eit v Figure 6. Combination of series and paral circus Calculations and Conclusions 1. For each set of readings (V, 1) obtained from the parallel connection, compute A Vor each light bul, Also compute the power Px V. Draw a circuit diagram. Use the resistance value foreach tight bulb to calculate Thon compare the calculated Ryand the measured valve obtained from the ratio of the voltage drop and total curtho alld and frop an the 6 cam for tho series-parllccut. Use bulb f0 calevlato Aq, Then comp fue based on the faio of the IoLABORATORY EXERCISE #23, Force on a Current Carrying Conductor ina Magnetic Field PURPOSE Equipment and supplies rage! apparatus, -VoR DC power SB) who ntrm til in tesa, isthe length ofthe conductor in meters, 1 is the In this experiment, the magnetic field supplied by a song Alnico magnet. By Tn eather ls arc onthe magnet equal but opposte othe free onthe Conductor, The magne is ne a atin, re fe on he mage lon (1) wil be studied intvee ways. Note that 8, the fed of he 4. The fore willbe determined a a function of Zwhen B and | are constant (Procedure 1 force wil be determined asa funcion of 1 when Band 1 are constant Procedureee Current Loop Balance own in Figure 1. Postion the lab passes through the pole region of. fa main ont on the lab Stand can Be “The current loop shoulda touch the at as show in Figure 2 3 ofthe magnet assembly (F) Then: st to the desired level, nd measure the weight of the wi current towing (F). (Use the rheostat fr fine adusiment of current flowing, the eacing wil be bigher or lower than, ce in weight ( FF) i proportional tothe foree exerted on the 9 investigate the relationship between the current and fore, 0 10 5 A for every 0 A and measure the weight at each the main unit upward to raise the current oop out ofthe magnetic. stent loop gel from the arms ofthe main unt. Replace t with {new current loop and caretull Tower the arm 0 reposiion the current lop in the.cect oops, SF 37,38, 38, and 40, are supplied with the apparatus. Measure fee ength (ol the horizontal segment o the current top, «6. Repeat the measurement descibed in Step 4 and § for hoe other current loops. [Powe baal —— Curent too Main unit Figure 2. Cicut diagram CALCULATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS au i data obtained in (4(6) pot graphs of force F (in newtons) against current Ttm'ampores) From the slopes of he graphs and the value of find the magnetic fila 8 e eein why only the length of he horizontal segment of oop, rather than the entire length, is used in the analysis of A. From the data in (4)(6), plot a raph of fore F (in newtons) against! (im meters) for oA From the slope o ths graph and the value of Jind the magnetic field B. 1. Compare the results of two diferent methods of A and G sei the diferences are within expected eros, aLABORATORY EXERCISE # 24 The Specific Charge of the Electron Objective To relive the classic experiment that elegantly measures the quantity e/m forthe electron, thereby proving that tis a parce with both mass and charge. Equipment and supplies 3383 Vacuum Helmnottz ‘Seal _ Blectron Gun W col Corrent foimeter Ammeter' adjust YO ‘Adjust ‘A special triode, Helmotz cols, venir caliper, hall-meter stick. Discussion ‘The equipment is all wired up for your viewing pleasure, but you should understand the basic eas. When you look down on the tube you see a "bulfs eye" creuar plate. Right Behind the hole, inthe middle ofthe disk, isan elecron gun. The electron gun consists Gra filament, focusing grid and pate (three elements, hence a trode). ‘+ The filament is heated red-hot by a 6.3 VAC power supply. Note thatthe filament circuit contains an AC ammeter to measure this heating curent, and a 17 2 rheostat for fine contol of ts temperature. Inthe high vacuum inside the glass envelope, the hot filament “bois of” a cloud of negative electrons kicked out bythe violent atomic thermal vibrations inte filament, This is the phenomenon of thermionic emission. 23‘contains a tiny amount of a noble gas thet glows purple when beam. Now comes the interesting part A set of Helmotz cole field in the region of the beam, and perpencedar to the: See, this causes the beam to bend into a crcular orbit The: ‘magnetic deflecion force on a moving charge: FeBev= mvtVex mv 2) Equations (1) and (2) can be combined into one equation by eiminating the speed, ‘The resulting equation can be solved forthe specific charge ofthe electton in fens ol the accelerating votage, V, the magnetic ld strength B, ans the orbt Gameter 10 obtain ey Be Since V and d are easily read of, the only other thing youll need isthe value of the magnetic field, 8 as a function of the relevant observable, the current inthe cols, 1. That relation B= tyaisy? y =1c ® R where, 4 424107 SI. unis n= the numberof tune ne 112 The current inthe coils n amperes = The mean radius ofthe cols, which you should measure for yoursett (C= a constant, whose value you can now compute by deft vse of your scientific Calculator and ale constants in the square Bracke, ofthe Helmots cols, provides by the instructor For atypical get of cols inthis apparatus, the number of tums is 190 per coll and the radius 18 0.152 m 0 that 8-0.77 milteslasiampere, Your col radius wil be & ite ditlerent from this valve, s0 measure the dimensions careful ulate the valve of e/m. Finaly, you can use equation (3) toc Procedure + . Set the apparatus on a level table. The room light should not be too bright, because the electron beam will be hard to see. Zin order to minimize the influence of geomagnetism. use a compass 10 locate ‘magnetic North and align the Helmholtz cols so they are parallel othe need. 1 this is ot convenient, can be disregarded wit lite eect on the results (certainly less than ther errors in the measurement) This wil have the effect of reducing the influence of geomagnetism on the magnetic ek! parale1o the coll axis. The influence of geomagnetism or other sources of magnatic fields can be observed by the deflection ofthe circular motion of the electron beam while 25Be spams & sume The magntice of tis detcson is gesier when 2 smal Gaver 5 towing Sraugh be coke 3. Wit Be power switch of connect fe ing cons to the comet line votage power. 4 Tum on Sie power Sach The unt mil peor 2 30-second selttest indicated by te Sgtal Sesiay anges vetes no Pe and swash of the appara, Measire the eternal anc extemal ameter ofthe Hetabolz cols on several axes. "ey may not be gute fund ark he tO COME May Hk Be QULe the Same. Average you measurements anc oetermne the Standard ere. £0 Hd You wal be able Woaeeee whether i has a sgniicant eect on the accuracy ef yout resue the electron gun is not pointed downward. the electron Bath, To. carect this, oesen the maunang screws the ‘ube a ite Unt the electron gun the properCelculation and Conclusions ‘A. Compute the value ofthe constant Cin Ea, ( Fie emanate ts shoud bea contr ora esting te 4 te eacvon wh the accepted value row you have some explain 1900 1 err? 50, what the effect on elm 7are.rltont wah he theory? Express 23 & Petco ove percent values give you a very precise ides of how “good” Your caperiment was.LABORATORY EXERCISE # 25 The Oscilloscope {nd measure time-varying volages Equipment and supplies ‘The Oscilosope isan instrument which can be made to measuce the istanta and vertical ‘spot when an applied pote aierence Frome oes eee aN (a a ea \ Grid Horizontal VY cathode Defcon Present Seren Figue 1. Schematic diagram of an oscilloscope “The folowing dscussion aims to explain how a time-varying vonage (ihe sional” can be displayed. Let us aseume a signal votage ofthe form,V, =Vsin?2a/7,) were 7, isthe period ofthe signal volage. When no horizontal deacon is present, the spot wil move up and down with frequency T, . For frequencies greater than about 20 Hz ( period less than about 0.05 sec) a continuous line rather than a moving spot ‘would be seen, Now, i atthe same time the beam is moved horizontally by a repeating voltage which Increases proportionally to the time, as in Fig. 2, the spot of ight wil race out one horizontal pattem, asin Fig. 3. For the pattern to repeat again and again, resuting in a steady pattem on the scope face, the horizontal period, Ty, must be chosen to be equal to the perio of the vertical signal, T,. Look for ths inthe figures below. ww be eno % } Figue 2 Fique 3 Procedure ‘A. Disconnect all cables to the front of the scope. Connect the oscil bench AC power source, turn on the power, and carefully adjust the controls In! Sexings Beam contol INTENSITY-- oe rotate knob to 12 o'clock position Foous. lpprosimately at 9 o'clock postion for sharpest Horizontal contro! group (time axis) folate to 12 oclock, then push gently into VARIBLE SWEEP. fully clockwise 5 Trigger group, TRIGGER LEVEL. rotate to"12 otclock, gonty ‘COUPLING auto ‘SOURCE ——————-CH1ne you tke 6d fo Channel there should be two horizontal ines present on scope ay win TRIGGER LEVEL) see how they control the vertical snge to send the traces of-scale, ace toa convenient position beam sweeps to the right at arate of 1 fart all over again. The voltage 's tek is called @ ramp", and was 2 the sweep speed. Note that after scope "probe". One end has a male 2 input of Chanel 1. The other end with small crcut pats, and an “aligator a this probe can connect the Channel 1 You wil use the “1x° setting. The 10x ages by @ factor of tn; It is useful for looking, 2 & bul into the chassis ofthe scope. The CAL output. panel supplies a 2-Vol peak-to-peak square wave ins. You can display by connecting the probe to CH. the CAL jack anc the aligator lp to the grounding fa requested in your data sheet. (The last column should a83. Connect CAL signal fo Channet 2, and assure yourself that this channel also is well calbrates. Ifthe signal is not steady or is traveling, flip the lever of trigger SOURCE to (CH2 and play withthe tigger knob. BA. Use the | TIME DIV control to observe the square-wave for all possible settings. ‘Answer the question inthe data sheet, B5. Using whatever TIME DIV setting you find most convenient, measure the period of ihe square wave signal. Then repeat for two more sweep-ime settings. Here the horizontal and vertical POSITION settings wil come in handy in positioning the square wave on the scope grid. . Signal coupling tothe oscilloscope. Cl. So far you have been using the DC setting on the inputs to the scope for both Channel 1 and 2. Now change the coupling switch next to the female BNC input jacks ) ‘and observe the following pale Levelt trace when DC:coupled square GND coupled signalisremoved wave square wave Figure 4 ‘Summary of results: DC coupling allows corec splay ofa signals, AC and DC. Ne "grounds" the input, thereby cisplaying zero signal no. the input Displays only the AC part of the signal suppressing valve ofthe input signa ‘ ‘Note, AC coupling is useful when you want to look at a small AC signal alarge DC signal. 0.9. V (0) =10olts + (Smillvolis)sin a C2. Measure the voltage of the dry cell on your benchtop hhook probe. Which coupling is appropriate, AC or 0?’ voltage, you'l see nothing! ) D. Series RC circuit.BSBSPSSSSEEZEEZAZEEZZEEITET MFSES eeeiebb}}3333)) LABORATORY EXERCISE #26 PN Junction DiodeCurrent Current —s ae Le Resistor Diode Figure 1 Comparison ofthe current vs. voltage characteristics ofa resistor and a diode, te — Forward Reverse Figure 2 Forward bias and reverse bias, The arrow in Figure 2 is the symbol of the diode. The arrow indicates the rection of current. If the voltage is applied in the direction that enables the flow, the diode is under “forward bias" I the voltage is applied in the opposite. the diode is under “reverse bias” and the current is nearly very small Procedure: A. Curtent-voliage characteristics fora diode. 1. Measure the open-circuit output voltage ofthe power supply atts “To do this, switch a multimeter so it measures DC voltage and connect ‘open terminals of the DC power supply. The idea is to convince yo ‘equipment is working properly and that you know how to measure. ‘multimeter. (By the way: with the voltmeter leads connected to ead ‘nominal zero, You will need to subtract this value trom your read ‘voltage. You should find this important only for the lowest voltage | 2. Set up and use a “voltage divider" that allows you to vary theFigure 3. A Votage divider, Wiep te cet ung 210 esata the DC pow sep 3 that you can now apply any desited volage between and some maximum 3. Measure tage characterises of a forward biased code. (This i te ‘Study the circuit in Figure 4. The inal seting ofthe attery-siminator is a ‘ots, The vofage dvger alone you to smoothly change the apple vokage. Votage across ine dove can be measured by placing a votmeter ces Zo. Meanwhile, te ammeter reads the sare Curent as flows throug Pin series wath ihe votmeterérawe negigible cuent, As a safety preca {resistor also placed in series wih the Gide fo it the curent through aloe no matter where you push te *heostat sider. Finally, note that he pola ower supply and code as shown in the cul wil Torwaré bias” the code 7‘Alter you understood the cut wire it up, havo ft chocked by tho instructor, especialy tho mutimetor setings, and tako Ive. V data, Pay tortion to th curron readings; take data trom 0 t0 10 milamperes: Warning: The Iv. V curve is highly non-inea. 0 ii ‘necessary fo fake more datapoints in the region where the cunt increase sharply as the votage Increases. Sketching your data as you go is practecaly a must here. By |usicious boting of the teostat sider, do not allow currents greater than 100 mA to tow. 4. Got the Currnt- Voltage characteristics fora reverse biased dade. Switch the polaty ofthe clade and take the IV data for voltages from zero to about Volt Since reverse biased diodes don't conduct much, your current readings wit be small 5, Presont your results in graphical form. ‘On a fultpage, graph all the data you took in pars 3 and 4, above. V should be between 1 and about «3/4 Vols. Your grade in his lab depends most heaviy on this one graph nis expected that by now you know how to make a good looking graph Demonstrating hat-wave rectification 6. Study, thon wire up the cicult shown in Figure 6. ¢@ Yea woe Figure 5 Circult for measuring the ettect of rectification. ‘A sinusoidal voltage ( Vn) fs applied toa diode circuit. The resuiting current through the ‘ode is measured by monitoring the voltage, Vay across a series resistance, For: [AC power source use a sine-wave set at 1 kHz. Use a value of R= 10 KW ) 7, Display input votage Vax onthe oxciloscope. “DC” couple ho lt sina so an dopey OC a wales AG signals. Ue the GND (round) ewith toca tho Make eure you know how to ply a steady signal for ampltdes tom about 3 down to about 0.2 volts. ( The trick is in the triggering controls.) Also, make sur Instruments used are wed so thal grounds are commons a no-no to Cscioscape ground to point A, for example. Aer you are convinced that you ‘AC vohage source whose ampitude and aquency you Krew Now i ary, iia stings of abot volts peak and 1 KH. Sketch hs Sinusoidal in yur ‘8. Display the current through the circuit and sketch its shape in your ‘done by connecting the osciloscope from G (ground) to point A. 8TEs ER RBRRRRSRESEREEEZZ ‘cross a resistance Is proportional to the current through K (Ohms tw), Vox has the 2 esi carton the cult. The signal You 889 onthe scope scaled “hall ae nase AC Mako sure your 0 OR level is whore you want It (check using the SSIS (otc ewtch'on the scope) then skeich wo oF three cycles of the played Sea PNote tat does matter f you AC or DC couple the input. (Now you know why ths sch fe mpotant) 9. Connect a variable capacitor in paall with R. Note what happens tothe shape of Vou as you increase the value of C. Mako a. series of sketches, corresponding 19 Ineleasing values of ©, which show the tanston from half-wave recited vtage to OC Wottage, Start wth the smallest vale of C and watch the osciloscope as you increase C Before your very eyes you have made a ccut which changes AC to DC! 10, The relevant parameter is the ratio ofthe “AC” te constant (remember that 1 ohm Xi farad’= 1 second ) fo the period ofthe AC voltage. Investigate tis by changing t ‘requency of the put vollage. For 100 Hz and also for 10 kHz, what values of C ote eee cotage wah ine rame degree of smoothing as you sketched in & mile sketen hn par 9above? Calculations and Conclusions What is the fective esistance ofthe code when it was forward biased by 0.7 vols? (Fer=V) “i Fiat fhe elfective resistance ofthe dade when it was reversed biased by 0 Vos? jw rom Procedure 3-5 can be used 1o explain how hall Tell how the fancy graph you wave rectification occurs. plain the acton ofthe capactor in smoating out the pulsating input votage i progressively smoother DC. 2LABORATORY EXERCISE #27 The Speed of Light Objectives in his experiment you wil measure the speed of red light in an optical cab ais eeee polymer material. | expect many of you wil find this experiment elegart 0 Equipment and supplies ‘Speed of ight apparatus on a Printed Cirut board (“ifn speed of ht uit Sbical ther 20m optical fer, dual trace osclloscope. battery elminator, 2 Ova Banana plugs 3 red banana to micro ads, 2 black banana to micro lads Discussion Briet pulses of ight are generated by an integrated circuit provided or you, in such & ear Pat you tat cksplay ther outine on one of your two osciloscope channels. The Wark patees then travel Gown an optical fiber you yoursel connect. AL the other nd, en ae eeeroher turns he hgh puses ito eecical pulses you can dplay on the Pa eee ivecope channel When the scope is propery Wggered, the time delay, Sean ecco pulee and veceve” pulse can me measured and dived into the Ee ath length (D-20 meters, forthe cables provided) 10 yield the speed of ight in the polymer medium pvt Procedure IST CHECK CIRCUIT BEFORE ELECTRICAL POWER MAY BE INSTRUCTO! ‘APPLIED. 4, Power up the speed-o-ght unt. Using “banana” plug connectors provided, sop @ 1 Romer re seeroprate terminals ofthe printed crcut (PC) board. Note thal the Mot ta TSboted “0 V" and "+9 V", respectively. The former i colo-coded black terminal of ty azo to bo connected to the oscilloscope ground. Note that red Bont ar vom tne TRANSMITTER" terminal inthe lower ight ofthe PC board. +2 Connect the 15 om optical fiber to the PC board. Note thatthe optical bers have a oor a enmectors on each end to enable you to easly insert and easly take Out the optical libers. ite carelul practice is needed here.sav Receiver oo Received Pulse. [a Ci BS = Transmit] Pegs Oupatuse [fF — Figure 1: Spoed:of-ight uni. Connect the DC power supply ground and the osciloscope ground at lower left Gonnect the DC power supply positive terminal tthe +9V pin. Connect the oscilloscope Charinel 1 to the “OUTPUT PULSE" pin. Connect the osciloscope Channel 2 to the “RECEIVED PULSE" pin, 3. Display the “OUTPUT PULSE” onthe first osciloscope channel This is actually a continuous series of short pulses, spaced about a microsecond apart. These are the pulses to be sent down the optical fer They are aulomatially Generated by the PC board once the DC power is turned on. ‘They are available fey asciloscope display at the white terminal labeled, "OUTPUT PULSE, You should Connect the osciloscope channel 1 o this white terminal, andthe osciloscope prourdl black "0 V" (zero vol) terminal. Next, you need to "tigger the oscilloscope to oben a steady display of two or three pulses. “Trigger source” should be Chantel 1, whieh will have the steadier ofthe two signals you wil eventually display. 4. Display the “RECEIVED PULSE on the second osciloscope channel. First, connect the 15 cm opical fiber to both the TRANSMITTER and the RECEIVER connector jacks. Next, connect osciloscope Channel 2 to the white terminal labeled RECEIVED PULSE”. 'No new ground connection is necessary: One is enough ine would be foo many. You are now ready to take data, 5. Measure the time i takes ight 10 travel down 20 meters of fiber, using the osciloscope, When you completed procedure (4) above, you should have noticed that the “received. pulse” was considerably more distorted than the relavely clean “output pulse” lao, {hat instrumental and other electronic phase shifts aeady caused a time delay between the two pulses. To subtract out these effects, wo measure the lime delay ae tng ifference between the long and short optical fibers. The length difference Is 20.0 meters. Tho time diference is your data for today. So, before you go on, pick a {eature ofthe “received pulse’ and using the oscilscope contol, center fon a gdh crossing of the osciloscape dlsplay. Then, substitute the longer optical filer, Sg] measure the increase in delay time. Your result should be reughly 0.1 mierosgoam «You sho sg the mesorement several nes, swing shor and lng foes Yours Oy ep sajuming tho horizontal postion knob as necaasar. te osciloscope 10x kn, locatod in upper right comer, jactorot fv, ging you a higher reading precision Calculations and Conclusions 1. Compute the speed of ght inthe poymes,v {recon ofthe polymer material rato into he spoed of ight inthe mado, where is 2. Compute the indox of the speed of ight in vac cof bght in vacuum, 3.00 x 10° ms. 3. Because of poor calration, ts posible hat some of he oscilloscopes time base Fee eagoc off Assuming forthe moment rat this was the case for you, what ar suo you need to mane about the accuracy andthe precision of you result for fhe speed of ight inthe polymer medum, v, whic you computed aboveCCOCCCCCCLCEEERREBELABORATORY EXERCISE #28 Part I: Refraction objectives To determine the index of reaction tom the measurements of (8 Equipment and supplies Ligh box slit, pesglss somiirear lens, semiceu etrcton When ight ste ‘Brora Otten al have tree Pr Frise vansparent media are it oundary separating the Wo Ms boundary eum te er, Tisbendng.t W's cle oral to the eutace separating le betweon the incidert ray andthe acted ry and phate Oa, a= the angle between the acted rer the mo me ot, acre Com or oe same ihe separaing the soon mau ware th aoe wih he OTe Ae ine 0 I (notin The index ol retraction, 6 equal 0 fhe Oo cre the angle with the normal 8. Fat of the speed ofa ¢refeed of hght i the second median vt ate fst medium tothe ‘ind varie wth the wave where @ =the a engi ofthe hot edits absohe index of tight in vacuum vided bythe veleey 6 of ae practcaly the same a5 ts abso aa les an ts speed 9 vaCuum index of retraction of a medium rel (eam: ts inex of retraction med speed of ightin ai is ony Very into medium 2 where ‘See Figuee 1) The citieal angle i Thess Basses obliquely from medium 1 where Wher ary vat wil bend away trom the normal 6 is velocity i ¥ ‘ris arg than ¥ (a maximum value of 90 dogroes. The ftecion wil occur. The inde of rtracton of medi 2ltve o medi 1 ual If medium 2 is air, the absolute index of retraction of medlum 1 may be found by & nation of andthe use of equation (3) jue 1. The ight bends away fromthe normal when i enters Medium Zin which the speed of ight i larger. Procedure \ mediums \\ Medium 2 Cia Insert the sit plate into the slot in the front ofthe ght box to create a narow beam of ght. Adjust the lightbox (by sling the top relative to the botom) to make the beam colimated, without spreading, as much as possible Place @ sheet of unruled white paper on the wooden platform, Draw coordinate axes, x.y with dashed ins on the whe paper. Poston the plexiglass lens so that the origin of the axis coincides with the flat edge of the lens and the origin, O, of the axes oinedes with the center ofthe flat edge as shown in the folowing photograph. Arrange he sheet so thatthe. beam i indent onthe flat edge at point O. “6 SZ =QREEEEEEBND3332. Adjust the angle of incidence, a 1 be betwe Arrange the lons 3 tat the beam i intent a the Sure tne laser beam passes trough the origin of the coordina ‘The beam is incident atthe flat surface from the plexiglass. 4 Filthe semiciculr cel with water, Wipe off any ai bubbles and wipe the exterior Sy ‘The water-ild container becomes a semicicua' lens, Repeat 2) and) CALCULATION AND CONCLUSIONS. aCOCOCCCCLTETRRAREESPart Il. Focal length lens, whichis shown in Fgue 2 materi, £0 index af rh isa straight ie passing WOU surtaces. By apptying Snel er passing WOU treler rego be precy Hue 1% 8 toma wth per inert paralFigure 2 {In general, when the diameter of the beam is not small compared to the radit of curvature of the spherical surfaces, the focal pont isnot a point. In Figure 2, rays A and B, closer to the axis of the lens, are focused to a focal point F while rays © and D, farther away from the axis, are focused to a slghily diferent focal points F’and F. focused spot as view on the screen placed at the focal point F is not sharp. ‘phenomenon is known as the spherical aberration. The focal length of a thin lens is given by where fis the focal length, isthe index of refraction ofthe lens material, and Fy are the rai of curvature of the two surfaces. A and Fi are positive for convex: negative for concave surfaces, and infinity for planar surfaces, Procedure 1. Insert the slit plate into the slot in the front of the light box to ‘beams of light. ‘Adjust the light box (by sliding the top relative to ie beams parallel as much as possible. Pace the plano-convex plexiglass lens on a white paper. the rays are parallel to the axis and pass through the central Use a pencil to trace the rays. i |. Measure the focal length, defined as the distance from the ofthe lens, Repeat the measurement for the plano-concave and [Bano-coneav lens, the focal pont i obtained by extendncrulr fons: Measure he foal pin 8, Measure the focal pos fo cea‘ Bn Flute 2: and away om tw 28 Figures sure of the spherical suraces of the lenses using the caer eth. Fis use & ponc to (race the of shape the lens as Hustraled folowing method the wid AC andthe thickness BD ofthe spherical surface. The Figure 3 Mcature OB can be calculated using he folowing elation: 6. Determine the radi oc DB +AC/2 a 2DB ‘ Calculation and Conclusions ste the theoretical focal lengths orth plexiglass lenses using the rad of hora Sop 6 and the index of retraction measured in Part riated cesuits with the measured results AG Compare tt Discuss te elec of spherical aberration observed inthe semicircular lens stCCCCECCCCCCLLELLRESLABORATORY EXERCISE #29 Mirrors and Lenses To study how mirors and lenses frm images and to measure thei focal length. To use Equipment and supplies COpiical bench with 4 cariages and 4 holder, tuminted object, hal screen, fl erBe ane mien concave mer convex miar, converging lens, verging lense, white Eoreen.meier ck, ana fash ight Discussion Concave Sober Mir oa a arse pcbal ans lh mare comer af elton at re pepe ns at nr ees pe ject dotance Le, tho stance rom the luminaus object tothe mio cE co erence tance om age he To. fonowind i always postive fr a concave mitro eae Pest rol aac nga rial objec, 2 i str areal mage nepave or a Wal nape ‘A reatimage is formed by ight ays actualy converging to form an image, Fr example A real ine a uminovs objet at any distance p greater than you wi ot fal a oop onto! the maror)” Ugh rays donot converge 18 8 mage, as you discovered when you ted 0 touch one ajo bathvoom mor. A ial mage that you can obtain Hoh 2 Beng the luminous object ose to the mior than the panel oous, This mage wil be erect and behind te mir, image. (i wil be Dryoeal place inthe case of a vita “Te fotowing equation tls you how the relate size of the image depends on ts {mage size) | object size) = ance} (object distance) = @/p 2)Converging Lens Cone oa emi Lenses have two focal points, symmaticaly placed, om tho fons isthe focal distance, "Light Wom a very detant object mil converge to areal Image in tho focal plane.” Try this ight now using the skyline ae the ostant object. ‘Note: the image wil be real and inverted. 1 1 tekor in tho mid Tho postion ofthe image is given by the ens equation. Amazingly, this looks just tke Equation (1), Also, equation (2) applies hore just as wo To mako your ite even simpler, the sign conventions fora Concave lens are the same as fora concave mor. Examples: 4) A real object placed at a distance greater than f, wil result in a real, inverted image on the other side ofthe lens. ) A real object placed between the focal point and the lens, wil result in a rua, erect mage on the same si ofthe fens, Note: it an object wore to be placed at a distance just equal tof, rays of ight from any Point on the abject woul! emerge trom the lens as parallel rays (his = really the efintion of 1).”\Now, if plane mirror were placed behind the lens, the bundle of Paral rays would be rellecied back toward the lone also as a paral bundle. (The Imtror distance should not be too important, here.) Then, the lens wil converge the rays {o a focus in tho focal plane, forming a real Image superimposed on (oF right Next f0) the origina object. You wil use this method to determine fin Procedure 6 Diverging Lens Noe: Diverging lenses are thickor atthe edges than in the middle. . ‘tier parallel bundle of rays goes though a diverging lens, the rays dlverge, but appear fo come from a point on the same side as the luminous object. this delves te. focal point, and focal distance, f, as usual. Equations (1) and (2) apply lt we use the, ‘vised sign conventions, which are summarized below, and now apply teal eseuae Sign conventions: 1's positive fora concave miror or ens, but negative fr a convex miror a lens, 2 Is postive fora real objec, negative fr virtual objec. @ is postive for areal image, negative for a vitual mage, {Alimages of eal objects formed by diverging lenses ae vtual, erect and onthe same Side othe lens as the luminous objec " Consider the folowing arangoment Fis, areal image ofan object fomed scr0en bya converging ans. Nex! a verging lene paces Doreen lens andthe screen, ata aan irom he seen eave, ering lons.”As a resi the rays emerging tom te second ine uaa ta plane mirror is now placed in front of the screen, the bundle of parallel be reflected ight back trough bat nae, emerging lam eal aban fo objec! You wi use ts wck n Procccure BY ating ‘without having to locate a virtual image. ba 52. Rept tt wih ae dre ol Calculations and Conclusions, ‘A: compute the focal length ofthe concave mor from the data in (1) aB. Compute the focal length of tho converging a 51 rom tho data. in (3), (4) (8), (6) anc ©. Compute the focal length of he diverging lon from the data i (8), D. For al the cases whore image and object mansions wore vality of Equation (2)LABORATORY EXERCISE # 90 Interference and Diffraction Objectives: ‘To study the wave nature of ight by observing te interference fringes of double sts Woung’s experiment) and the citracion pattems of single sits. Equipment and supplies Je sits, sit holder, optical rl, 2 ral carers Holum-neon laser, single sts, doubl STroscope, white vewing screen, detecor, translation stage with micromeier, Hite {Stal multimeter, and graph paper. Discussion Interference: Young's doubles experiment rn eat axpormet isthe fst evidence forthe wave nature of Hoh Goeawer pane waves of ight ofa single wavelength fling ona double sit. Sand Concer Pi wre, Because of dracon, the waves leaving the two smal sits a ene ao shown in Faure 1. Ths fs equivalent tothe nterforence pater produced Sr OS row info a lake I hght consisted of particles, we would @xpeet 12 won 0? font ines ont scteen behind he sits. Instead, Young observed many bright see two ban ithe dstance d between the sts is very small compared 1 the stan and dark Woes aruciwe rerference occurs onthe screen at an angle, when the path Grioronce d sind equals a whole number of wavelenath, mi m0, 1.2.3, [constructive inerterence] (1) sce hinge. Fr example the fst order The valve of is called the order ofthe interfere the canter at €0, Dark fringes of Tee Sonat ringe formes at ange @ on each side of {eoiruetive interference occur when sin by =(me82)A MeO, 1,2,3, [destructive interference] (2) he intensity ofthe bright fnges is oralest atthe contr and decreases for Nhat _The italy ot rence ringes produced by he dovble-sit experiment canbe geteted rer nga etetr across the ges. nig 1 the angle equal toFigure 1 Young's double-sit experiment Diffraction: When plane waves of light of single wavelength iluminates @ narrow slit, ight can —EEEE——__ Oe ee ee ee ee Data Sheet: Force on a Current... Balance Reading (KG) Balance Reading (Ka)ae Wire Length =__m. ‘Current (A) Balance Reading (Ka) Net Fores (newions) 100 (Retorence Balance) 050. 4.00 1.50 2.00 250 3.00. 350 4.00 Wire Length = _m Current (A) Balance Reading (Ka) 10 (Reference Balance) 050 1.50 4.00 2.00, 250 3.00, 350 4.00 7”Balance Reading (Ka) Net Force (Netwons) Roterence Balance Explain why only length ofthe horizontal segment of he curent op is used in heCCC CC CCC LEE ERE EEES"Wwweeees sss LALA Data Sheet :Specitic Charge of Electron omecceeeece eee ee eee EeData Sheet: Oscilloscope 1 TIME setings does the square Wavecece ERR Reee THTData Sheet: The Diode ow erectCCCCCCCC EERE ERERERESECCCccc REE EEEESES 3 « 3 2 o g s 6 COTTA Erascee eC RRR EEEEEEESData Sheet: Focal Length CCC TET eESsCCC KER EREEEESSEEESBuea Bbcaaea se aeaeeaeees Data Sheet: Mirrors and Lenses osscoeeeece RRR ERREEEESCCCP eeeeere eesCCT EEEEERREREEEEDData Sheet: Spectrometer one WEEEEREESLZEZEII—an L.. fmData Sheet: Absorption of Radiation os = Le | a mI me = = = - mB oe oeCOCKER Lb BBeeae