Flowing towards a solution to the

sign problem

Paulo Bedaque,
A. Alexandru, G. Basar, G. Ridgway,
N. Warrington
Central idea: deform the contour into the complex
plane:
Z
(z i20)2
p
dxe = ⇡

€
1.0

0.8

0.6
4 × 10173

0.4
2 × 10173

0.2

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-2 × 10173

-4 × 10173

Cristoforetti, DiRenzo, Scorzato, ‘12

 How to find good contour deformations ?

• integrands have no pole except at infinity

• outside the “good” asymptotic directions the integral diverges

Z
(hz+z 2 +z 4 )
dz e

integral depends
idle
,
'
: only
good on initial and final
asymptotic
: '
\

directions:
directions homological classes
How to find good deformations ?

d R
i @S R
@S I
= =
tff
d i @S
dt @ Ri @ I
i
A

= ) d Ii @S R @S I
dt @ i = =
dt @ Ii @ R
i

(real) field space gradient flow hamiltonian

of SR , flow of SI,
keeps integral keeps phase fixed
well defined
How to find good deformations ?
SR

relevant region
before flow
SR under the flow
How to find good deformations ?
SR

relevant region
before flow
SR under the flow
 How to find good deformations ?

i÷:n#
critical point:
thimble: SI=const.
@ S̄ N (real) dimensions
=0
@ i

a
How to find good deformations ?

i€€#
÷H÷€#
÷: =
'

.
Small regions are mapped (close) to thimbles and
contribute significantly to the integral, SI varies little.

The other regions flow towards S=∞ and contribute little

to the integral.
Previous attempts concentrated on using thimbles. Issues:
• Monte Carlo chain to stay on the thimble (Langevin
Cristoforetti et al. `12, HMC Fuji et al. `13)

• solution of classical e.o.m.=critical point: many thimbles

• which thimbles contribute? maybe only one thimble
matters in the i) thermodynamic limit and/or ii)
continuum limit
We’ll take a different route:

• forget thimbles
• too little flow=sign problem not ameliorated enough
• too much flow=Monte Carlo gets stuck into one region
in field space
 Complex Langevin
no complex
conjugation
d i @S
= + ⌘i
dt @ i
random
noise
• no general proof of convergence
• recent progress (gauge cooling) Seiler et al., ’12
• missing phases? Hayata et al., `15
The Complex Langevin flow is DIFFERENT and it
is used in a DIFFERENT (orthogonal) way

Problems we don't have:

•runaways
•not knowing whether the recipe is valid

Problems CL doesn't have

•trapping
•high computational cost from restriction to N-
dimensional manifold
 @ S̄ @S
holomorphic: gradient:
@ i @ i

. .
. ... .
. ..... . .

thimble
..
..
.
.
How to find good deformations ?

:÷€#
real fields ˜ a
parametrize the flowed N
R :
˜ ˜
Sef f [ ] = S[ ( )] ˜
log J[ ]
 The algorithm
J
z✓}| ◆{
R @ i
R ˜
d i det Oe SR iSI
d i Oe SR iSI @ ˜i
hOi = R = R ⇣ ⌘
d i e SR iSI d ˜i det @@ ˜i e SR iSI
i
Sef f
z }| {
R
d ˜i Oe iSI +iImJ e (SR ReJ) hOe iSI +iImJ iSef f
= R =
d ˜i e iSI +iImJ e (SR ReJ) he iSI +iImJ iSef f
'€t*()

dJij @2S
'm

= Jjk
dt @zi @zk J = detJ(T )
=
A

Jij (0) = I
"

this is the expensive part

 The algorithm
J
z ✓}| ◆{
R @ i
R ˜
d i det Oe SR iSI
d i Oe SR iSI @ ˜i
hOi = R = R ⇣ ⌘
d i e SR iSI d ˜i det @@ ˜i e SR iSI
i
Sef f
z }| {
R
d ˜i Oe iSI +iImJ e (SR ReJ) hOe iSI +iImJ iSef f
= R =
d ˜i e iSI +iImJ e (SR ReJ) he iSI +iImJ iSef f
'€t*()

our algorithm
=
'm

Metropolis in the real space,

=
A

action Seff and

"

reweighted phase ei Im(ln J)-i SI

Case study: massive Thirring model
Z 2
g
S = d2 x ¯a ( µ @µ + µ 0 + m) a + ¯a µ a ¯a µ a
2NF
Z
NF
! 2 d2 xAµ Aµ NF log det ( µ (@µ + Aµ ) + µ 0 + m)
2g
 1 X
A projection of the thimbles: = 2
L x
A0 (x)

Imϕ

0.75
⊗ ⊗

0.70
⊗ ⊗

0.65

-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5

Reϕ

critical
points
 1 X
A projection of the thimbles: = 2
L x
A0 (x)

Imϕ

0.75
⊗ ⊗

■ ■ ■ ■
⊗
0.70
⊗ detD=0,
Seff = ∞
thimbles 0.65

-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Reϕ

critical
points
 1 X
A projection of the thimbles: = 2
L x
A0 (x)

Imϕ

0.75
⊗ ⊗

■ ■ ■ ■
0.70
⊗ ⊗

same
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-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Reϕ
 1 X
A projection of the thimbles: = 2
L x
A0 (x)

Imϕ

0.75
⊗ ⊗

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-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

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-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Reϕ
 Case study: massive Thirring model
Wilson, 10 x10 lattice, NF=2, amf=0.3

〈n〉/mf
4 Re〈e-iSI 〉

1.0
3
RN 0.8

0.6
2
RN
0.4
1
0.2

μ/mf
μ/mf 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4

sign problem
 Case study: massive Thirring model
Wilson, 10 x10 lattice, NF=2, amf=0.3

〈n〉/mf
4 Re〈e-iSI 〉

1.0
N
3 R
0.8
flow=0.0
2
0.6 RN
0.4 flow=0.0
1
0.2

μ/mf
μ/mf 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4

sign problem
improved
 Case study: massive Thirring model
Wilson, 10 x10 lattice, NF=2, amf=0.3

〈n〉/mf
4 Re〈e-iSI 〉

RN 1.0
3
flow=0.0 0.8
flow=0.4 RN
0.6
2
flow=0.0
0.4
flow=0.4
1
0.2

μ/mf
μ/mf 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4

flow done with estimators for the jacobian

(difference reweighted)
no sign problem
 Case study: massive Thirring model
Wilson, 10 x10 lattice, NF=2, amf=0.3

〈n〉/mf
4 Re〈e-iSI 〉

RN 1.0
3
flow=0.0 0.8
flow=0.4 RN
0.6
2
flow=0.0
0.4
flow=0.4
1
0.2

μ/mf
μ/mf 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4

free particle
model
 Case study: massive Thirring model
Staggered, NF=2, amf=0.265

a〈n〉
0.25
aT=1/10
0.20 aT=1/20

0.15 aT=1/30 step is missed

0.10
aT=1/40
in a one thimble
0.05 calculation
aμ
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

cold limit
 Case study: massive Thirring model
Staggered, NF=2, T/mf=0.302, mfL=3.31
〈n〉/mf
2.0
Nt ×Nx =12×12
1.5
Nt ×Nx =16×16

Nt ×Nx =20×20
1.0

0.5 integer
μ/mf
particle number
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

continuum limit
 Case study: massive Thirring model
Staggered, NF=2, T/mf=0.302

〈n〉/mf
1.5
Nt ×Nx =10×10
Nt ×Nx =10×20
1.0

0.5

μ/mf
1 2 3 4

thermodynamic limit
 Test case: Real Time Dynamics

Viscosities, conductivities, … require:

Z
0 1 H 0 1 iSc [ ] 0
h (t) (t )i = Tr(e (t) (t )) = D e (t) (t )
Z Z

Tmax
-iβ
Schwinger-Keldish
contour
Test case: The Sign Problem from Hell

Tmax
-iβ

field at a point in the real

axis does not contribute to
the damping factor in eiSc
iIm(iSc )
he i=0
 Problems
N
•large flow needed (from R )
•jacobian expensive
•anisotropic proposals
•tangent space in wrong homology class
“Pseudo-fermions” for the jacobian
)*÷ii±÷÷€€

J0 ⌘ = ⌘˜ ⌘˜k = J0 Re(⌘)
¥

•isotropic proposal
•no need to compute det(J0)
⇒
1+1D φ4: nt=10, nx=10, nβ=2, λ=0.1
weak coupling
Cp=0 (t)
real Cp=1 (t)

4
0.5
2

t t
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

-2
-0.5
-4
imaginary

p=0 p=2π/L
1+1D φ4: nt=10, nx=10, nβ=2, λ=0.1
weak coupling
Cp=0 (t) Cp=1 (t)

4
0.5
2

t t
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

-2
-0.5
-4

p=0 p=2π/L
1+1D φ4: nt=10, nx=10, nβ=2, λ=0.1
weak coupling
Cp=0 (t) Cp=1 (t)

4
0.5
2

t t
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

-2
-0.5
-4

p=0 p=2π/L
1+1D φ4: nt=10, nx=10, nβ=2, λ=1.0
strong coupling
Cp=0 (t) Cp=0 (t)

4
real 0.3

0.2
2
0.1

t t
0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
-0.1
-2
-0.2
-4
-0.3

imaginary
p=0 p=2π/L
1+1D φ4: nt=10, nx=10, nβ=2, λ=1.0
strong coupling
Cp=0 (t) Cp=0 (t)

0.3
4
0.2
2
0.1

t t
0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
-0.1
-2
-0.2
-4
-0.3

p=0 p=2π/L
1+1D φ4: nt=10, nx=10, nβ=2, λ=1.0
strong coupling
Cp=0 (t) Cp=0 (t)

0.3
4
0.2
2
0.1

t t
0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
-0.1
-2
-0.2
-4
-0.3

p=0 p=2π/L
1+1D φ4: nt=10, nx=10, nβ=2, λ=1.0
strong coupling
Cp=0 (t) Cp=0 (t)

4
0.3

a ry
n
0.2

i
2
0.1

l i m
t t
0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5

re
-0.1
-2

P
-0.2
-4
-0.3

p=0 p=2π/L
 To take home:
• Deforming the integration on complex space is a good
thing

• Thimbles are just one possibility

• Jacobians are expensive: estimators, “pseudo-fermions”,

ansatze, alternative flows, …

• Better proposals: solved at weak coupling, “pseudo-

fermions”

• Trapping: two tempered MC’s (Fukuma&Masafumi `17,

Alexandru et al. `17)
 ECT* workshop
“Simulating QCD on Lefschetz
thimbles”
Trento, Italy, June 28-30, 2017
Test case: anharmonic oscillator

Flowing RN
Very slow convergence
 Sign problem
Standard field R
D e S[ ] O[ ] 1 X
theoretical hOi = R
D e S[ ]
⇡
N a
O[ a]

Monte Carlo:
configurations
e S[ ]
with P [ ] = R S[ ]
d e

What if S is not real ?