Indus Valley Civilization

History:

Indus valley civilization [2500 BC-1500 BC]-

The sensational discoveries made at Harappa in West Punjab and Mohenjodaro in
Sind has revolutionized idea of ancient Indian history. Indus valley civilization of India is
even superior to that of Mesopotamia and Egypt. The Indus-Valley people were well-
acquainted with the use both of cotton and wool. The numerous specimens of pottery, seals,
bracelets etc reveal that arts and crafts flourished. The people lived a very comfortable
life in well built houses and baths. The streets were all well planned and drains regularly
drained out. It was essentially urban civilization. The merchant class contributed to the
general prosperity and trade contacts seem to have been established with the Sumerian
[Bahrain] and Mesopotamian [Iraq] civilization of those times. Sir John Marshall the
eminent Indologist came up with name of this civilization as Indus valley because it was
settled around river Indus

Major Sites/cities-

 Harappa-This is 1st discovered site of Indus valley by eminent Indologist Sir

John Marshall in 1921 at the bank on Ravi. The Indus civilization was originally
called Harappan civilization after this site. A grain house and proof of water
transportation founded at this site

 Mohenjodaro [Maut ka Tila]-Mohenjodaro (Sind) is situated on the right bank

of the Indus. This city was discovered by Mr. Rakhal Das Bennerji in 1922.
Mohenjodaro is the largest of all the Indus cities and has a population estimated
to between 41,000 and 35,000. The Great Bath place of Mohenjodaro is the most
important public place measuring 39 feet (length) x 23 feet (breadth) x 8 feet
(depth). Located at the centre of the citadel it is remarkable for beautiful brick work.
Its floor is made of burnt bricks set in gypsum and mortar. Archeologist Wheeler
discovered a monumental like temple and administrative units.

 Chanhudaro- [Mackay 1925] Chanhudaro lies on the left bank of the

Indus about 130 km south of Mohenjodaro. No citadel had been discovered here so
this is the only exceptional site in this case. A small pot was discovered at
Chanhudaro which was probably an inkpot. Harappan pottery is bright or dark red
and is uniformly sturdy and well baked

 Kalibanga-Kalibanga (Rajasthan) was on the banks of the river Ghaggar which

dried up centuries ago. It is one of two Indus cities which have both proto-Harappan
and Harappan cultural phases. In its proto-Harappan phase the fields were ploughed.
But in the Harappan phase they were not ploughed but dug up. It is discovered
by Amalanand Ghosh in 1951.
Traces of the remains of massive brick walls around both the citadel and the lower
town have been discovered here. Archaeologists discovered two platforms with fire
altar suggesting the practice of cult of sacrifice. Leg bone of elephant was also
found at Kalibanga

 Lothal-It was only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard. It must have
served as the main seaport of the Indus people. Agriculture in Harappan
Civilization - Lothal has evidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (1800
BC). The only other Indus site where rice husk has been found is Rangpur near
 Ahmadabad. Lothal is at the head of the Gulf of Cambay. Fire altars indicating the
probable existence of a fire cult have been found. Evidence for the use of horse
comes from a doubtful terracotta figurine of a horse. Impressions of cloth are
noticeable on some of the sealing found here. This site was discovered by S.R.
Rao in 1954.

 Banawali-Banawali (Haryana) was situated on the banks of the now extinct

Saraswati River. It has evidence of having both proto Harappan and Harappan
cultural phases. It shares almost all the common features of Indus cities such as
town planning, grid system, drainage system and the like. Site discovered by R.S.
Bisht in 1973.

 Surkotada-Surkotada (Gujarat) is at the head of the Rann of Kutch. It is the only

Indus site where the remains of a horse have actually been found. It must
have been another port city though no docking facilities as at Lothal have been found
here

 Dholavira-Dholavira (Gujarat) excavated is in the Kutch district. It is the latest

Indus city discovered in India and also one of the largest sites of the civilization.
The excavation work was carried by R.S Bisht and his team in 1990-91. It shares
almost all the common features of Indus cities such as town planning, grid pattern,
drainage system and elaborates fortification. The unique feature of this site is
its division in three sections as compare to two parts in other sites. J.P.
Joshi in 1967-68 had a pivotal contribution in discovery of this site

Town Planning in Indus civilization-

The most significant characteristic feature of the Harappan Civilization was its
urbanization. The cities show evidence of an advanced sense of planning and organization.
Each city was divided into the citadel area where the essential institutions of civic and
religious life were located and the residential area where the urban population lived. In the
citadel the most impressive buildings were the granaries which were store -houses. The
town was extremely well planned. The street ran straight and at right angles to each other
following the grid system. The rectangular town planning was unique to the
Harappan and was not known in Mesopotamia or Egypt. The streets were very wide
and the houses built of burnt bricks lined both sides of the street. In Egypt and
Mesopotamia dried or baked bricks were used. The houses were of varying sizes which
suggest class differences in Harappan society. A well laid drainage system kept the cities
clean

Trade-Trade with neighboring civilizations like Mesopotamia and Sumerian was in vogue.
There was prevailed barter system of exchange but various kind of seals also used for
same purpose. Lothal was main port at that time. The Harappan cultivated wheat and
barley the two main food crops. Peas and dates were also grown. In addition sesame and
mustard were grown and used for oil. However the people cultivated rice as early as 1800
BC in Lothal. The Harappan’s were the earliest people to grow cotton. Irrigation depended
on the irregular flooding of the rivers of Punjab and Sind.
The various occupations in which people were engaged spanned a wide range. Spinning
and weaving of cotton and wool. Goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold and precious
stones and metal workers made tools and implements in copper and bronze
** Copper was main metal used by people because iron was not known to them at that time
***Main types of seals are the square type with a carved animal and inscription and
rectangular type with inscription only
***Cow and Lion were not known. Ragi was also not known to the Indus people

Religion-Clay figures of the Mother Goddess as the symbol of fertility have been found-
these were worshipped by the people. A seated figure of a male god carved on a small stone
seal was also found. The seal immediately brings to our mind the traditional image
of Pasupati Mahadev. Certain trees seem to have been treated as sacred such as pipal.
They also held the bull sacred.

Script and Languages-Harappan script is regarded as pictographic since its signs

represent birds, fish, varieties of the human form etc. This script is not deciphered yet.
The language of the Harappan’s is still unknown and must remain so until the script is read

Decline of civilization-Historians have different opinions regarding the causes of the

decay and disappearance of the Harappan culture. Historians are of the view that the
decline of the Indus Civilization was not the result of a single event; it was a slow decline
and a result of combination of factors like natural disaster and Aryan invasion etc

Profile
India is one of the oldest civilizations in the world with a kaleidoscopic variety and rich cultural
heritage. It has achieved all-round socio-economic progress during the last 67 years of its
Independence. India has become self-sufficient in agricultural production and is now one of the top
industrialised countries in the world and one of the few nations to have gone into outer space to
conquer nature for the benefit of the people. It covers an area of 3,287,590 sq. km (1,269,346 sq mi),
extending from the snow-covered Himalayan heights to the tropical rain forests of the south. As the 7th
largest country in the world, India stands apart from the rest of Asia, marked off as it is by mountains
and the sea, which give the country a distinct geographical entity. Bounded by the Great Himalayas in
the north, it stretches southwards and at the Tropic of Cancer, tapers off into the Indian Ocean
between the Bay of Bengal on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west.

Lying entirely in the northern hemisphere, the mainland extends between latitudes 8° 4' and 37° 6'
north, longitudes 68° 7' and 97° 25' east and measures about 3,214 km from north to south between
the extreme latitudes and about 2,933 km from east to west between the extreme longitudes. It has a
land frontier of about 15,200 km. The total length of the coastline of the mainland, Lakshadweep
Islands and Andaman & Nicobar Islands is 7,516.6 km.

Particulars Description

Population India's population, as on 1 March 2011

stood at 1,210,193,422
(623.7 million males and 586.4 million females).

Population The average annual exponential growth rate

stands at 1.64 per cent
Growth Rate during 2001-2011.

Birth Rate The Crude Birth rate was 18.3 in 2009.

Death Rate The Crude Death rate was 7.3 in 2009.

Life Expectancy 65.8 years (Males); 68.1 years (Females)

Rate in the period 2006-2011.

Sex Ratio 940 females per 1000 males according to 2011 census

Nationality Indian

Ethnic Groups All the five major racial types - Australoid, Mongoloid,
Europoid, Caucasian, and Negroid find representation
among the people of India.

Religions According to the 2001 census,out of the total population of

1,028 million in the Country, Hindus constituted the majority with 80.5%,
Muslims came second at 13.4%, followed by Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists,
Jains, and others.

Languages There are 22 different languages that have been

recognised by the Constitution of India, of which Hindi is an Official Language.
Article 343(3) empowered Parliament to provide by law for continued use of
English for official purposes.

Literacy According to the provisional results of the 2011 census, the literacy rate in the
Country stands at 74.04 per cent, 82.14% for males and 65.46% for females.
Particulars Description

Country Name Republic of India; Bharat Ganrajya

Government Type Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic

Republic with a Parliamentary system of Government.

Capital New Delhi

Administrative Divisions 28 States and 7 Union Territories.

Independence 15th August 1947 (From the British Colonial Rule)

Constitution The Constitution of India came into force on 26th

January 1950.

Legal System The Constitution of India is the fountain source of

the legal system in the Country.

Executive Branch The President of India is the Head of the State,

while the Prime Minister is the
Head of the Government, and runs office with
the support of the Council of Ministers who form
the Cabinet Ministry.

Legislative Branch The Indian Legislature comprises of the Lok Sabha

(House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha
(Council of States) forming both the Houses
of the Parliament.
 Judicial Branch The Supreme Court of India is the apex body of the
Indian legal system, followed
by other High Courts and subordinate Courts.

Flag Description The National Flag is a horizontal tricolour of deep

saffron (kesaria) at the top,
white in the middle, and dark green at the bottom
in equal proportion. At the
centre of the white band is a navy blue wheel, which
is a representation of the Ashoka Chakra at Sarnath.

National Days 26th January (Republic Day)

15th August (Independence Day)
2nd October (Gandhi Jayanti; Mahatma Gandhi's Birthday)

Ancient History
India's history and culture is dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human civilization. It begins with a
mysterious culture along the Indus River and in farming communities in the southern lands of India. The
history of India is punctuated by constant integration of migrating people with the diverse cultures that
surround India. Available evidence suggests that the use of iron, copper and other metals was widely
prevalent in the Indian sub-continent at a fairly early period, which is indicative of the progress that this
part of the world had made. By the end of the fourth millennium BC, India had emerged as a region of
highly developed civilization.

The Indus Valley Civilization

The History of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization, more precisely known as Harappan
Civilization. It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, what today is Pakistan and
Western India. The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt,
Mesopotamia, India and China. Nothing was known about this civilization till 1920s when the Archaeological
Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein the ruins of the two old cities, viz.
Mohenjodaro and Harappa were unearthed. The ruins of buildings and other things like household articles,
weapons of war, gold and silver ornaments, seals, toys, pottery wares, etc., show that some four to five
thousand years ago a highly developed Civilization flourished in this region.

The Indus valley civilization was basically an urban civilization and the people lived in well-planned and well-
built towns, which were also the centers for trade. The ruins of Mohenjodaro and Harappa show that these
were magnificent merchant cities-well planned, scientifically laid, and well looked after. They had wide roads
and a well-developed drainage system. The houses were made of baked bricks and had two or more storeys.

The highly civilized Harappans knew the art of growing cereals, and wheat and barley constituted their
staple food. They consumed vegetables and fruits and ate mutton, pork and eggs as well. Evidences also
show that they wore cotton as well as woollen garments. By 1500 BC, the Harappan culture came to an end.
Among various causes ascribed to the decay of Indus Valley Civilization are the invasion by the Aryans, the
recurrent floods and other natural causes like earthquake, etc.
Vedic civilization: The Vedic civilization is the earliest civilization in the history of ancient India
associated with the coming of Aryans. It is named after the Vedas, the early literature of the Hindu people.
The Vedic Civilization flourished along the river Saraswati, in a region that now consists of the modern
Indian states of Haryana and Punjab. Vedic is synonymous with Aryans and Hinduism, which is another
name for religious and spiritual thought that has evolved from the Vedas. The largely accepted view is that a
section of Aryans reached the frontiers of the Indian subcontinent around 2000 BC and first settled in Punjab
and it is here, in this land, where the hymns of Rigveda were composed.

The Aryans lived in tribes and spoke Sanskrit, which belonged to the Indo-European group of languages.
Gradually, the Aryans intermingled with the local people and a historic synthesis was worked out between
the Aryan tribes and the original inhabitants. This synthesis broadly came to be known as Hinduism. The
Ramayana and Mahabharata were the two great epics of this period.

The Buddhist Era: During the life time of Lord Gautam Buddha, sixteen great powers (Mahajanpadas)
existed in the 7th and early 6th centuries BC. Among the more important republics were the Sakyas of
Kapilavastu and the Licchavis of Vaishali. Besides the republics, there were monarchical states, among which
the important ones were Kaushambi (Vatsa), Magadha, Kosala and Avanti. These states were ruled by
vigorous personalities who had embarked upon the policies of aggrandisement and absorption of
neighbouring states. However, there were distinct signs of the republican states while those under the
monarchs were expanding.

Buddha was born in BC 560 and died at the age of eighty in BC 480. The place of his birth was a grove
known as Lumbini, near the city of Kapilavastu, at the foot of Mount Palpa in the Himalayan ranges within
Nepal. Buddha, whose original name was Siddhartha Gautama, was the founder of Buddhism, the religion
and the philosophical system that evolved into a great culture throughout much of southern and eastern
Asia.

Alexander's Invasion: In 326 BC, Alexander invaded India, after crossing the river Indus he advanced
towards Taxila. He then challenged king Porus , ruler of the kingdom between the rivers Jhelum and
Chenab. The Indians were defeated in the fierce battle, even though they fought with elephants, which the
Macedonians had never before seen. Alexander captured Porus and, like the other local rulers he had
defeated, allowed him to continue to govern his territory.

During this trip to rivers Hydaspes and Indus in the south, Alexander sought out the Indian philosophers,
the Brahmins, who were famous for their wisdom, and debated with them on philosophical issues. He
became legendary for centuries in India for being both, a wise philosopher and a fearless conqueror.

One of the villages in which the army halted belonged to the Mallis, who were said to be one of the most
warlike of the Indian tribes. Alexander was wounded several times in this attack, most seriously when an
arrow pierced his breastplate and his ribcage. The Macedonian officers rescued him in a narrow escape from
the village.

Alexander and his army reached the mouth of the Indus in July 325 BC, and turned westward for home.

The Mauryan Empire: The period of the Mauryan Empire (322 BC-185 BC) marked a new epoch in the
history of India. It is said to be a period when chronology became definite. It was a period when politics, art,
trade and commerce elevated India to a glorious height. It was a period of unification of the territories which
lay as fragmented kingdoms. Moreover, Indian contact with the outside world was established effectively
during this period.

The confusion following the death of Alexander gave Chandragupta Maurya an opportunity to liberate the
countries from the yoke of the Greeks, and thus occupy the provinces of Punjab and Sindh. He later
overthrew the power of Nandas at Magadha with the aid of Kautilya, and founded a glorious Mauryan empire
in 322 BC. Chandragupta, who ruled from 324 to 301 BC, thus, earned the title of liberator and the first
emperor of Bharata.
At a higher age, Chandragupta got interested in religion and left his throne to his son Bindusar in 301 BC.
Bindusar conquered the Highland of Deccan during his reign of 28 years and gave his throne to his son
Ashoka in 273 BC. Ashoka emerged not only as the most famous king of the Maurya dynasty, but is also
regarded as one of the greatest king of India and the world.

His empire covered the whole territory from Hindu Kush to Bengal and extended over Afghanistan,
Baluchistan and the whole of India with the exception of a small area in the farthest south. The valleys of
Nepal and Kashmir were also included in his empire.

The most important event of Ashoka's reign was the conquest of Kalinga (modern Odisha) which proved to
be the turning point of his life. The Kalinga war witnessed terrible manslaughter and destruction. The
sufferings and atrocities of the battlefield lacerated the heart of Ashoka. He made a resolve not to wage war
any more. He realised the wickedness of worldly conquest and the beauty of moral and spiritual triumph. He
was drawn to the teachings of Buddha and devoted his life to the conquest of men's heart by the law of duty
or piety. He evolved a policy of Dharma Vijaya, 'Conquest by Piety'.

End of the Mauryan Empire

Ashoka was succeeded by weak rulers, which encouraged the provinces to proclaim their independence. The
arduous task of administering such a vast empire could not be executed by the weak rulers. The mutual
quarrel among the successors also contributed to the decline of the Mauryan Empire.

In the beginning of the 1st century A.D., the Kushanas established their authority over the north-west
frontier of India. The most famous among the Kushana kings was Kanishka (125 A.D.-162 A.D.), who was
the third in the Kushana dynasty. The Kushana rule continued till the middle of 3rd century A.D. The most
notable achievement of their rule was the development of Gandhara School of Art and further spread of
Buddhism into distant regions of Asia.

Gupta Dynasty: After the Kushanas, the Guptas were the most important dynasty. The Gupta period
has been described as the Golden Age of Indian history. The first famous king of the Gupta dynasty was
Ghatotkacha's son Chandragupta I. He married Kumaradevi, the daughter of the chief of the Licchavis. This
marriage was a turning point in the life of Chandragupta I. He got Pataliputra in dowry from the Lichhavis.
From Pataliputra, he laid the foundation of his empire and started conquering many neighbouring states with
the help of the Licchavis. He ruled over Magadha (Bihar), Prayaga and Saketa (east Uttar Pradesh). His
kingdom extended from the river Ganges to Allahabad. Chandragupta I also got the title of Maharajadhiraja
(King of Kings) and ruled for about fifteen years.

Chandragupta I was succeeded by Samudragupta in about 330 A.D., who reigned for about fifty years. He
was a great military genius and is said to have commanded a military campaign across the Deccan, and also
subdued the forest tribes of the Vindhya region.

Samudragupta's successor Chandragupta II, also known as Vikramaditya, conquered the extensive
territories of Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar. This provided exceptional wealth, which added to the prosperity
of the Guptas. The Guptas in this period engaged in sea trade with the countries of the west. It was most
probably during his reign that Kalidas, the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist, as well as many other
scientist and scholars flourished.

Decline of Gupta Dynasty

The decline of the Gupta power in northern India between the close of 5th and the 6th century A.D. gave rise
to various small independent kingdoms and attracted foreign invasions of Huns. Toramara was the leader of
the Huns and was successful in annexing large parts of the Gupta Empire. His son, Mihirakula was a cruel
barbarian and one of the worst tyrants known. Two native powerful princes, Yasodharman of Malwa and
Baladitya of Magadha crushed his power and put an end to his reign in India.

Harshavardhana: With the commencement of the 7th century, Harshavardhana (606-647 A.D.)
ascended the throne of Thaneshwar and Kannauj on the death of his brother, Rajyavardhana. By 612
Harshavardhana consolidated his kingdom in northern India.
In 620 A.D. Harshavardhana invaded the Chalukya kingdom in the Deccan, which was then ruled by
Pulakesin II. But the Chalukya resistance proved tough for Harshavardhana and he was defeated.
Harshavardhana is well known for his religious toleration, able administration and diplomatic relations. He
maintained diplomatic relations with China and sent envoys, who exchanged ideas of the Chinese rulers and
developed their knowledge about each other.

The Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang, who visited India during his reign, has given a vivid description of the
social, economic and religious conditions, under the rule of Harsha spoke highly of the king. Harsha's death,
once again, left India without any central paramount power.

The Chalukyas of Badami : The Chalukyas were a great power in southern India between 6th and
8th century A.D. Pulakesin I, the first great ruler of this dynasty ascended the throne in 540 A.D. and having
made many splendid victories, established a mighty empire. His sons Kirtivarman and Mangalesa further
extended the kingdom by waging many successful wars against the neighbours including the Mauryans of
the Konkans.

Pulakesin II, the son of Kirtivarman, was one of the greatest ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. He ruled for
almost 34 years. In this long reign, he consolidated his authority in Maharashtra and conquered large parts
of the Deccan. His greatest achievement was his victory in the defensive war against Harshavardhana.

However, Pulakesin was defeated and killed by the Pallav king Narasimhavarman in 642 A.D. His son
Vikramaditya, who was also as great a ruler as his father, succeeded him. He renewed the struggle against
his southern enemies. He recovered the former glory of the Chalukyas to a great extent. Even his great
grandson, Vikramaditya II was also a great warrior. In 753 A.D., Vikramaditya and his son were overthrown
by a chief named Dantidurga who laid the foundation of the next great empire of Karnataka and
Maharashtra called Rashtrakutas.

The Pallavas of Kanchi: In the last quarter of the 6th century A.D. the Pallava king Sinhavishnu rose
to power and conquered the area between the rivers Krishna and Cauveri. His son and successor
Mahendravarman was a versatile genius, who unfortunately lost the northern parts of his dominion to the
Chalukya king, Pulekesin II. But his son, Narsinhavarman I, crushed the power of Chalukyas. The Pallava
power reached its glorious heights during the reign of Narsinhavarman II, who is well known for his
architectural achievements. He built many temples, and art and literature flourished in his times. Dandin,
the great Sanskrit scholar, lived in his court. However, after his death, the Pallava Empire began to decline
and in course of time they were reduced to a mere local tribal power. Ultimately, the Cholas defeated the
Pallava king Aparajita and took over their kingdom towards the close of the 9th century A.D.

The ancient history of India has seen the rise and downfall of several dynasties, which have left their
legacies still resounding in the golden book of Indian history. With the end of the 9th century A.D., the
medieval history of India started with the rise of empires such as the Palas, the Senas, the Pratiharas and
the Rashtrakutas, and so on.

Medieval History of India

For a period that has come to be so strongly associated with the Islamic influence and rule in India, Medieval
Indian history went for almost three whole centuries under the so-called indigenous rulers, that included the
Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Pandyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Muslims rulers and finally the Mughal Empire.
The most important dynasty to emerge in the middle of the 9th century was that of the Cholas.

The Palas: Between 8th and 10th centuries A.D., a number of powerful empires dominated the eastern and
northern parts of India. The Pala king Dharmpala, son of Gopala reigned from the late 8th century A.D. to
early 9th century A.D. Nalanda University and Vikramashila University were founded by Dharmpala.

The Senas: After the decline of the Palas, the Sena dynasty established its rule in Bengal. The founder of
the dynasty was Samantasena. The greatest ruler of the dynasty was Vijaysena. He conquered the whole of
Bengal and was succeeded by his son Ballalasena. He reigned peacefully but kept his dominions intact. He
was a great scholar and wrote four works including one on astronomy. The last ruler of this dynasty was
Lakshamanasena under whose reign the Muslims invaded Bengal, and the empire fell.

The Pratihara: The greatest ruler of the Pratihara dynasty was Mihir Bhoja. He recovered Kanauj
(Kanyakubja) by 836, and it remained the capital of the Pratiharas for almost a century. He built the city
Bhojpal (Bhopal). Raja Bhoja and other valiant Gujara kings faced and defeated many attacks of the Arabs
from west.

Between 915-918 A.D, Kanauj was attacked by a Rashtrakuta king, who devastated the city leading to the
weakening of the Pratihara Empire. In 1018, Kannauj then ruled by Rajyapala Pratihara was sacked by
Mahmud of Ghazni. The empire broke into independent Rajput states.

The Rashtrakutas: This dynasty, which ruled from Karnataka, is illustrious for several reasons. They
ruled the territory vaster than that of any other dynasty. They were great patrons of art and literature. The
encouragement that several Rashtrakuta kings provided to education and literature is unique, and the
religious tolerance exercised by them was exemplary.

The Chola Empire of the South

It emerged in the middle of the 9th century A.D., covered a large part of Indian peninsula, as well as parts of
Sri Lanka and the Maldives Islands.
The first important ruler to emerge from the dynasty was Rajaraja Chola I and his son and successor
Rajendra Chola. Rajaraja carried forward the annexation policy of his father. He led armed expedition to
distant lands of Bengal, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh.

The successors of Rajendra I, Rajadhiraj and Rajendra II were brave rulers who fought fiercely against the
later Chalukya kings, but could not check the decline of Chola Empire. The later Chola kings were weak and
incompetent rulers. The Chola Empire thus lingered on for another century and a half, and finally came to an
end with the invasion of Malik Kafur in the early 14th century A.D.

The Rise of Islam in South-Asia

The initial entry of Islam into South Asia came in the first century after the death of the Prophet
Muhammad. The Umayyad caliph in Damascus sent an expedition to Baluchistan and Sindh in 711 led by
Muhammad bin Qasim. He captured Sindh and Multan. Three hundred years after his death Sultan Mahmud
of Ghazni, the ferocious leader, led a series of raids against Rajput kingdoms and rich Hindu temples, and
established a base in Punjab for future incursions. In 1024, the Sultan set out on his last famous expedition
to the southern coast of Kathiawar along the Arabian Sea, where he sacked the city of Somnath and its
renowned Hindu temple.

Muslim Invasion In India

Muhammad Ghori invaded India in 1175 A.D. After the conquest of Multan and Punjab, he advanced towards
Delhi. The brave Rajput chiefs of northern India headed by Prithvi Raj Chauhan defeated him in the First
Battle of Terrain in 1191 A.D. After about a year, Muhammad Ghori came again to avenge his defeat. A
furious battle was fought again in Terrain in 1192 A.D. in which the Rajputs were defeated and Prithvi Raj
Chauhan was captured and put to death. The Second Battle of Terrain, however, proved to be a decisive
battle that laid the foundations of Muslim rule in northern India.

The Delhi Sultanate

The period between 1206 A.D. and 1526 A.D. in India's history is known as the Delhi Sultanate period.
During this period of over three hundred years, five dynasties ruled in Delhi. These were: the Slave dynasty
(1206-90), Khilji dynasty (1290-1320), Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413), Sayyid dynasty (1414-51), and Lodhi
dynasty (1451-1526).

The Slave Dynasty

The concept of equality in Islam and Muslim traditions reached its climax in the history of South Asia when
slaves were raised to the status of Sultan. The Slave Dynasty ruled the Sub-continent for about 84 years. It
was the first Muslim dynasty that ruled India. Qutub-ud-din Aibak, a slave of Muhammad Ghori, who
became the ruler after the death of his master, founded the Slave Dynasty. He was a great builder who built
the majestic 238 feet high stone tower known as Qutub Minar in Delhi.
The next important king of the Slave dynasty was Shams-ud-din Iltutmush, who himself was a slave of
Qutub-ud-din Aibak. Iltutmush ruled for around 26 years from 1211 to 1236 and was responsible for setting
the Sultanate of Delhi on strong footings. Razia Begum, the capable daughter of Iltutmush, was the first and
the only Muslim lady who ever adorned the throne of Delhi. She fought valiantly, but was defeated and
killed.

Finally, the youngest son of Iltutmush, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud became Sultan in 1245. Though Mahmud ruled
India for around 20 years, but throughout his tenure the main power remained in the hands of Balban, his
Prime Minister. On death of Mahmud, Balban directly took over the throne and ruled Delhi. During his rule
from 1266 to 1287, Balban consolidated the administrative set up of the empire and completed the work
started by Iltutmush.

The Khilji Dynasty

Following the death of Balban, the Sultanate became weak and there were number of revolts. This was the
period when the nobles placed Jalal-ud-din Khilji on the throne. This marked the beginning of Khilji dynasty.
The rule of this dynasty started in 1290 A.D. Ala-ud-din Khilji, a nephew of Jalal-ud-din Khilji hatched a
conspiracy and got Sultan Jalal-ud-din killed and proclaimed himself as the Sultan in 1296. Ala-ud-din Khilji
was the first Muslim ruler whose empire covered almost whole of India up to its extreme south. He fought
many battles, conquered Gujarat, Ranthambhor, Chittor, Malwa, and Deccan. During his reign of 20 years,
Mongols invaded the country several times but were successfully repulsed. From these invasion Alla-ud-din
Khilji learnt the lessons of keeping himself prepared, by fortifying and organizing his armed forces. Alla-ud-
din died in 1316 A.D., and with his death, the Khilji dynasty came to an end.

The Tughlaq Dynasty

Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, who was the Governor of Punjab during the reign of Ala-ud-din Khilji, ascended the
throne in 1320 A.D. and founded the Tughlaq dynasty. He conquered Warrangal and put down a revolt in
Bengal. Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq succeeded his father and extended the kingdom beyond India, into Central
Asia. Mongols invaded India during Tughlaq rule, and were defeated this time too.

Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq first shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri in Deccan. However, it had to be
shifted back within two years. He inherited a massive empire but lost many of its provinces, more
particularly Deccan and Bengal. He died in 1351 A.D. and his cousin, Feroz Tughlaq succeeded him.

Feroz Tughlaq did not contribute much to expand the territories of the empire, which he inherited. He
devoted much of his energy to the betterment of the people. After his death in 1388, the Tughlaq dynasty
came virtually to an end. Although the Tughlaqs continued to reign till 1412, the invasion of Delhi by Timur
in 1398 may be said to mark the end of the Tughlaq empire.

Timur's Invasion
It was during the reign of the last king of the Tughlaq dynasty that the mighty king Timur or Tamerlane
invaded India in 1398 A.D. He crossed Indus and captured Multan, and just walked over to Delhi without
much resistance.

Sayyid Dynasty: Then came the Sayyid dynasty founded by Khizar Khan. The Sayyids ruled from about
1414 A.D. to 1450 A.D. Khizar Khan ruled for about 37 years. Last in Sayyid dynasty was Muhammad-bin-
Farid. During his reign there was confusion and revolts. The empire came to an end in 1451 A.D. with his
death.

Lodhi Dynasty

Buhlul Khan Lodhi (1451-1489 A.D.)

He was the first king and the founder of the Lodhi dynasty. With a view to restoring the Delhi Sultanate its
past glory, he conquered many territories including the powerful kingdom of Jaunpur. Buhlul Khan extended
his territories over Gwalior, Jaunpur and Uttar Pradesh.

Sikander Khan Lodhi (1489-1517 A.D.)

After Buhlul Khan's death, his second son Nizam Shah was proclaimed the king, under the title of Sultan
Sikander Shah, in 1489. He made all efforts to strengthen his kingdom and extended his kingdom from
Punjab to Bihar. He was a good administrator and a patron of arts and letters. He died in 1517 A.D.

Ibrahim Khan Lodhi (1489-1517 A.D.)

After the death of Sikandar, his son Ibrahim ascended the throne. Ibrahim Lodhi did not prove to be an able
ruler. He became more and more strict with the nobles. He used to insult them. Thus, to take revenge of
their insults, Daulat Khan Lodhi, governor of Lahore and Alam Khan, an uncle of Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi,
invited Babar, the ruler of Kabul, to invade India. Ibrahim Lodhi was killed at Panipat in 1526 A.D. by
Babar's army. Thus came the final collapse of Delhi Sultanate and paved the establishment of Mughal
Empire in India.

Vijayanagar Empire
When Muhammad Tughlaq was losing his power in Deccan, the two Hindu princes, Harihar and Bukka
founded an independent kingdom in the region between the river Krishna and Tungabhadra in 1336. They
soon established their sway over the entire territory between the rivers Krishna in the north and Cauveri in
the south. The rising powers of the Vijayanagar empire brought it into clash with many powers and they
frequently fought wars with the Bahmani kingdom.

The most famous king of the Vijaynagara Empire was Krishnadeva Raya. The Vijayanagar kingdom reached
the pinnacle of its glory during his reign. He was successful in all the wars he waged. He defeated the king
of Odisha and annexed Vijaywada and Rajmahendri.

Krishnadeva Raya encouraged trade with the western countries. He had a cordial relationship with the
Portuguese who had at that time established trade centres on the west coast of India. He was not only a
great warrior, but was also a playwright and a great patron of learning. Telegu literature flourished under
him. Painting, sculpture, dance and music were greatly encouraged by him and his successors. He endeared
himself to the people by his personal charm, kindness, and an ideal administration.

The decline of the Vijayanagar kingdom began with the death of Krishnadeva Raya in 1529. The kingdom
came to an end in 1565, when Ramrai was defeated at Talikota by the joint efforts of Adilshahi, Nizamshahi,
Qutubshahi and Baridshahi. After this, the kingdom broke into small states.

Bahmani Kingdom
The Muslim kingdom of Bahmani was established by some nobles of the Deccan who revolted against the
repressive policies of Sultan Muhammed Tughlaq. In 1347, Hasan became the king under the title Abdul
Muzaffar Ala-Ud-Din Bahman Shah and founded the Bahmani dynasty. This dynasty lasted for about 175
years and had 18 rulers. At the height of its glory, the Bahmani kingdom extended from north of Krishna
river up to Narmada, and stretched east-west from the coasts of the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. The
rulers of Bahmani were often at war with the neighbouring Hindu kingdom Vijayanagar.

The most distinguished figure of the Bahmani kingdom was Mahmud Gawan, who was the principal minister
of the state - Amir-ul-ulmra for over two decades. He fought many wars, subdued many kings and annexed
many territories to the Bahmani kingdom. Within the kingdom, he improved the administration, organized
finances, encouraged public education, reformed revenue system, disciplined army and removed corruption.
A man of character and integrity, he was held in high esteem by the Deccani group of nobles, especially
Nizam-ul-Mulk, and their machinations led to his execution. With this, started the decline of the Bahmani
empire, which came to an end with the death of its last king Kalimullah in 1527. Thereafter, Bahmani Empire
was disintegrated into five regional independent principalities - Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Berar, Bidar and
Golkonda.

Bhakti Movement
An important landmark in the cultural history of medieval India was the silent revolution in society brought
about by a galaxy of socio-religious reformers, a revolution known as the Bhakti Movement. This movement
was responsible for many rites and rituals associated with the worship of God by Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs
of Indian subcontinent. For example, Kirtan at a Hindu Temple, Qawaali at a Dargah (by Muslims), and
singing of Gurbani at a Gurdwara are all derived from the Bhakti movement of medieval India (800-1700).
The leader of this Hindu revivalist movement was Shankaracharya, a great thinker and a distinguished
philosopher. And this movement was propounded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Namadeva, Tukaram,
Jayadeva. The movement's major achievement was its abolition of idol worship.

The leader of the bhakti movement focusing on the Lord as Rama was Ramananda. Very little is known
about him, but he is believed to have lived in the first half of the 15th century. He taught that Lord Rama is
the supreme Lord, and that salvation could be attained only through love for and devotion to him, and
through the repetition of his sacred name.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was an ascetic Hindu monk and social reformer in 16th century Bengal. A great
proponent of loving devotion for God, bhakti yoga, Chaitanya worshiped the Lord in the form of Krishna.

Sri Ramanuja Acharya was an Indian philosopher and is recognized as the most important saint of Sri
Vaishnavism. Ramananda brought to North India what Ramanuja did in South India. He raised his voice
against the increasing formalism of the orthodox cult and founded a new school of Vaishnavism based on
the gospel of love and devotion. His most outstanding contribution is the abolition of distinctions of caste
among his followers.

Followers of Bhakti movement in 12th and 13th Century included saints such as Bhagat Namdev, and Saint
Kabir Das, who insisted on the devotional singing of praises of lord through their own compositions.

Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru and founder of the Sikhism, too was a Nirguna Bhakti Saint and social
reformer. He was opposed to all distinctions of caste as well as the religious rivalries and rituals. He
preached the unity of God and condemned formalism and ritualism of both Islam and Hinduism. Guru
Nanak's gospel was for all men. He proclaimed their equality in all respects.

The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries continued to witness the rise of many religious reformers. The
exponent of the Rama cult and the Krishna cult among the Vaishnavas branched off into a number of sects
and creeds. The leading light of the Rama cult was saint-poet Tulsidas. He was a very great scholar and had
made a profound study of Indian philosophy and literature. His great poem, 'Ramacharitamanasa', popularly
called Tulsi-krita Ramayana is very popular among the Hindu devotees. He set before the people the image
of Sri Rama as all virtuous, all powerful, the Lord of the World, and the very embodiment of the Supreme
Reality (Parabrahma).

The followers of the Krishna cult founded the Radha Ballabhi sect under Hari Vamsa in 1585 A.D. Sur Das
wrote 'Sursagar' in Brajbhasha, which is full of verses of the charm of Lord Krishna and his beloved Radha.

Sufism
The terms Sufi, Wali, Darvesh and Faqir are used for Muslim saints who attempted to achieve development
of their intuitive faculties through ascetic exercises, contemplation, renunciation and self-denial. By the
12th century A.D., Sufism had become a universal aspect of Islamic social life as its influence extended over
almost the entire Muslim community.

Sufism represents the inward or esoteric side of Islam or the mystical dimension of Muslim religion.
However, the Sufi saints transcending all religious and communal distinctions, worked for promoting the
interest of humanity at large. The Sufis were a class of philosophers remarkable for their religious
catholicity. Sufis regarded God as the supreme beauty and believed that one must admire it, take delight in
His thought and concentrate his attention on Him only. They believed that God is 'Mashuq' and Sufis are the
'Ashiqs'.

Sufism crystallized itself into various 'Silsilahs' or orders. The 4 most popular among these were Chistis,
Suhrawardis, Qadiriyahs and Naqshbandis.
Sufism took roots in both rural and urban areas and exercised a deep social, political and cultural influence
on the masses. It rebelled against all forms of religious formalism, orthodoxy, falsehood and hypocrisy and
endeavoured to create a new world order in which spiritual bliss was the only and the ultimate goal. At a
time when struggle for political power was the prevailing madness, the Sufi saints reminded men of their
moral obligations. To a world torn by strife and conflict they tried to bring peace and harmony. The most
important contribution of Sufism is that it helped to blunt the edge of Hindu-Muslim prejudices by forging
the feelings of solidarity and brotherhood between these two religious communities.

The Mughal Empire

In India, the Mughal Empire was one of the greatest empires ever. The Mughal Empire ruled hundreds of
millions of people. India became united under one rule, and had very prosperous cultural and political years
during the Mughal rule. There were many Muslim and Hindu kingdoms split all throughout India until the
founders of the Mughal Empire came. There were some men such as Babar, grandson to the Great Asian
conqueror Tamerlane and the conqueror Genghis Khan from the northern region of Ganges, river valley, who
decided to take over Khyber, and eventually, all of India.

Babar (1526-1530): the great grandson of Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, was the first Mughal emperor in
India. He confronted and defeated Lodhi in 1526 at the first battle of Panipat, and so came to establish the
Mughal Empire in India. Babar ruled until 1530, and was succeeded by his son Humayun.

Humayun (1530-1540 and 1555-1556): the eldest son of Babar, succeeded his father and became the
second emperor of the Mughal Empire. He ruled India for nearly a decade but was ousted by Sher Shah
Suri, the Afghan ruler. Humayun wandered for about 15 years after his defeat. Meanwhile, Sher Shah Suri
died and Humayun was able to defeat his successor, Sikandar Suri and regain his crown of the Hindustan.
However, soon after, he died in 1556 at a young age of 48 years.

Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545): was an Afghan leader who took over the Mughal Empire after defeating
Humayun in 1540. Sher Shah occupied the throne of Delhi for not more than five years, but his reign proved
to be a landmark in the Sub-continent. As a king, he has several achievements in his credit. He established
an efficient public administration. He set up a revenue collection system based on the measurement of land.
Justice was provided to the common man. Numerous civil works were carried out during his short reign;
planting of trees, wells and building of Sarai (inns) for travellers was done. Roads were laid; it was under his
rule that the Grand Trunk road from Delhi to Kabul was built. The currency was also changed to finely
minted silver coins called Dam. However, Sher Shah did not survive long after his accession on the throne
and died in 1545 after a short reign of five years.

Akbar (1556-1605): Humayun's heir, Akbar, was born in exile and was only 13 years old when his father
died. Akbar's reign holds a certain prominence in history; he was the ruler who actually fortified the
foundations of the Mughal Empire. After a series of conquests, he managed to subdue most of India. Areas
not under the empire were designated as tributaries. He also adopted a conciliatory policy towards the
Rajputs, hence reducing any threat from them. Akbar was not only a great conqueror, but a capable
organizer and a great administrator as well. He set up a host of institutions that proved to be the foundation
of an administrative system that operated even in British India. Akbar's rule also stands out due to his
liberal policies towards the non-Muslims, his religious innovations, the land revenue system and his famous
Mansabdari system. Akbar's Mansabdari system became the basis of Mughal military organization and civil
administration.

Akbar died in 1605, nearly 50 years after his ascension to the throne, and was buried outside of Agra at
Sikandra. His son Jehangir then assumed the throne.

Jehangir: Akbar was succeeded by his son, Salim, who took the title of Jehangir, meaning "Conqueror of
the World". He married Mehr-un-Nisa whom he gave the title of Nur Jahan (light of the world). He loved her
with blind passion and handed over the complete reins of administration to her. He expanded the empire
through the addition of Kangra and Kistwar and consolidated the Mughal rule in Bengal. Jehangir lacked the
political enterprise of his father Akbar. But he was an honest man and a tolerant ruler. He strived to reform
society and was tolerant towards Hindus, Christians and Jews. However, relations with Sikhs were strained,
and the fifth of the ten Sikh gurus, Arjun Dev, was executed at Jehangir's orders for giving aid and comfort
to Khusrau, Jehangir's rebellious son. Art, literature, and architecture prospered under Jehangir's rule, and
the Mughal gardens in Srinagar remain an enduring testimony to his artistic taste. He died in 1627.

Shah Jahan: Jehangir was succeeded by his second son Khurram in 1628. Khurram took the name of Shah
Jahan, i.e. the Emperor of the World. He further expanded his Empire to Kandhar in the north and
conquered most of Southern India. The Mughal Empire was at its zenith during Shah Jahan's rule. This was
due to almost 100 years of unparalleled prosperity and peace. As a result, during this reign, the world
witnessed the unique development of arts and culture of the Mughal Empire. Shah Jahan has been called the
"architect king". The Red Fort and the Jama Masjid, both in Delhi, stand out as towering achievements of
both civil engineering and art. Yet above all else, Shah Jahan is remembered today for the Taj Mahal, the
massive white marble mausoleum constructed for his wife Mumtaz Mahal along the banks of the Yamuna
River in Agra.

Aurangzeb: Aurangzeb ascended the throne in 1658 and ruled supreme till 1707. Thus Aurangzeb ruled for
50 years, matching Akbar's reign in longevity. But unfortunately he kept his five sons away from the royal
court with the result that none of them was trained in the art of government. This proved to be very
damaging for the Mughals later on. During his 50 years of rule, Aurangzeb tried to fulfill his ambition of
bringing the entire Sub-continent under one rule. It was under him that the Mughal Empire reached its peak
in matter of area. He worked hard for years but his health broke down in the end. He left behind no personal
wealth when he died in 1707, at the age of 90 years. With his death, the forces of disintegration set in and
the mighty Mughal empire started collapsing.

Rise of the Sikh Power

Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak Dev at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Guru Nanak was born
on April 15, 1469 in the Western Punjab village of Talwandi. Even as a child, he was given to deep thinking
with no interest in worldly life. At the age of thirty, he got enlightenment. Thereafter, he travelled almost
the whole of the country and went over to Mecca and Baghdad, preaching his message. On his death he was
followed by nine other Gurus in succession.
Guru Angad Dev Ji (1504-1552) was Guru for thirteen years (1539-1552). He created a new script gurmukhi
and gave the Sikhs a written language. After his death Guru Amar Das Ji (1479-1574) followed in
succession. He showed great devotion and made the langar an integral part of Sikhism. Guru Ram Das Ji
took over as the fourth Guru, he composed hymns, which were later incorporated in the sacred writings.
Guru Arjan Dev Ji became the fifth Guru of Sikhism. He built the world famous Harmandar Sahib, popularly
known as the Golden Temple in Amritsar. He also compiled the holy Granth Sahib, a sacred religious book of
the Sikhs. Guru Arjan Dev suffered martyrdom in 1606 and was followed by Siri Guru Hargobind, who
maintained a standing army and symbolically wore two swords, representing spiritual and temporal power.

Guru Siri Har Rai, the seventh Guru was born in 1630 and spent most of his life in devotional meditation and
preaching the teachings of Guru Nanak. He passed away in 1661 and ordained his second son, Harkishan as
the Guru. Guru Siri Har Krishan Ji got enlightenment in 1661. He gave his life while serving and healing the
epidemic-stricken people in Delhi. The place where he breath his last is the one where, the renowned
Gurdwara Bangla Sahib stands in Delhi. Siri Guru Tegh Bahadur became Guru in 1664. When Mughal
Governor of Kashmir resorted to forcible conversion of Hindus, Guru Tegh Bahadur decided to fight it out.
Gurdwara Sisganj in Delhi stands at the place of Guru Sahib's martyrdom and Gurdwara Rakabganj at the
site of his cremation. The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, was born in 1666 and became guru after the
martyrdom of his father Guru Tegh Bahadur. Guru Gobind Singh, at the time of his death invested the 'guru
Granth Sahib' as the supreme head of the sikhs, thus bringing the practice of nominating a religious head to
a grinding halt.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

Chhatrapati Shivaji (1630-1680), the great Maratha hero established the Maratha Empire in the Deccan
fighting the powerful Mughals who were ruling India then. He motivated and combined the common man to
fight against the domination of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, by inculcating wisdom of pride and
nationality in them. Shivaji showed his spirit at the young age of 18, when he overran a number of hill forts
near Pune. He raised a strong army and navy, built and renovated forts. A regular element of his campaigns
was his use of guerilla warfare.
He joined together the Maratha chiefs from Maval, Konkan and Desh regions for the promotion of
Maharashtra Dharma and carved out a small kingdom. Shivaji became an inspirational leader to his people
and took the responsibility of leadership of the Marathas. The audacious Shivaji provided a thrust to the
Marathas and other Hindus with martial tactics, which the Marathas effectively used against the sultans of
the peninsula as well as the Mughals.

The small kingdom established by Chhatrapati Shivaji known as "Hindavi Swaraja" (Sovereign Hindu state)
grew and stretched from Attock in Northwest India (now in Pakistan) beyond Cuttack in East India, in course
of time, to become the strongest power in India. Shivaji died in 1680 at Raigad, at the age of fifty from an
attack of dysentery. His premature death at the age of 50 (April, 1680) created a blankness, though his
place in Indian history has been documented, recognised and remembered.

The Decline of Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire started disintegrating with the death of Aurangazeb in 1707. His son and successor,
Bahadur Shah Zafar, was already old when he took the throne and was confronted with one rebellion after
another. At that time, the Empire was facing challenges from the Marathas and the British. The inflated
taxes and religious intolerance weakened the grip of Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire was split into
numerous independent or semi-independent states. Nadirshah of Iran sacked Delhi in 1739 and exposed the
fragility of the power of Mughals. The empire rapidly shrank to the extent of being reduced to only a small
district around Delhi. Yet they managed to rule at least some parts of India until 1850s, although they never
regained the dignity and authority of their early days. The imperial dynasty became extinct with Bahadur
Shah II who was deported to Rangoon by the British on suspicion of assisting the sepoy mutineers. He died
there in 1862.

This marked the end of the medieval era of Indian history, and gradually, the British paramountcy over the
nation increased and gave birth to the Indian struggle for freedom.

Indian Freedom Struggle (1857-1947)

In ancient times, people from all over the world were keen to come to India. The Aryans came from Central
Europe and settled down in India.The Persians followed by the Iranians and Parsis immigrated to India. Then
came the Moghuls and they too settled down permanently in India. Chengis Khan, the Mongolian, invaded
and looted India many times. Alexander the Great too, came to conquer India but went back after a battle
with Porus. He-en Tsang from China came in pursuit of knowledge and to visit the ancient Indian universities
of Nalanda and Takshila. Columbus wanted to come to India, but instead landed on the shores of America.
Vasco da Gama from Portugal came to trade his country's goods in return for Indian species. The French
came and established their colonies in India.

Lastly, the Britishers came and ruled over India for nearly 200 years. After the battle of Plassey in 1757, the
British achieved political power in India. And their paramountcy was established during the tenure of Lord
Dalhousie, who became the Governor- General in 1848. He annexed Punjab, Peshawar and the Pathan tribes
in the north-west of India. And by 1856, the British conquest and its authority were firmly established. And
while the British power gained its heights during the middle of the 19th century, the discontent of the local
rulers, the peasantry, the intellectuals, common masses as also of the soldiers who became unemployed due
to the disbanding of the armies of various states that were annexed by the British, became widespread. This
soon broke out into a revolt which assumed the dimensions of the 1857 Mutiny.

The Indian Mutiny of 1857 :

The conquest of India, which could be said to have begun with the Battle of Plassey (1757), was
practically completed by the end of Dalhousie's tenure in 1856. It had been by no means a smooth affair as
the simmering discontent of the people manifested itself in many localized revolt during this period.
However, the Mutiny of 1857, which began with a revolt of the military soldiers at Meerut, soon became
widespread and posed a grave challenge to the British rule. Even though the British succeeded in crushing it
within a year, it was certainly a popular revolt in which the Indian rulers, the masses and the militia
participated so enthusiastically that it came to be regarded as the First War of Indian Independence.
Introduction of zamindari system by the British, where the peasants were ruined through exorbitant charges
made from them by the new class of landlords. The craftsmen were destroyed by the influx of the British
manufactured goods. The religion and the caste system which formed the firm foundation of the traditional
Indian society was endangered by the British administration. The Indian soldiers as well as people in
administration could not rise in hierarchy as the senior jobs were reserved for the Europeans. Thus, there
was all-round discontent and disgust against the British rule, which burst out in a revolt by the 'sepoys' at
Meerut whose religious sentiments were offended when they were given new cartridges greased with cow
and pig fat, whose covering had to be stripped out by biting with the mouth before using them in rifles. The
Hindu as well as the Muslim soldiers, who refused to use such cartridges, were arrested which resulted in a
revolt by their fellow soldiers on May 9, 1857.

The rebel forces soon captured Delhi and the revolt spread to a wider area and there was uprising in almost
all parts of the country. The most ferocious battles were fought in Delhi, Awadh, Rohilkhand, Bundelkhand,
Allahabad, Agra, Meerut and western Bihar. The rebellious forces under the commands of Kanwar Singh in
Bihar and Bakht Khan in Delhi gave a stunning blow to the British. In Kanpur, Nana Sahib was proclaimed as
the Peshwa and the brave leader Tantya Tope led his troops. Rani Lakshmibai was proclaimed the ruler of
Jhansi who led her troops in the heroic battles with the British. The Hindus, the Muslims, the Sikhs and all
the other brave sons of India fought shoulder to shoulder to throw out the British. The revolt was controlled
by the British within one year, it began from Meerut on 10 May 1857 and ended in Gwalior on 20 June 1858.

Indian Freedom Struggle (1857-1947)

End of the East India Company

Consequent to the failure of the Revolt of 1857 rebellion, one also saw the end of the East India Company's
rule in India and many important changes took place in the British Government's policy towards India which
sought to strengthen the British rule through winning over the Indian princes, the chiefs and the landlords.
Queen Victoria's Proclamation of November 1, 1858 declared that thereafter India would be governed by and
in the name of the British Monarch through a Secretary of State.

The Governor General was given title of Viceroy, which meant the representative of the Monarch. Queen
Victoria assumed the title of the Empress of India and thus gave the British Government unlimited powers to
intervene in the internal affair of the Indian states. In brief, the British paramountcy over India, including
the Indian States, was firmly established. The British gave their support to the loyal princes, zamindar and
local chiefs but neglected the educated people and the common masses. They also promoted the other
interests like those of the British merchants, industrialists, planters and civil servants. The people of India,
as such, did not have any say in running the government or formulation of its policies. Consequently,
people's disgust with the British rule kept mounting, which gave rise to the birth of Indian National
Movement.

The leadership of the freedom movement passed into the hands of reformists like Raja Rammohan Roy,
Bankim Chandra and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. During this time, the binding psychological concept of
National Unity was also forged in the fire of the struggle against a common foreign oppressor.

Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828 which aimed at purging the society of
all its evil practices. He worked for eradicating evils like sati, child marriage and purdah system, championed
widow marriage and women's education and favoured English system of education in India. It was through
his effort that sati was declared a legal offence by the British.

Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) the disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, established the Ramkrishna
Mission at Belur in 1897. He championed the supremacy of Vedantic philosophy. His talk at the Chicago
(USA) Conference of World Religions in 1893 made the westerners realize the greatness of Hinduism for the
first time.

Formation of Indian National Congress (INC)

The foundations of the Indian National Movement were laid by Suredranath Banerjee with the formation of
Indian Association at Calcutta in 1876. The aim of the Association was to represent the views of the
educated middle class, inspire the Indian community to take the value of united action. The Indian
Association was, in a way, the forerunner of the Indian National Congress, which was founded, with the help
of A.O. Hume, a retired British official. The birth of Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885 marked the entry
of new educated middle-class into politics and transformed the Indian political horizon. The first session of
the Indian National Congress was held in Bombay in December 1885 under the president ship of Womesh
Chandra Banerjee and was attended among others by and Badr-uddin-Tyabji.

At the turn of the century, the freedom movement reached out to the common unlettered man through the
launching of the "Swadeshi Movement" by leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Aurobindo Ghose. The
Congress session at Calcutta in 1906, presided by Dadabhai Naoroji, gave a call for attainment of 'Swaraj' a
type of self-government elected by the people within the British Dominion, as it prevailed in Canada and
Australia, which were also the parts of the British Empire.

Meanwhile, in 1909, the British Government announced certain reforms in the structure of Government in
India which are known as Morley-Minto Reforms. But these reforms came as a disappointment as they did
not mark any advance towards the establishment of a representative Government. The provision of special
representation of the Muslim was seen as a threat to the Hindu-Muslim unity on which the strength of the
National Movement rested. So, these reforms were vehemently opposed by all the leaders, including the
Muslim leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Subsequently, King George V made two announcements in Delhi:
firstly, the partition of Bengal, which had been effected in 1905, was annulled and, secondly, it was
announced that the capital of India was to be shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.

The disgust with the reforms announced in 1909 led to the intensification of the struggle for Swaraj. While,
on one side, the activists led by the great leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin
Chandra Pal waged a virtual war against the British, on the other side, the revolutionaries stepped up their
violent activities There was a widespread unrest in the country. To add to the already growing discontent
among the people, Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919, which empowered the Government to put people in jail
without trial. This caused widespread indignation, led to massive demonstration and hartals, which the
Government repressed with brutal measures like the Jaliawalla Bagh massacre, where thousand of unarmed
peaceful people were gunned down on the order of General Dyer.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

Jalianwala Bagh massacre of April 13, 1919 was one of the most inhuman acts of the British rulers in India.
The people of Punjab gathered on the auspicious day of Baisakhi at Jalianwala Bagh, adjacent to Golden
Temple (Amritsar), to lodge their protest peacefully against persecution by the British Indian Government.
General Dyer appeared suddenly with his armed police force and fired indiscriminately at innocent empty
handed people leaving hundreds of people dead, including women and children.

After the First World War (1914-1918), Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi became the undisputed leader of the
Congress. During this struggle, Mahatma Gandhi had developed the novel technique of non-violent agitation,
which he called 'Satyagraha', loosely translated as 'moral domination'. Gandhi, himself a devout Hindu, also
espoused a total moral philosophy of tolerance, brotherhood of all religions, non-violence (ahimsa) and of
simple living. With this, new leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose also emerged on the
scene and advocated the adoption of complete independence as the goal of the National Movement.

The Non-Cooperation Movement:

The Non-Cooperation Movement was pitched in under leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National
Congress from September 1920 to February 1922, marking a new awakening in the Indian Independence
Movement. After a series of events including the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Gandhiji realised that there was
no prospect of getting any fair treatment at the hands of British, so he planned to withdraw the nation's co-
operation from the British Government, thus launching the Non-Cooperation Movement and thereby marring
the administrative set up of the country. This movement was a great success as it got massive
encouragement to millions of Indians. This movement almost shook the British authorities.
Simon Commission: The Non-cooperation movement failed. Therefore there was a lull in political
activities. The Simon Commission was sent to India in 1927 by the British Government to suggest further
reforms in the structure of Indian Government. The Commission did not include any Indian member and the
Government showed no intention of accepting the demand for Swaraj. Therefore, it sparked a wave of
protests all over the country and the Congress as well as the Muslim League gave a call to boycott it under
the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai. The crowds were lathi charged and Lala Lajpat Rai, also called Sher-e-
Punjab (Lion of Punjab) died of the blows received in an agitation.
Civil Disobedience Movement
Mahatma Gandhi led the Civil Disobedience Movement that was launched in the Congress Session of
December 1929. The aim of this movement was a complete disobedience of the orders of the British
Government. During this movement it was decided that India would celebrate 26th January as Independence
Day all over the country. On 26th January 1930, meetings were held all over the country and the Congress
tricolour was hoisted. The British Government tried to repress the movement and resorted to brutal firing,
killing hundreds of people. Thousands were arrested along with Gandhiji and Jawaharlal Nehru. But the
movement spread to all the four corners of the country Following this, Round Table Conferences were
arranged by the British and Gandhiji attended the second Round Table Conference at London. But nothing
came out of the conference and the Civil Disobedience Movement was revived.

During this time, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were arrested on the charges of throwing a bomb in
the Central Assembly Hall (which is now Lok Sabha) in Delhi, to demonstrate against the autocratic alien
rule. They were hanged to death on March 23, 1931.

Quit India Movement

In August 1942, Gandhiji started the 'Quit India Movement' and decided to launch a mass civil disobedience
movement 'Do or Die' call to force the British to leave India. The movement was followed, nonetheless, by
large-scale violence directed at railway stations, telegraph offices, government buildings, and other
emblems and institutions of colonial rule. There were widespread acts of sabotage, and the government held
Gandhi responsible for these acts of violence, suggesting that they were a deliberate act of Congress policy.
However, all the prominent leaders were arrested, the Congress was banned and the police and army were
brought out to suppress the movement.

Meanwhile, Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, who stealthily ran away from the British detention in Calcutta,
reached foreign lands and organized the Indian National Army (INA) to overthrow the British from India.

The Second World War broke out in September of 1939 and without consulting the Indian leaders, India was
declared a warring state (on behalf of the British) by the Governor General. Subhash Chandra Bose, with the
help of Japan, preceded fighting the British forces and not only freed Andaman and Nicobar Islands from the
Britishers but also entered the north-eastern border of India. But in 1945 Japan was defeated and Netaji
proceeded from Japan through an aeroplane to a place of safety but met with an accident and it was given
out that he died in that air-crash itself.

"Give me blood and I shall give you freedom" - was one of the most popular statements made by him,
where he urges the people of India to join him in his freedom movement.

Partition of India and Pakistan

At the conclusion of the Second World War, the Labour Party, under Prime Minister Clement Richard Attlee,
came to power in Britain. The Labour Party was largely sympathetic towards Indian people for freedom. A
Cabinet Mission was sent to India in March 1946, which after a careful study of the Indian political scenario,
proposed the formation of an interim Government and convening of a Constituent Assembly comprising
members elected by the provincial legislatures and nominees of the Indian states. An interim Government
was formed headed by Jawaharlal Nehru. However, the Muslim League refused to participate in the
deliberations of the Constituent Assembly and pressed for the separate state for Pakistan. Lord Mountbatten,
the Viceroy of India, presented a plan for the division of India into India and Pakistan, and the Indian
leaders had no choice but to accept the division, as the Muslim League was adamant.

Thus, India became free at the stroke of midnight, on August 14, 1947. (Since then, every year India
celebrates its Independence Day on 15th August). Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minster of free
India and continued his term till 1964. Earlier, a Constituent Assembly was formed in July 1946, to frame
the Constitution of India and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected its President. The Constitution of India which
was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26th November 1949. On January 26, 1950, the Constitution
was came into force and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected the first President of India.