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University of Central
Punjab
Faculty of pharmacy
Pharmacognosy

History and scope of

pharmacognosy
Submitted By:
Ibtesam Ali Chaudhary (L1F18PHMD0057)
Burhan tayyab (L1F18PHMD0056)
Saad (L1F18PPHMD0051)

Submitted To:
Mam Rabia Saleem
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Contents

Sr # Topics
no.
1 Introduction.
2 Historical development of pharmacognosy.

3 Ancient Egyptians Period.

4 The Mesopotamian Therapeutic Formula.
5 The Babylonian Records.
6 .Old Indian Medicine.
7 The Chinese Records.
8 The Greek and Romans.
9 Islamic contribution.
10 The basic format of a herbal pharmacopoeia
includes.

11
Modern herbal pharmacopoeia

12 Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia:
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Introduction
The term comes from two Greek words: "pharmakon" meaning drug or medicine,
and "gnosis" meaning knowledge. Pharmacognosy is "the study of the physical,
chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances or
potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new
drugs from natural .(1)

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHARMACOGNOSY

Pharmacognosy is the oldest branch of all pharmaceutical sciences. The medicinal
use of plants dates back to prehistoric ages. The primitive man had a good knowledge
of the vegetable kingdom of his surroundings. Forests and meadows were the
pharmacies that supplied him with the drugs needed for his medicinal use. Simple
observation and crude experimenting with slight intelligence led him to differentiate
between harmful and useful plants. Folk medicine emerged by acquiring knowledge
of crude drugs. Very gradually primitive man learnt which plants were good edible and
which were poisonous. He also found that some plants (spices or condiments)
preserved meat and disguised unpleasant flavours and that other plants could be used
for making extracts useful as arrow-or spear-poison
The discovery of the healing properties of plants is as old as the human race and was
attributed to the gods themselves. It was thought that poisonous plants were the
abodes of evil spirits, and curative plants and herbs, the abodes of benevolent spirits
or deities. Vegetable drug-collectors were known since the early history of man. In this
way many drugs still employed at the present day first came into use. Even now among
certain primitive people, medicinal evolution is at this stage and it is often found that
plants which have a medicinal reputation are those which are most worthy of detailed
scientific examination.
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1.Ancient Egyptians Period:

The Ancient Egyptians 3000 B.C. were
experts in using drugs for curing diseases.
The healing of the sick was undertaken by
priest doctor and pharmacist “son” who
prescribed and prepared medicines. The
first recorded prescriptions were found in
Egyptian tombs. These are the hieratic
papyri. The most precious papyrus was
that found by E. Smith, also known as the
surgical papyrus. It is a copy of an old text
dated to 2980-2700 B.C. The other two
papyri are; Ebers papyrus dated back to
3500 years is now preserved in University
of Leipzig, and the gynacologic papyrus of
Kahun and Gurob. . Nevertheless, they
contain about 400 primary materials Fig 3: Ancient Egyptian Doctor treating patient
enclosed probably in the “Egyptian
pharmacopeia” of the ancient Egyptians.
The first group of this materials includes those of an animal origin e.g. blood, meat,
horn, milk, egg, honey, wine and excreta. The second group includes materials of
vegetable origin e.g. Acacia, Aloes, Gum, Myrrh, Pomegranate, Colocynth, Linseed,
Coriander, Cumin, Anise, Castor …etc. They used all the vegetable organs e.g. roots,
rhizomes flowers, leaves, fruits, seeds, as oils and ashes.(2)

2. The Mesopotamian Therapeutic Formula:

The Babylonian medicine, known through the interpretations of the tables written in
cuneiform script, (lows of Hamorbi 772 B.C.). The drugs
used were mainly vegetable origin.
The Babylonian king Mardouk Happaliden 11 (772 B.C.)
had built a garden for medicinal plants e.g. Apples,
Pomegranate, Cucumber, Oranges, Garlic, Onion,
Saffron, Fennel, Thyme, Coriander, Rose, Laurel,
Liquorices.
The other important notice was the application of the
drugs in the form of a decoction, usually administered
before sunrise, as the decoctions were prepared by night.
The drugs were usually mixed with honey, water, oil or
wine. The Mesopotamian formulae include 250 materials
of plants, 180 materials of animal source. Many of these
drugs were known to the ancient Egyptians.(4) Fig 2: Mesopotamian therapeutic
records
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3. The Babylonian Records:

The Babylonian used drugs of plant origin in their practice of medicine as far back as
1770 BC ,and many drugs from plant and mineral sources were listed in Babylonian
medical recipes. The earliest record had 250 vegetable drugs including opium menthe
thymus etc…(6)

Fig 3 : Babylonian Records & picture showing treatment of patient

4.Old Indian Medicine:

The principal aim of the old Indian medicine was to prolong human life, hence the
knowledge of the secrets of vegetable drugs. So the “Riveda” and Ayurveda (Acoko
2000 B.C.), contained the scared medicinal
plants. The fresh plants were considered to
be the most effective, and the plants must be
taken from fertile soil washed with pure
water, exposed to sun for a certain period
and protected in the shade, always directed
towards the north. They classified drugs into
two categories; the purgative group including
cathartics, emetics and these increasing
nasal flows; and the tranquilizers. They used
milk decoctions, butter, honey sugar, sesame
oil as bases for oral medicines.,(8)
Fig 4 : Indian medication
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5.The Chinese Records:

Chinese traditional medicine is well acknowledged for acupuncture and has
experienced many changes over the years. It richly comprises plant based
products,as documented in the volume "Pen Ts'ao Kang Moa"
( 3000 BC) which contained records of medicinal plants and
drugs of animal origin as well. These medicinal agents included
anise, ginseng, rhubarb,ephedra, and pomegranate. The
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) system, believed to be
more than 5000 years old, is based on two separate theories
about the natural laws that govern good health and longevity,
namely yin and yang,and the five elements ( wuxing). The
legendary emperor Shen Nung discussed medicinal hervs in his
work, which was probably written about 2700BC instead of their
traditional date of 3700 BC. However, TCM, as a series of
practices, was systematized and written between 100 and 200
BC. A complete reference to Chinese medicine prescriptions
is the Modern Day Encyclopedia of Chinese Materia Medica Fig 5: Chinese Materia Medica
published in 1977. It lists nearly 6000 drugs of which 4800
are of plant origin.

6.The Greek and Romans:

They treated many diseases by drugs. Pythagoras (580 B.C.) used drugs as Mustard
Hippocrates (466 B.C.) was familiar with numerous drugs, and wrote Corpus
Hipocraticum 460 B.C. Theophrates, (370 B.C.) pupil of Aristotle enumerated about
500 plants; Ergot was one of them.(12)

Dioscorides, also a Greek physician, in 77 AD was one of the first to describe drugs in
his work, he is referred to as " the father of Pharmacognosy". In his work " De Materia
Medica," he documented the use of
944 drugs of which 657 were of plant
origin. Galen ( CE 130-200), a Roman
physician and Pharmacist mentioned
earlier, was known to use " Galenical
preparations" to manage several
diseases, such as Uvaeursi folium
used as an uroantiseptic and a mild
diuretic continuing today. He also
compiled the first list of drugs with
supposedly similar or identical actions
and thus interchangeable," De
succedanus", which are today not
used given the pharmacological Fig 6: Some old greek pharmacopeias
disparities. (12)
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7.Islamic contribution:
When the Roman Empire crumbled in its turn and Europe entered the long night of
the dark ages. It was the Islamic civilization that took up and kept light the torch of
medicine, not only translating the Greece-Roman medical literature into Arabic, but
also adding commentaries and original observations. It is in Islamic writings that are
to be found the first beginnings of
chemistry; the very name of which is
derived from an Arabic word “Kemia”
as were also such familiar words
alcohol and alkali. It was through the
Islamic literature that the earlier
medical knowledge returned to
Europe.

The Arabs added numerous new

plants and medicaments to those
already known to the Greeks and
Romans. In their days, pharmacy
attained its highest reputation and
Fig 7: some work done by muslim scientists
become an independent branch of
medicine. It is interesting to note that
the first dispensary was opened in Baghdad, the center of trade in those days. The
dispensary was made of Sandal wood and named “Sandalia”. Rhazes (850-932 A.D.)
who was born at Rai in Persia was a very prominent physician and the director of
Baghdad Hospital in the days of El-Mansour. He published a famous book, “ALHAWI
KABEER” ‫الكبير الحاوي‬.

Outstanding among the Islamic writers was Ibn

Sina (980-1037 A.D.) His “Canon” of medicine has
been described as the most famous medical text
ever written and as having dominated the medical
schools of Europe and Asia and served as the
chief source of medical knowledge for 5 centuries,
till the 15th century. "‫القانون‬

Ibn Al-Baitar was the best Arabian

pharmacognosist and botanist and ranks with
Dioscorides in that respect. His book “Jame-ul-
Muffradat” contains description of 2000 drugs.
"‫"المفردات جامع‬

Shaikh Dawood El-Antaki. Wrote a book named

“Tazkarat Uli Al-Albab”, now known as “Tazkarat
Dawood Antaki” which describes several hundred
herbs besides drugs of animal and mineral origin,
it was written about 1008 A.D. "‫"داوود تذكرة‬ Fig 8 : Al hawi al kabir
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The basic format of a herbal pharmacopoeia includes:

Characteristics: Macroscopical and microscopical descriptions of the herbal
material, prepared by eminent pharmacognosists, together with odour and taste
descriptions.
Identification: In devising techniques for comparative identification, particular attention
was paid to thin-layer chromatography (TLC) with the help of chromatography
specialists. All the TLC methods were designed to be within the scope of the average
chemical laboratory. Complex procedures and the need for a wide range of chemical
markers were deliberately avoided.
Quantitative Standards: Depending on the material, these may include limits for
foreign matter, loss on drying, total and/or acid-insoluble ash, amounts of solvent
extractives and volatile oil. The limits were set after extensive consultation with the
industry, herbal practitioners and academics to arrive at realistic control specifications
for assurance of quality without excluding satisfactory materials of commerce.
Quantitative assays for active principles are not included in the monographs because,
in the majority of cases, it is not possible to determine which individual components
within a herb are the actives. Herbs contain a complex and synergistic mixture of active
compounds which rarely exhibit the same potency when isolated.
Material of Commerce: A brief description of the form of the material and its main
geographical sources.
Powdered Material: A description of characteristic macroscopical and
microscopical features.
Action: Very briefly, the principal pharmacological action(s) of the herb.

Modern herbal pharmacopoeia:

The modern day pharmacopoeias are strictly for standards of medicines and every
developed country has a pharmacopoeia for their medicaments of synthetic as well
as natural origin. Some popular herbal pharmacopoeias of world are American
Herbal Pharmacopoeia (AHP), British Herbal Pharmacopoeia (BHP), Korean Herbal
Pharmacopoeia (KHP), etc. The AHP develops qualitative and therapeutic
monographs on botanicals, including many of the Ayurvedic, Chinese, and Western
herbs most frequently used in the United States. These monographs represent the
most comprehensive and critically reviewed body of information on herbal medicines
in the English language.
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Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia:
Most of the popular Indian Traditional systems of medicine has been developing
pharmacopoeias for herbs used in it. Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (API) has
monographs for 600 plant/animal/mineral derived drugs. Monographs for 152
compound Ayurvedic formulations are published in Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of
.Other than API, Siddha Pharmacopoeia of India .Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia of
India and Unani Pharmacopoeia of India are the standards of books available for
Indian herbs. The pioneering work Quality standards of Indian Medicinal plants by
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) is a non pharmacopoeial masterpiece for
reference on standards of Indian herbs. Monographs on 449 plants included in the
book would help in improving monographs in API and other Pharmacopoeias of
Indian origin.(11)
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Reference
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