PROJECT REPORT

On

CONCEPT OF AUTOMOBILES

Submitted to: Submitted By:

Kapil Deol

AUTMOBILE ENGINEERING
1
INTRODUCTION

Automobile engineering or automotive engineering is the branch of engineering which deals with the
study as how to design, manufacture and operate automobiles like buses, trucks, cars etc. and also their
respective engineering subsystems. This can also be a grouped under vehicle engineering.

An automobile engineer’s main duty is to design, test and develop vehicles and/or components from
concept stage through to production stage. The vehicle after being launched in the market also needs
improvement. Then it comes to the duty of the automobile engineer to improve the vehicle in response to
customers feedback.

Automobile engineers further can specialize in the areas such as aerodynamics,alternative fuels, chassis,
electronics, emissions, ergonomics, manufacturing, materials, motorsport, power train, rapid prototyping,
vehicle and pedestrian safety or supply chain management etc. The responsibility of automobile engineer
is always in maintaining the high standard of vehicle by the use of traditional methods and state-of-the-
art technology.

In recent times, owing to the rapid growth of automobile industries in the country, the demand for skilled
professionals has also been increased considerably. Hence opting for a career in automobile engineering
will be interesting As well as rewarding.

AUTOMOBILES
INTRODUCTION
The growth of the Indian middle class along with the growth of the economy over the past few years has
attracted global auto majors to the Indian market. India provides trained manpower at competitive costs
making India a favoured global manufacturing hub.

Propped by the increase in its car sales after the launch of General Motors’ (GM) new model Beat, along
with the robust growth in the Indian automobile sector, Kevin E Wale, President and Managing Director,
General Motors China Group stated that India should be among the top ten markets for the company
globally by 2011.

Production:

In recent times, India has emerged as one of the favourite investment destinations for automotive
manufacturers.

• Nissan Motor India has announced its 'Made-in-India' compact car (hatchback) Nissan Micra at its
manufacturing plant at Oragadam, near Chennai. Toshiyuki Shiga, Chief Operating Officer, Nissan
Motor Company stated that the India-made Micra will supply to strategic markets such as Europe,
Middle East and Africa
• The German luxury car major, BMW has launched four new variants of its new-generation 5-Series
sedan in India
• In a bid to capture a bigger share of the ever-expanding consumer base of luxury segment
automobiles in India. Volkswagen has launched its luxury sedan model Phaeton, its latest luxury
model
• Hyundai plans to bring forth an upgraded version of i30, latest C segment five-door hatchback
which is designed by Hyundai European team in Germany and is based on the Hyundai i-flow

2
 HED-7 hybrid concept. As per the manufacturer, i30U has entered mass production in March 2010
after debuting at the Geneva Motor Show
• Y V S Vijay Kumar, Executive-Vice President, Hindustan Motors India stated that the company’s
Thiruvallur plant has a capacity of 12,000 units and in two years, the company plans to double its
manufacturing capacity to reach 24,000 units.
• India's second largest heavy commercial vehicle maker Ashok Leyland Ltd and Japanese car
maker Nissan Motor Co. Ltd announced the launch of three light commercial vehicles (LCVs) from
2011 through 2013
• According to Andrew Palmer, senior vice-president, Nissan, the company will start marketing a light
commercial vehicle (LCV) under its brand name, from its Oragadam plant near Chennai, in the
second half of 2011
• Honda Motorcycle and Scooters India (HMSI), the Indian subsidiary of Japanese auto giant Honda
Motor Corporation, will launch its superbike 2010 VFR 1200F in India by December 2010.

Some of the engineering attributes/disciplines that are of importance to the automotive engineer:

Safety Engineering: Safety Engineering is the assessment of various crash scenarios and their
impact on the vehicle occupants. These are tested against very stringent governmental
regulations. Some of these requirements include: Seat belt and air bag functionality. Front and
side crash worthiness. Resistance to rollover. Assessments are done with various methods and
tools: Computer crash simulation, crash test dummies, partial system sled and full vehicle
crashes.

Fuel Economy/Emissions: Fuel economy is the measured fuel efficiency of the vehicle in miles
per gallon or litres per 100 kilometres. Emissions testing the measurement of the vehicles
emissions: hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2),
and evaporative emissions.

Vehicle Dynamics: Vehicle dynamics is the vehicle's response of the following attributes:
ride, handling, steering, braking, and traction. Design of the chassis systems of suspension,
steering, braking, structure (frame), wheels and tires, and traction control are highly leveraged by
the Vehicle Dynamics engineer to deliver the Vehicle Dynamics qualities desired.

NVH Engineering (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness): NVH is the customer's impression both
tactile (feel) and audible (hear) feedback from the vehicle. While sound can be interpreted as a
rattle, squeal, or hoot, a tactile response can be seat vibration, or a buzz in the steering wheel.
This feedback is generated by components either rubbing, vibrating or rotating. NVH response
can be classified in various ways: powertrain NVH, road noise, wind noise, component noise, and
squeak and rattle. Note, there are both good and bad NVH qualities. The NVH engineer works to
either eliminate bad NVH, or change the “bad NVH” to good (i.e., exhaust tones).

Performance: Performance is a measurable and testable value of a vehicles ability to perform in

various conditions. Performance can be considered in a wide variety of tasks, but it's generally

3
associated with how quickly a car can accelerate (i.e. 0-60 mph, 1/4 mile, trap speed, top speed,
etc), how short and quickly a car can come to a complete stop from a set distance (i.e. 70-0 mph),
how many g-forces a car can generate without losing grip, figure 8, recorded trap lap times,
cornering speed, brake fade, etc. Performance can also reflect the amount of control in inclement
weather (snow, ice, rain).

Shift Quality: Shift Quality is the driver’s perception of the vehicle to an automatic
transmission banana event. This is influenced by the powertrain (engine, transmission), and the
vehicle (driveline, suspension, etc). Shift feel is both a tactile (feel) and audible (hear) response of
the vehicle. Shift Quality is experienced as various events: Transmission shifts are felt as an
upshift at acceleration (1-2), or a downshift maneuver in passing (4-2). Shift engagements of the
vehicle are also evaluated, as in Park to Reverse, etc.

Durability / Corrosion engineering: Durability and Corrosion engineering is the evaluation

testing of a vehicle for its useful life. This includes mileage accumulation, severe driving
conditions, and corrosive salt baths.

Package / Ergonomics Engineering: Package Engineering is a discipline that designs/analyzes

the occupant accommodations (seat roominess), ingress/egress to the vehicle, and the driver’s
field of vision (gauges and windows). The Package Engineer is also responsible for other areas of
the vehicle like the engine compartment, and the component to component
placement. Ergonomics is the discipline that assesses the occupant's access to the steering
wheel, pedals, and other driver/passenger controls.

Climate Control: Climate Control is the customer’s impression of the cabin environment and
level of comfort related to the temperature and humidity. From the windshield defrosting, to the
heating and cooling capacity, all vehicle seating positions are evaluated to a certain level of
comfort.

Drivability: Drivability is the vehicle’s response to general driving conditions. Cold starts and
stalls, rpm dips, idle response, launch hesitations and stumbles, and performance levels.

Cost: The cost of a vehicle program is typically split into the effect on the variable cost of the
vehicle, and the up-front tooling and fixed costs associated with developing the vehicle. There are
also costs associated with warranty reductions, and marketing.

Program timing: To some extent programs are timed with respect to the market, and also to the
production schedules of the assembly plants. Any new part in the design must support the
development and manufacturing schedule of the model.

4
Assembly Feasibility: It is easy to design a module that is hard to assemble, either
resulting in damaged units, or poor tolerances. The skilled product development engineer
works with the assembly/manufacturing engineers so that the resulting design is easy and
cheap to make and assemble, as well as delivering appropriate functionality and
appearance.

FUEL AND PROPULSION FEASIBILITY

Most automobiles in use today are propelled by gasoline (also known as petrol) or diesel internal
combustion engines, which are known to cause air pollution and are also blamed for contributing
to climate change and global warming.[1] Increasing costs of oil-based fuels, tightening
environmental laws and restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions are propelling work on
alternative power systems for automobiles. Efforts to improve or replace existing technologies
include the development of hybrid vehicles, and electric and hydrogen vehicles which do not
release pollution into the air.

PETROLEUM FUELS

GASOLINE

team power, usually using an gasoline[citation needed], oil- or gas-heated boiler, was also in use until
the 1930s but had the major disadvantage of being unable to power the car until boiler pressure
was available (although the newer models could achieve this in well under a minute). It has the
advantage of being able to produce very low emissions as the combustion process can be
carefully controlled. Its disadvantages include poor heat efficiency and extensive requirements for
electric auxiliaries.[2]

5
2007 Mark II (BMW) Mini Cooper

Internal combustion engines running on gasoline have the advantage over diesel engines in
being lighter and able to work at higher rotational speeds and they are the usual choice for fitting
in high-performance sports cars. Continuous development of gasoline engines for over a hundred
years has produced improvements in efficiency and reduced pollution. The carburetor was used
on nearly all road car engines until the 1980s but it was long realised better control of the fuel/air
mixture could be achieved with fuel injection. Indirect fuel injection was first used in aircraft
engines from 1909, in racing car engines from the 1930s, and road cars from the late 1950s.
[3]
Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) is now starting to appear in production vehicles such as the
2007 (Mark II) BMW Mini. Exhaust gases are also cleaned up by fitting a catalytic converter into
the exhaust system. Clean air legislation in many of the car industries most important markets
has made both catalysts and fuel injection virtually universal fittings. Most modern gasoline
engines also are capable of running with up to 15% ethanol mixed into the gasoline - older
vehicles may have seals and hoses that can be harmed by ethanol. With a small amount of
redesign, gasoline-powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85%. 100%
ethanol is used in some parts of the world (such as Brazil), but vehicles must be started on pure
gasoline and switched over to ethanol once the engine is running. Most gasoline engined cars
can also run on LPG with the addition of anLPG tank for fuel storage and carburettor
modifications to add an LPG mixer. LPG produces fewer toxic emissions and is a popular fuel
forfork-lift trucks that have to operate inside buildings.

Wankel or rotary engines were introduced into road cars by NSU with the Ro 80 and later were
seen in the Citroën GS Birotor and several Mazda models. In spite of their impressive
smoothness, poor reliability and fuel economy has largely lead to their decline. Mazda, beginning
with the R100 then RX-2, has continued research on these engines, overcoming most of the
earlier problems with the RX-7 and RX-8.

DIESEL

Diesel-engined cars have long been popular in Europe with the first models being introduced as
early as 1922 [4] by Peugeot and the first production car, Mercedes-Benz 260 D in 1936
by Mercedes-Benz. The main benefit of diesel engines is a 50% fuel burn efficiency compared
with 27%[3] in the best gasoline engines. A down-side of the Diesel engine is that better filters are

6
required to reduce the presence in the exhaust gases of fine soot particulates called diesel
particulate matter. Manufacturers are now starting to fit[when?] diesel particulate filters to remove the
soot. Many diesel-powered cars can run with little or no modifications on 100% biodiesel and
combinations of other organic oils.

GAS

n the 1950s there was a brief interest in using gas turbine engines and several makers
including Rover and Chrysler produced prototypes. In spite of the power units being very
compact, high fuel consumption, severe delay in throttle response,andlack of engine braking
meant no cars reached production.

SOLID PROPELLANTS

Rocket and jet cars are cars propelled by a rocket engine, fed by rocket propellants (usually solid
propellants). A rocket car holds the record in drag racing. However, the fastest of those cars are
used to set the Land Speed Record, and are propelled by propulsive jets emitted
from rocket, turbojet, or more recently and most successfully turbofan engines.
The ThrustSSCcar using two Rolls-Royce Spey turbofans with reheat was able to exceed the
sped of sound at ground level in 1997.

BIOFUELS

Ethanol,other alcohol fuels (biobutanol) and biogasoline have widespread use as an automotive
fuel. In addition, wood gas (which can be made from any carbon-containing materials) has also
been used. Most alcohols have less energy per liter than gasoline and are usually blended with
gasoline. Alcohols are used for a variety of reasons - to increase octane, to improve emissions,
and as an alternative to petroleum based fuel, since they can be made from agricultural crops.
Brazil's ethanol program provides about 20% of the nation's automotive fuel needs, as a result of
the mandatory use of E25 blend of gasoline throughout the country, 3 million cars that operate on
pure ethanol, and 6 million dual or flexible-fuel vehicles sold since 2003.[5] that run on any mix of
ethanol and gasoline. The commercial success of "flex" vehicles, as they are popularly known,
have allowed sugarcane based ethanol fuel to achieve a 50% market share of the gasoline
market by April 2008.

ELECTRIC
The first electric cars were built around 1832, well before internal combustion powered
cars appeared.[9] For a period of time electrics were considered superior due to the silent
nature of electric motors compared to the very loud noise of the gasoline engine. This
advantage was removed with Hiram Percy Maxim's invention of the muffler in 1897.
Thereafter internal combustion powered cars had two critical advantages: 1) long range

7
and 2) high specific energy (far lower weight of petrol fuel versus weight of batteries).
The building of battery electric vehicles that could rival internal combustion models had to
wait for the introduction of modern semiconductor controls and improved batteries.
Because they can deliver a high torque at low revolutions electric cars do not require such
a complex drive train and transmission as internal combustion powered cars. Some post-
2000 electric car designs such as the Venturi Fétish are able to accelerate from 0-60 mph
(96 km/h) in 4.0 seconds with a top speed around 130 mph (210 km/h). Others have a
range of 250 miles (400 km) on the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
highway cycle requiring 3½ hours to completely charge.[10] Equivalent fuel efficiency to
internal combustion is not well defined but some press reports give it at around
135 miles per US gallon (1.74 L/100 km; 162 mpg ). -imp

HYDROGEN

Hydrogen is a fuel that, upon consumption, does not emit any greenhouse gases. Hydrogen can
be burned in internal combustion engines as well as fuel cells.

OXYHYDROGEN

Oxyhydrogen is another fuel that can be used in existing internal combustion engines originally
developed for using gasoline.[citation needed]This allows the engine to eliminate emissions, although
fuel efficiency is reduced rather than improved (since the energy required to split water exceeds
the energy recouped by burning it).

COMPRESSED AIR

A compressed air car is an alternative fuel car that uses a motor powered by compressed air. The
car can be powered solely by air, or by air combined (as in a hybrid electric vehicle) with
gasoline/diesel/ethanol or electric plant and regenerative braking. Instead of mixing fuel with air
and burning it to drive pistons with hot expanding gases; compressed air cars use
the expansion of compressed air to drive their pistons. Several prototypes are available already
and scheduled for worldwide sale by the end of 2008, though this has not happened as of
January 2009. Companies releasing this type of car include TATA MOTORS and motor
development international(MDI).
MEASURES OF FUEL\PROPELLANT EFFICIENCY

For stationary and shaft engines including propeller engines, fuel consumption is measured by
calculating the brake specific fuel consumption which measures the mass flow rate of fuel
consumption divided by the power produced.

8
For internal combustion engines in the form of jet engines, the power output varies drastically with
airspeed and a less variable measure is used: thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC), which is
the number of pounds of propellant that is needed to generate impulses that measure a pound
force-hour. In metric units, the number of grams of propellant needed to generate an impulse that
measures one kilonewton-second.

For rockets, TSFC can be used, but typically other equivalent measures are traditionally
used, such as specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity.

TYPES OF ENGINES USED

Despite the numerous types of cars available, most cars use the same basic engines. As
automotive technology has developed over the past century, engines have been refined and new
methods for powering cars occasionally catch on and change the way we drive.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (normally afossil
fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion
engine the expansion of the high-temperature and -pressure gases produced by combustion
applies direct force to some component of the engine, such as pistons, turbine blades, or
a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, generating useful mechanical energy.
[1][2][3][4]

The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which combustion is
intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, along with
variants, such as the Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion engines use
continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most rocket engines, each of which are
internal combustion engines on the same principle as previously described.[1][2][3][4]

The internal combustion engine (or ICE) is quite different from external combustion engines, such
as steam or Stirling engines, in which the energy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting of,
mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products. Working fluids can be air, hot
water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, heated in some kind of boiler.

9
A large number of different designs for ICEs have been developed and built, with a variety of
different strengths and weaknesses. Powered by an energy-dense fuel (which is very frequently
petrol, a liquid derived from fossil fuels), the ICE delivers an excellent power-to-weight ratio with
few disadvantages. While there have been and still are many stationary applications, the real
strength of internal combustion engines is in mobile applications and they dominate as a power
supply for cars, aircraft, and boats, from the smallest to the largest. Only for hand-held power
tools do they share part of the market with battery powered devices.

An automobile engine partly opened and colored to show components.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Reciprocating:

 Two-stroke cycle
 Four-stroke cycle
 Six-stroke engine
 Diesel engine

 Atkinson cycle

Rotary:

 Wankel engine

Continuous combustion:
Brayton cycle:

 Gas turbine
 Jet engine (including turbojet, turbofan, ramjet, Rocket etc

10
ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS
FOUR STROKE CONFIGURATION

Operation

Four-stroke cycle (or Otto cycle)

1. Intake
2. Compression
3. Power
4. Exhaust

As their name implies, operation of four stroke internal combustion engines have four basic steps
that repeat with every two revolutions of the engine:

1. Intake
 Combustible mixtures are emplaced in the combustion chamber
2. Compression
 The mixtures are placed under pressure
3. Combustion (Power)
 The mixture is burnt, almost invariably a deflagration, although a few systems
involve detonation. The hot mixture is expanded, pressing on and moving parts of
the engine and performing useful work.
4. Exhaust

11
  The cooled combustion products are exhausted into the atmosphere

Many engines overlap these steps in time; jet engines do all steps simultaneously at
different parts of the engines.

Combustion

All internal combustion engines depend on the exothermic chemical process of combustion:
the reaction of a fuel, typically with oxygen from the air (though it is possible to inject nitrous
oxide in order to do more of the same thing and gain a power boost). The combustion process
typically results in the production of a great quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam
and carbon dioxide and other chemicals at very high temperature; the temperature reached is
determined by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers (seestoichiometry).

The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived mostly from fossil
fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel fuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use
of propane. Except for the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are
designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major
modifications. Large diesels can run with air mixed with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition
injection. Liquid and gaseous biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is
produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil), can also be used. Some
engines with appropriate modifications can also run on hydrogen gas.

Internal combustion engines require ignition of the mixture, either by spark ignition
(SI) or compression ignition (CI). Before the invention of reliable electrical methods, hot tube and
flame methods were used.

TWO STROKE CONFIGURATIONS

Engines based on the two-stroke cycle use two strokes (one up, one down) for every power
stroke. Since there are no dedicated intake or exhaust strokes, alternative methods must be used
to scavenge the cylinders. The most common method in spark-ignition two-strokes is to use the
downward motion of the piston to pressurize fresh charge in the crankcase, which is then blown
through the cylinder through ports in the cylinder walls.

Spark-ignition two-strokes are small and light for their power output and mechanically very
simple; however, they are also generally less efficient and more polluting than their four-stroke
counterparts. In terms of power per cm³, a single-cylinder small motor application like a two-
stroke engine produces much more power than an equivalent four-stroke engine due to the

12
enormous advantage of having one power stroke for every 360° of crankshaft rotation (compared
to 720° in a 4 stroke motor).

Small displacement, crankcase-scavenged two-stroke engines have been less fuel-efficient than
other types of engines when the fuel is mixed with the air prior to scavenging allowing some of it
to escape out of the exhaust port. Modern designs (Sarich and Paggio) use air-assisted fuel
injection which avoids this loss, and are more efficient than comparably sized four-stroke
engines. Fuel injection is essential for a modern two-stroke engine in order to meet ever more
stringent emission standards.

Research continues into improving many aspects of two-stroke motors including direct fuel
injection, amongst other things. The initial results have produced motors that are much cleaner
burning than their traditional counterparts. Two-stroke engines are widely used
in snowmobiles, lawnmowers, string trimmers, chain saws, jet skis, mopeds, outboard motors,
and manymotorcycles. Two-stroke engines have the advantage of an increased specific
power ratio (i.e. power to volume ratio), typically around 1.5 times that of a typical four-stroke
engine.

The largest internal combustion engines in the world are two-stroke diesels, used in
some locomotives and large ships. They use forced induction (similar to super-charging, or
turocharging) to scavenge the cylinders; an example of this type of motor is the Wartsila-
Sulzer turbocharged two-stroke diesel as used in large container ships. It is the most efficient and
powerful internal combustion engine in the world with over 50% thermal efficiency.[5][6][7][8][9] For
comparison, the most efficient small four-stroke motors are around 43% thermal efficiency (SAE
900648); size is an advantage for efficiency due to the increase in the ratio of volume to surface
area.

Common cylinder configurations include the straight or inline configuration, the more compact V
configuration, and the wider but smoother flat or boxer configuration. Aircraft engines can also
adopt a radial configuration which allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations
such as the H, U, X, and W have also been used.

Multiple crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need a cylinder head at all because they
can instead have a piston at each end of the cylinder called an opposed piston design. Because
here gas in- and outlets are positioned at opposed ends of the cylinder, one can achieve uniflow
scavenging, which is, like in the four stroke engine, efficient over a wide range of revolution
numbers. Also the thermal efficiency is improved because of lack of cylinder heads. This design
was used in the Junkers Jumo 205 diesel aircraft engine, using at either end of a single bank of
cylinders with two crankshafts, and most remarkably in the Napier Deltic diesel engines. These

13
used three crankshafts to serve three banks of double-ended cylindersarranged in an equilateral
triangle with the crankshafts at the corners. It was also used in single-bank locomotive engines,
and continues to be used for marine engines, both forpropulsion and for auxiliary generators.

WANKEL

The Wankel engine (rotary engine) does not have piston strokes. It operates with the same
separation of phases as the four-stroke engine with the phases taking place in separate locations
in the engine. In thermodynamic terms it follows the Otto engine cycle, so may be thought of as a
"four-phase" engine. While it is true that three power strokes typically occur per rotor revolution
due to the 3:1 revolution ratio of the rotor to the eccentric shaft, only one power stroke per shaft
revolution actually occurs; this engine provides three power 'strokes' per revolution per rotor
giving it a greater power-to-weight ratio than piston engines. This type of engine is most notably
used in the current Mazda RX-8, the earlier RX-7, and other models.

GAS TURBINES

A gas turbine is a rotary machine similar in principle to a steam turbine and it consists of three
main components: a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine. The air after being
compressed in the compressor is heated by burning fuel in it. About ⅔ of the heated air combined
with the products of combustion is expanded in a turbine resulting in work output which is used to
drive the compressor. The rest (about ⅓) is available as useful work output.

JET ENGINE
Jet engines take a large volume of hot gas from a combustion process (typically a gas turbine,
but rocket forms of jet propulsion often use solid or liquid propellants, and ramjet forms also lack
the gas turbine) and feed it through a nozzle which accelerates the jet to high speed. As the jet
accelerates through the nozzle, this creates thrust and in turn does useful work

ENGINE CYCLE

TWO STROKE

This system manages to pack one power stroke into every two strokes of the piston (up-down).
This is achieved by exhausting and re-charging the cylinder simultaneously.

The steps involved here are:

14
 1. Intake and exhaust occur at bottom dead center. Some form of pressure is
needed, either crankcase compression or super-charging.
2. Compression stroke: Fuel-air mix compressed and ignited. In case of Diesel: Air
compressed, fuel injected and self ignited
3. Power stroke: piston is pushed downwards by the hot exhaust gases.

Two Stroke Spark Ignition (SI) engine:

In a two strokes SI engine a cycle is completed in two stroke of a piston or one complete
revolution (360º) of a crankshaft. In this engine the suction stroke and exhaust strokes are
eliminated and ports are used instead of valves. Petrol is used in this type of engine.

The major components of a two stroke spark Ignition engine are: Cylinder: It is a cylindrical vessel
in which a piston makes an up and down motion. Piston: It is a cylindrical component making an
up and down movement in the cylinder. Combustion Chamber: It is the portion above the cylinder
in which the combustion of the fuel-air mixture takes place. Inlet and exhaust ports: The inlet port
allows the fresh fuel-air mixture to enter the combustion chamber and the exhaust port
discharges the products of combustion. Crank shaft: a shaft which converts the reciprocating
motion of piston into the rotary motion. Connecting rod: connects the piston with the crankshaft.
Cam shaft: The cam shaft controls the opening and closing of inlet and Exhaust valves. Spark
plug: located at the cylinder head. It is used to initiate the combustion process.

Working: When the piston moves from bottom dead centre to top dead centre, the fresh air and
fuel mixture enters the crank chamber through the valve. The mixture enters due to the pressure
difference between the crank chamber and outer atmosphere. At the same time the fuel-air
mixture above the piston is compressed.

Ignition with the help of spark plug takes place at the end of stroke. Due to the explosion of the
gases, the piston moves downward. When the piston moves downwards the valve closes and the
fuel-air mixture inside the crank chamber is compressed. When the piston is at the bottom dead
centre, the burnt gases escape from the exhaust port.

At the same time the transfer port is uncovered and the compressed charge from the crank
chamber enters into the combustion chamber through transfer port. This fresh charge is deflected
upwards by a hump provided on the top of the piston. This fresh charge removes the exhaust
gases from the combustion chamber. Again the piston moves from bottom dead centre to top
dead centre and the fuel-air mixture gets compressed when the both the Exhaust port and
Transfer ports are covered. The cycle is repeated.

15
FOUR STROKE
Engines based on the four-stroke ("Otto cycle") have one power stroke for every four strokes (up-
down-up-down) and employ spark plugignition. Combustion occurs rapidly, and during
combustion the volume varies little ("constant volume").[10] They are used in cars, larger boats,
some motorcycles, and many light aircraft. They are generally quieter, more efficient, and larger
than their two-stroke counterparts.

The steps involved here are:

1. Intake stroke: Air and vaporized fuel are drawn in.

2. Compression stroke: Fuel vapor and air are compressed and ignited.
3. Combustion stroke: Fuel combusts and piston is pushed downwards.
4. Exhaust stroke: Exhaust is driven out. During the 1st, 2nd, and 4th stroke the
piston is relying on power and the momentum generated by the other pistons. In that
case, a four-cylinder engine would be less powerful than a six or eight cylinder engine.

There are a number of variations of these cycles, most notably the Atkinson and Miller cycles.
The diesel cycle is somewhat different.

DIESEL CYCLE

Most truck and automotive diesel engines use a cycle reminiscent of a four-stroke cycle, but with
a compression heating ignition system, rather than needing a separate ignition system. This
variation is called the diesel cycle. In the diesel cycle, diesel fuel is injected directly into the
cylinder so that combustion occurs at constant pressure, as the piston moves.

FIVE STROKE

The British company ILMOR presented a prototype of 5-Stroke double expansion engine, having
two outer cylinders, working as usual, plus a central one, larger in diameter, that performs the
double expansion of exhaust gas from the other cylinders, with an increased efficiency in the gas
energy use, and an improved SFC. This engine corresponds to a 2003 US patent by Gerhard
Schmitz, and was developed apparently also by Honda of Japan for a Quad engine. This engine
has a similar precedent in an Spanish 1942 patent (# P0156621 ), by Francisco Jimeno-Cataneo,
and a 1975 patent (# P0433850 ) by Carlos Ubierna-Laciana ( www.oepm.es ). The concept of
double expansion was developed early in the history of ICE by Otto himself, in 1879, and a

16
Connecticut (USA) based company, EHV, built in 1906 some engines and cars with this principle,
that didn't give the expected results.

SIX STROKE

First invented in 1883, the six-stroke engine has seen renewed interest over the last 20 or so
years.

Four kinds of six-stroke use a regular piston in a regular cylinder (Griffin six-stroke, Bajulaz six-
stroke, Velozeta six-stroke and Crower six-stroke), firing every three crankshaft revolutions. The
systems capture the wasted heat of the four-stroke Otto cycle with an injection of air or water.

The Beare Head and "piston charger" engines operate as opposed-piston engines, two pistons in
a single cylinder, firing every two revolutions rather more like a regular four-stroke.

BRAYTON CYCLE

A gas turbine is a rotary machine somewhat similar in principle to a steam turbine and it consists
of three main components: a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine. The air after
being compressed in the compressor is heated by burning fuel in it, this heats and expands the
air, and this extra energy is tapped by the turbine which in turn powers the compressor closing
the cycle and powering the shaft.

Gas turbine cycle engines employ a continuous combustion system where compression,
combustion, and expansion occur simultaneously at different places in the engine—giving
continuous power. Notably, the combustion takes place at constant pressure, rather than with the
Otto cycle, constant volume.

OBSOLETE
he very first internal combustion engines did not compress the mixture. The first part of
the piston downstroke drew in a fuel-air mixture, then the inlet valve closed and, in the
remainder of the down-stroke, the fuel-air mixture fired. The exhaust valve opened for
the piston upstroke. These attempts at imitating the principle of a steam engine were very
inefficient.
GASOLINE

17
 Over 95 percent of the world's automobiles run with a piston motor, with only 15 percent of
those powered by diesel; fully electric motor vehicles account for less than 2 percent of the
world's transportation, other types even less. Other fuels can be used in a piston engine, such as
propane or liquefied natural gas, but these are mostly in fleet or industrial applications. Gas piston
engines dominate the automotive world, despite the fact that a piston engine can run on any fuel
with the same properties.

CONFIGURATION
Piston engines are generally built into only a few configurations for general use: four-cylinder in-
line, "V" oriented or in-line six-cylinder and "V" oriented eight-cylinder styles. Other types exist,
such as V-10s, V-12s, horizontal fours and sixes, and in-line-three or five-cylinder models, all of
which are relatively uncommon. Diesels are popular in trucks and high-torque applications, but
are available for cars in limited availability as in-line-four and five-cylinder models.

ROTARY
The rotary engine, based on two or three flat, gasoline-powered disks, has been limited by
patent to Mazda (which only uses it in one model). This design was created by Felix Wankel in
the 1950s, then used in limited production until the 1970s. The rotary engine was once touted as
the replacement for the piston design, but the cost of a reliable rotary design kept it from
becoming popular. Instead of using a valved combustion chamber to push down on a cylinder,
the rotary uses oblong combustion pockets to keep an off-center triangular crank spinning. The
bearings, gears and housing of this type of engine are expensive, and the forces applied to the
surrounding parts were extreme. The construction cost, coupled with the unfortunate emissions
control regulations in the U.S. during the 1970s, caused the high-polluting rotary engine to fall out
of favor.

ELECTRICAL
Electric motors are popularized as fast, non-polluting, but limited engines. The only real
limitation on the electric motor is the storage of the electricity, which is cheapest as lead-acid
batteries. Other battery types, such as Lithium Ion, give electric cars an increased range, but are
costly. Patents and laws have also kept electric motors from becoming a replacement to piston
designs. Some inventors have built solar electric cars, but these typically take too long to charge

ALTERNATES
Many experimenters have tried to use alternative means to power an automobile. Many turn out
to be publicity stunts or hoaxes, but popular designs include compressed air pistons, weighted
flywheels and jet turbines.

ENGINE CAPACITY

18
For piston engines, an engine's capacity is the engine displacement, in other words the volume
swept by all the pistons of an engine in a single movement. It is generally measured in litres (L)
or cubic inches (c.i.d. or cu in or in³) for larger engines, and cubic centimetres (abbreviated cc) for
smaller engines. Engines with greater capacities are more powerful and provide greater torque at
lower rpm.and consumption of fuel increases accordingly.

MEASURES OF ENGINE PERFORMANCE

Engine types vary greatly in a number of different ways:

 energy efficiency
 fuel/propellant consumption (brake specific fuel consumption for shaft engines, thrust
specific fuel consumption for jet engines)
 power to weight ratio
 thrust to weight ratio
 Torque curves (for shaft engines) thrust lapse (jet engines)
 Compression ratio for piston engines.

ENERGY EFFICINCY

Once ignited and burnt, the combustion products—hot gases—have more available thermal
energy than the original compressed fuel-air mixture (which had higher chemical energy). The
available energy is manifested as high temperature and pressure that can be translated
into work by the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high-pressure gases inside the cylinders
drive the engine's pistons.

Once the available energy has been removed, the remaining hot gases are vented (often by
opening a valve or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous
position (top dead center, or TDC). The piston can then proceed to the next phase of its cycle,
which varies between engines. Any heat that isn't translated into work is normally considered a
waste product and is removed from the engine either by an air or liquid cooling system.

Engine efficiency can be discussed in a number of ways but it usually involves a comparison of
the total chemical energy in the fuels, and the useful energy extracted from the fuels in the form
of kinetic energy. The most fundamental and abstract discussion of engine efficiency is the
thermodynamic limit for extracting energy from the fuel defined by a thermodynamic cycle. The

19
most comprehensive is the empirical fuel efficiency of the total engine system for accomplishing a
desired task; for example, the miles per gallon accumulated.

Internal combustion engines are primarily heat engines and as such the phenomenon that limits
their efficiency is described by thermodynamic cycles. None of these cycles exceed the limit
defined by the Carnot cycle which states that the overall efficiency is dictated by the difference
between the lower and upper operating temperatures of the engine. A terrestrial engine is usually
and fundamentally limited by the upper thermal stability derived from the material used to make
up the engine. All metals and alloys eventually melt or decompose and there is significant
researching into ceramic materials that can be made with higher thermal stabilities and desirable
structural properties. Higher thermal stability allows for greater temperature difference between
the lower and upper operating temperatures—thus greater thermodynamic efficiency.

The thermodynamic limits assume that the engine is operating in ideal conditions: a frictionless
world, ideal gases, perfect insulators, and operation at infinite time. The real world is substantially
more complex and all the complexities reduce the efficiency. In addition, real engines run best at
specific loads and rates as described by their power band. For example, a car cruising on a
highway is usually operating significantly below its ideal load, because the engine is designed for
the higher loads desired for rapid acceleration. The applications of engines are used as
contributed drag on the total system reducing overall efficiency, such as wind resistance designs
for vehicles. These and many other losses result in an engine's real-world fuel economy that is
usually measured in the units of miles per gallon (or fuel consumption in liters per 100 kilometers)
for automobiles. The miles in miles per gallon represents a meaningful amount of work and the
volume of hydrocarbon implies a standard energy content.

Most steel engines have a thermodynamic limit of 37%. Even when aided with turbochargers and
stock efficiency aids, most engines retain an average efficiency of about 18%-20%.[11][12] Rocket
engine efficiencies are better still, up to 70%, because they combust at very high temperatures
and pressures and are able to have very high expansion ratios.[13]

There are many inventions concerned with increasing the efficiency of IC engines. In general,
practical engines are always compromised by trade-offs between different properties such as
efficiency, weight, power, heat, response, exhaust emissions, or noise. Sometimes economy also
plays a role in not only the cost of manufacturing the engine itself, but also manufacturing and
distributing the fuel.

HARMFUL GASES EMITTED BY VEHICLES

20
Vehicle emissions control is the study and practice of reducing the motor vehicle emissions --
emissions produced by [motor vehicle]]s, especially internal combustion engines.

Emissions of many air pollutants have been shown to have variety of negative effects on public
health and the natural environment. Emissions that are principal pollutants of concern include:

 Hydrocarbons - A class of burned or partially burned fuel, hydrocarbons are toxins and
are a major contributor to smog, which can be a major problem in urban areas. Prolonged
exposure to hydrocarbons contributes to asthma, liver disease, and cancer. Regulations
governing hydrocarbons vary according to type of engine and jurisdiction; in some cases,
"non-methane hydrocarbons" are regulated, while in other cases, "total hydrocarbons" are
regulated. Technology for one application (to meet a non-methane hydrocarbon standard)
may not be suitable for use in an application that has to meet a total hydrocarbon standard.
Methane is not toxic, but is more difficult to break down in a catalytic converter, so in effect a
"non-methane hydrocarbon" standard can be considered to be looser. Since methane is
a greenhouse gas, interest is rising in how to eliminate emissions of it.
 Carbon monoxide (CO) - A product of incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide reduces
the blood's ability to carry oxygen; overexposure (carbon monoxide poisoning) may be fatal.
 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Generated when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen at the high
temperature and pressure inside the engine. NOx is a precursor to smog and acid rain. NOxis
a mixture of NO and NO2. NO2 destroys resistance to respiratory infection. For dogs most of
the nitrogen dioxide is removed in the nasal cavity. Jumbo vehicles and delivery trucks blow
hot exhaust, containing life dangerous quantities of NO2 into the atmosphere.
 Particulate matter – Soot or smoke made up of particles in the micrometre size range:
Particulate matter causes negative health effects, including but not limited to respiratory
disease.
 Sulfur oxide (SOx) - A general term for oxides of sulphur,which are emitted from motor
vehicles burning fuels containing a high concentration of sulphur.

21
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AUTOMOBILES

Transportation is a major contributor to air pollution in most industrialised nations. According to

the American Surface Transportation Policy Project nearly half of all Americans are breathing
unhealthy air. Their study showed air quality in dozens of metropolitan areas has worsened over
the last decade.[27] In the United States the average passenger car emits 11,450 lbs (5 tonnes)
of carbon dioxide, along with smaller amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen.
[28]

Animals and plants are often negatively impacted by automobiles via habitat destruction and
pollution. Over the lifetime of the average automobile the "loss of habitat potential" may be over
50,000 square meters (538,195 square feet) based on Primary production correlations.[29]

Fuel taxes may act as an incentive for the production of more efficient, hence less
polluting, car designs (e.g. hybrid vehicles) and the development of alternative fuels. High
fuel taxes may provide a strong incentive for consumers to purchase lighter, smaller,
more fuel-efficient cars, or to not drive. On average, today's automobiles are about 75
percent recyclable, and using recycled steel helps reduce energy use and pollution.[30] In
the United States Congress, federally mandated fuel efficiency standards have been
debated regularly, passenger car standards have not risen above the 27.5 miles per US
gallon (8.55 L/100 km; 33.0 mpg ) standard set in 1985. Light truck standards have
-imp

changed more frequently, and were set at 22.2 miles per US gallon (10.6 L/100 km;
26.7 mpg ) in 2007.[31] Alternative fuel vehicles are another option that is less polluting than
-imp

conventional petroleum powered vehicles.

OTHER HARMFUL EFFECTS

Residents of low-density, residential-only sprawling communities are also more likely to

die in car collisions[original research?] which kill 1.2 million people worldwide each year, and
injure about forty times this number.[20] Sprawl is more broadly a factor in inactivity
and obesity, which in turn can lead to increased risk of a variety of diseases.[32]

22
DRIVERLESS VEHICLES
Fully autonomous vehicles, also known as robotic cars, or driverless cars, already exist in
prototype, and are expected to be commercially available around 2020. According to urban
designer and futurist Michael E. Arth, driverless electric vehicles—in conjunction with the
increased use of virtual reality for work, travel, and pleasure—could reduce the world's
800,000,000 vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades.[33] This would be possible
if almost all private cars requiring drivers, which are not in use and parked 90% of the time, would
be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use. This would also allow for
getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular need—a bus could come for a group of people, a
limousine could come for a special night out, and a Segway could come for a short trip down the
street for one person. Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety, DUIs would no longer
exist, and 41,000 lives could be saved each year in the U.S. alone.

FUTURE AUTOMOBILE TECHNOLOGIES

Automobile propulsion technology under development include gasoline/electric and plug-in

hybrids, battery electric vehicles, hydrogen cars, biofuels, and various alternative fuels.

Research into future alternative forms of power include the development of fuel
cells, Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), stirling engines,[36] and even using the
stored energy of compressed air or liquid nitrogen.

New materials which may replace steel car bodies include duraluminum, fiberglass, carbon fiber,
and carbon nanotubes.

Telematics technology is allowing more and more people to share cars, on a pay-as-you-
go basis, through such schemes as City Car Club in the UK, Mobility in mainland Europe,
andZipcar in the US.

OPEN SOURCE DEVELOPMENT

There have been several projects aiming to develop a car on the principles of open design.
The projects include OScar, Riversimple (through 40fires.org)[37] and c,mm,n.[38] None of the
projects have reached significant success in terms of developing a car as a whole both
from hardware and software perspective and no mass production ready open-source
based design have been introduced as of late 2009. Some car hacking through on-board
diagnostics (OBD) has been done so far.

23
INDUSTRY

The automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the world's motor
vehicles. In 2008, more than 70 million motor vehicles, including cars and commercial
vehicles were produced worldwide.[43]

In 2007, a total of 71.9 million new automobiles were sold worldwide: 22.9 million in Europe, 21.4
million in Asia-Pacific, 19.4 million in USA and Canada, 4.4 million in Latin America, 2.4 million in
the Middle East and 1.4 million in Africa.[44] The markets in North America and Japan were
stagnant, while those in South America and other parts of Asia grew strongly. Of the major
markets, China, Russia, Brazil and India saw the most rapid growth.

About 250 million vehicles are in use in the United States. Around the world, there were about
806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007; they burn over 260 billion gallons of gasoline
and diesel fuel yearly. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China and India.[4] In the
opinion of some, urban transport systems based around the car have proved unsustainable,
consuming excessive energy, affecting the health of populations, and delivering a declining level
of service despite increasing investments. Many of these negative impacts fall disproportionately
on those social groups who are also least likely to own and drive cars.[45][46][47] The sustainable
transport movement focuses on solutions to these problems.

In 2008, with rapidly rising oil prices, industries such as the automotive industry, are experiencing
a combination of pricing pressures from raw material costs and changes in consumer buying
habits. The industry is also facing increasing external competition from the public transport sector,
as consumers re-evaluate their private vehicle usage.[48] Roughly half of the US's fifty-one light
vehicle plants are projected to permanently close in the coming years, with the loss of another
200,000 jobs in the sector, on top of the 560,000 jobs lost this decade.[49] Combined with robust
growth in China, in 2009,this resulted in china becoming thelargest automobile producer and
market in the world.

24
MARKET

The automotive market is formed by the demand and the industry. This article is about the
general, major trends in the automotive market, mainly from the demand side.

The European automotive market has always boasted more smaller cars than the United States.
With the high fuel prices and the world petroleum crisis, the United States may see its automotive
market become more like the European market with fewer large vehicles on the road and
more small cars.[50]

For luxurious cars, with the current volatility in oil prices, going for smaller cars is not only smart,
but also trendy. And because fashion is of high importance with the upper classes, the little green
cars with luxury trimmings become quite plausible.

25