LAB REPORT

THERMODYNAMICS LAB

SUBMITTED TO:

SUBMITTED BY:

REGISTRATION NO:

Section:
 School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering
National University of Science & Technology
Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering

ME-232 THERMODYNAMICS LAB (0-1)

1. Boyle's Law demonstration (pressure x volume = K)

2. The expansion process of perfect gasses (Sudden Expansion) and use of clement and
the Desermos method to find the value of Ὕ.
3. To study and perform different temperature measuring devices on the Temperature
Measurement Bench
4. To demonstrate the Seebeck Thermo-Electric Effect
5. To demonstrate the relationship between the pressure and temperature of saturated
steam in equilibrium in a Marcet Boiler
6. To determine the power input, heat output and coefficient of performance of a vapor
compression Cycle in Mechanical Heat Pump
7. To plot the vapor compression cycle on the p-h diagram and compare with the ideal
cycle in mechanical Heat pump
8. To perform energy balances for the condenser and compressor (Mechanical Heat
Pump).
9. To estimate the effect of the compressor pressure ratio of volumetric efficiency
(Mechanical Heat Pump).
10.Study of a gas turbine operation demonstration of its different components.
11.Determination of the compression ratio of the compressor.
12.Calculation of gas turbine efficiency and specific fuel consumption.
13.Study of Steam power Plant components
14.To find fuel consumption, power generation and efficiencies for Boiler, Turbine,
Condesnor & Overall plant of Steam Power Plant (Test run with Generator & Lamp
load)
15.To find fuel consumption, power generation and efficiencies for Boiler, Turbine,
Condesnor & Overall plant of Steam Power Plant (Test run with Prony Brake)
 Boyle’s Law Apparatus
OPERATION
The principle of operation of the unit is that the compressor (20) is either used to increase or reduce the
air pressure above the oil in the fluid chamber (16).The is then used to either increase or decrease the
pressure and volume of the air contained in the measuring chamber (17). The volume of air contained in
the measuring chamber is measured by examining the oil level relative to the mm scale (18) on the side
of the measuring chamber (17).At the same time the pressure of the air in the measuring chamber is
indicated by the pressure gauge (3).

Theory of Boyles Law

Bayle’s Law is

pV = k

Where k is a constant

Re-arranging this equation

V = k/p

Or

V = k(1/p)

CALCULATIONS
The following are typical sample test result.

Gauge pressure Absolute Pressure Oil Height Oil Volume Air Volume Temperature
P Pabs h V

KN/m2 KN/m2 mm Liter Liter C

Absolute Pressure 1/ Pabs Air Vol. Temperature
Pabs
KN/m2 1/ KN/m2 Litre C

Graph
Plot a graph showing relationship between Volume on (Y axis) and 1/Pabs (on X axis)

Precautions
 EXPANSION PROCESS OF A PERFECT GAS

The apparatus consist of two interconnected vessels, one equipped for operation under
pressure (D 1) and the second (D2) for operation under vacuum.

An air pump (P1) allows the appropriate vessel to be pressurized or evacuated as required for
exercise.

A pressure transmitter (PT1) and two thermoresistances (T11 and T12) allow the measure the
change in pressure and temperature of the air contained within the vessels during the
experiments.

The vessel can be used independently or together and are made of clear methacrylate which
affords light thermal insulation but allows the air in each vessel to return to ambient
temperature reasonably quickly.

Clement and Desorme’s experiment

Adiabatic expansion:
 Close valve V1, V4, V5, V6
 Open valve V2, V3, V7, V8
 Switch on the pump P1
 When the pressure in D1 is at the desired value, switch off pump P1 and close valve V2
 For some minutes after the pumping had stopped, the pressure as indicated by the
manometer would gradually fall. This is attributed to the air, which was heated during
the compression, slowly attaining vessel temperature.
 When the pressure indicator indicates a stationary pressure, record the value of
pressure, P1, and of temperature, T1, in the Vessel D1.
 Open quickly valve V1 and immediately re-close: this would allow the pressure to fall to
atmospheric pressure, Po, sufficiently rapidly for no passage of heat to occur during the
expansion.
 Follow the pressure and temperature
 The temperature is allowed to return to that at the beginning of the experiment, during
which time the pressure in the vessel will increase to new valve P2.
 Calculate the valve of γ
Example of calculation
Po = 1025 mbar

P1 = 1295 mbar

P2 = 1096 mbar

⁄
γrev = = 1.39
⁄

The temperature before the expansion was 16.8oC and after the expansion 15.0oC.

The value of literature for γ of the air is 1.41 (cp = 1.01 kJ/kg K, cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K) very close to
the valve predicted by the kinetic theory for a diatomic gas (7/5 = 1.4)

Repeat the experiment several times for the same value of P1 and calculate the average value
of γ.

Expansion into vacuum

In this experiment, the air in the vessel D1 at atmospheric pressure is subjected to an expansion in the
vessel D2 under vacuum.
 Close valve V3, V5, V6, V8
 Open valve V1, V2, V4, V7
 Switch on pump P1
 When the pressure in D2 is at the desired value, switch off pump P1 and close valve V1 and
V7
 When the pressure indicators indicates stationary pressures, record the value of pressure and
of temperature in the vessel D1 and D2
 Open valve V5
 Observe the decreasing of temperature in D1 due to the expansion and the increasing of
temperature in D2 due to the compression

VD1 = 22 liters

VD2 = 11 liters

Vf = 33 liters

Pi,D1 = 1028 mbar Ti,D1 = 18.1 °C

Pi,D2 = 611 mbar Ti,D2 = 18.0 °C

Pf = 892 mbar Tf = 19.0 °C

The minimum temperature in D1 (during the expansion) has been 16.8°C. The maximum
temperature in D2 (after the compression) has been 21.0°C. The ΔT in vessel D1 and D2 is
different because the volume of the vessels is different.

Initial moles in D1, n1 = (1.028×22)/ [0.0821× (273.15+18.1)] = 0.95 Initial moles in D2,

n2 = (0.611×11)/ [0.0821× (273.15+18.0)] = 0.28 n1 + n2 =1.23.

Final moles in the system, n = (0.892×33)/ [0.0821× (273.15+19.2)] = 1.23.

Safety Rules:
 All maintenance operations on this apparatus must be carried out by skilled personnel
 Before carrying out any maintenance operation, disconnected the apparatus from the
mains
 MARCET BOILER
The Fundamental Pressure-Temperature Relationship of Saturated Steam in
Equilibrium

Objectives:
 To demonstrate the relationship between the pressure and temperature of saturated
steam in equilibrium
 To demonstrate of the vapour pressure curve

6
1

2
7
3 8

10

5 9

Figure 1: Unit Construction for Marcet Boiler (Model: HE169)

1. Pressure Transducer 6. Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

2. Pressure Indicator 7. Temperature Sensor

3. Temperature Controller/Indicator 8. Pressure Relief Valve

 4. Control Panel 9. Water Inlet Port & Valve

5. Bench 10. Heater

Procedures:
 Perform the general start-up procedures as described in Section 5.1.
 If the boiler is initially filled with water, open the valves at the level side tube (V2 & V3)
to check the water level. Pour in additional distilled water if necessary. Then, close the
valves.
 Set the temperature controller to 185.0 °C which is slightly above the expected boiling
point of the water at 10.0 bar (abs).
 Open the vent valve, V3 and turn on the heater.
 Important: Always make sure that the valves at the level sight tube are closed before
turning on the heater as the sight tube is not designed to withstand high pressure and
temperature.
 Observe the steam temperature rise as the water boils.
 Allow steam to come out from the valve, V3 for about 30 seconds, and then close the
valve. This step is important to remove air from the boiler as the accuracy of the
experimental results will be significantly affected when air is present.
 Record the steam temperature and pressure when the boiler is heated until the steam
pressure reaches 10.0 bar (abs).
 Warning! Never open the valve when the boiler is heated as pressurized steam can cause
severe injury.
 Then, turn off the heater and the steam temperature and pressure will begin to drop.
Start to record steam temperature when the boiler is cooled until the steam pressure
reaches atmospheric pressure.
 Allow the boiler cool down to room temperature.
 Record the steam temperatures at different pressure readings when the boiler is heated
and cooled.

Observation and Calculation

 Complete experimental data sheet.
 Measure/calculate the slope of the graph using certain points.

Note:
  dT  Tv fg
  
 dP  SAT hfg

Pressure, P Temperature, T
(bar) (°C) Measured Calculated
Slope, Slope,
Gauge Absolute Increase Decrease Average Average dT/dP Tv g/hfg

(0C) (0C) Tavc (0C) Tavc (K)

GRAPH
Plot the graph of temperature, T, against absolute pressure, P.
SAFETY AND PRECAUTIONS
 The unit must be operated under the supervision of trained personnel.
 All operating instructions supplied with the unit must be carefully read and understood
before attempting to operate the unit.
 Do not open the valves on the level sight tube when the vessel is in operation. The sight
tube is not design to withstand high pressure and high temperature.
 Always check and rectify any leaks.
 Always make sure that the boiler vessel is filled with sufficient water to cover the heater
element. Water level at half of the boiler’s height is sufficient to cover the heating
element.
 Do not touch the hot components of the unit. Be extremely careful when handling liquid
at high temperature.
 Experiment A: Temperature Measurement Methods
Objective:

To demonstrate the application of temperature scales and fixed points using mercury-glass
thermometer, bimetallic thermometer, thermocouple, resistance temperature detector, and
thermistor and vapor pressure thermometer.

Experiment Procedures:
1. Fill the water heater with clean water and connect the power cord.
2. Half fill the vacuum flask with a mixture of crushed ice and pure water (the ice being
made from pure water and crushed into fine particles).
3. Ambient air temperature measurement:
 Take out the mercury-glass thermometer, close inspection will reveal a column of mercury
protrude from the bulb. Temperature measurement is achieved by relating the length of this
column to an engraved scale on the glass. Read the temperature indicated by the column at
ambient air temperature.
 Take out the mercury in bi-metal thermometer, close inspection will reveal a metal rod at the
end of the indicator. Temperature measurement is achieved by transferring heat to the metal
rod.
 Take out a Type K thermocouple. Connect the blue and yellow plugs to the corresponding
sockets of the Type K thermocouple temperature indicator. Place the thermocouple on the
baseboard and allow the readings to stabilize at the ambient air temperature. Read the
temperature indicated on the temperature indicator.
 Take out a resistance temperature detector (RTD). Connect the RTD plug to the
corresponding sockets of the RTD indicator. Place the RTD on the baseboard and allow the
readings to stabilize at the ambient air temperature. Read the temperature indicated on the
RTD temperature indicator.
 Take out a thermistor. Connect the thermistor plugs to the corresponding sockets of the
thermistor indicator. Place the thermistor on the baseboard and allow the readings to
stabilize at the ambient air temperature. Read the temperature indicated on the thermistor
indicator.
 Take out the vapor pressure thermometer. Place the vapor pressure thermometer on the
baseboard and allow the readings to stabilize at the ambient air temperature. Read the
temperature indicated on the indicator
4. Ice-point temperature measurement
 Insert the bulb of the thermometer into the water-ice mixture; stir gently to ensure intimate
contact with the mixture. Observe the reading on the thermometer.
  Insert the metal rod of the bi-metal thermometer into the water-ice mixture; stir gently to
ensure intimate contact with the mixture. Observe the reading on the bimetallic
temperature indicator.
 Insert the thermocouple probe into the water-ice mixture; stir gently to ensure intimate
contact with the mixture. Observe the reading on the thermocouple temperature indicator.
 Insert the RTD probe into the water-ice mixture; stir gently to ensure intimate contact with
the mixture. Observe the reading on the RTD temperature indicator.
 Insert the thermistor probe into the water-ice mixture; stir gently to ensure intimate contact
with the mixture. Observe the reading on the thermistor temperature indicator.
 Insert the metal rod of the vapor pressure indicator into the water- ice mixture; stir gently
to ensure intimate contact with the mixture. Observe the reading on the indicator.
5. Boiling-point temperature measurement
 Insert the bulb of the thermometer into boiling water. Observe the reading on the
thermometer.
 Insert the metal rod of the bimetallic indicator into boiling water. Observe the reading on
the bimetallic indicator.
 Insert the thermocouple probe into boiling water. Observe the reading on the temperature
indicator.
 Insert the RTD probe into boiling water. Observe the reading on the resistance indicator.
 Insert the thermistor probe into boiling water. Observe the reading on the thermistor
indicator.
 Insert the metal rod of the vapor pressure indicator into boiling water.
 Observe the reading on the thermometer.
 Repeat the readings in ice and boiling water and observe that the readings are consistently
0°C and 100°C respectively.

Note:
The boiling point of water occurs at 100°C for standard atmosphere pressure only(760mmHg).
At lower atmospheric pressure, boiling will occur at lower temperature and, conversely, at
higher atmospheric pressure, boiling will occur at high temperature. For example, a rise in
atmosphere of 27 mmHg above the standard pressure will result in a rise of 1°C in the boiling
water point of water. Where boiling occurs at a temperature other than 100°C, a barometer
should be consulted to confirm the deviation.

Pure water must be used where accurate calibration is required, paying attention to
atmospheric pressure at the time of calibration. On completion of the experiment, switch off
the water heater.
Observations:

Boiling Point
Apparatus Ambient (°C) Ice Point (°C)
(°C)
Glass Thermometer (10°C to
110°C)
Glass Thermometer (5°C to
350°C)
Bimetal Thermometer
RTD
Thermistor
Type K Thermocouple
Vapor Pressure Thermometer
 Experiment: The Seebeck Thermo Electric Effect
Objective:

To demonstrate the resultant E.M.F. produced in a thermocouple circuit and its application in
temperature measurements

Experiment Procedures:
 Fill the water heater with clean water and connect power cord. Insert a Type K thermocouple
wire with one end twisted into the water heater.
 Fill the flask with water and insert second Type K thermocouple wire with one end twisted into
the flask.
 Connect the two thermocouples together ensuring that like metals are joined together. A socket
is used to anchor the two plugs when connected together for convenience.
 Connect the thermocouples to the mV indicator as show in the following diagram.

 Use the mercury glass thermometer to determine the temperature of the water in the heater
and in the flask. If the water in both vessels is at the same temperature, observe that the
reading on the mV indicator is 0mV. This demonstrates that, with both junctions at the same
temperature, no net E.M.F. is produced.
 Switch on the power to the water heater. As the water heats up, record the temperature of the
water using the mercury glass thermometer together with the voltage reading on the mV
indicator. Record the difference in temperature between the two thermocouple junctions,
together with the voltage reading.
 At intervals, remove the thermocouple from the flask and insert the lead into the hot water
adjacent to the other thermocouple. Note that the reading on the mV indicator is 0mV,
confirming the voltage produced depends on the difference in temperature between the
 junctions and not on the magnitude of temperature. Interchange the two thermocouples, i.e.
hot to cold, cold to hot, and observe that the same reading is obtained but of opposite polarity.
 Exchange the two Type K thermocouples wire for Type J thermocouples wire and repeat the
experiment.
 Plot the readings obtained of temperature difference between junctions versus voltage
produced by the thermocouples. Note the similarity of the graphs, the difference being the
voltage produced for a specific temperature difference.
 With the graphs prepared, determine an unknown temperature difference, using the
appropriate pair of thermocouples by measuring the voltage produced. Determine the
corresponding temperature difference from the graph and confirm the difference using the
mercury glass thermometer.

Note:
This experiment demonstrates the effectiveness of the thermocouple in determining differences in
temperature. Reference to a table of voltage versus temperature difference can provide an accurate
measurement of the difference between two points. If actual temperature at a point is required, then
knowledge of the actual temperature at the other junction is necessary. This necessitates the use of a
different type of thermometer to monitor the second junction, if this is allowed to change in
temperature. This is an impractical situation and is rarely used. The alternative is to maintain the second
junction at a known temperature to permit actual measurement at the measuring junction. The
controlled junction is called a "reference junction".

On completion of the experiment, switch off the power to the water heater.

Results:

Vacuum flask in _______ °C () and water heater not fix (+).

Type K Thermocouple
Temperature (°C) Voltage (mV)
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Vacuum flask in _______ °C (+) and water heater not fix ().

Type K Thermocouple
Temperature (°C) Voltage (mV)
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
 MECHANICAL HEAT PUMP

Experimental Capabilities
 Determination of power Input, heat output and coefficient of performance
 Production of heat pump performance curves over a range of source and delivery
temperatures
 Production of the vapour compression cycle on a p-h diagram and comparison with the
ideal cycle
 Determination of energy balances for the condenser and compressor
 Production of heat pump performance curves based on the R134a properties at a
variety of evaporating and condensation temperatures
 Estimation of the effect of compressor pressure ratio on volumetric

Specifications
 Compressor Type: Hermetic
Refrigerant: R-134a
Swept Volume: 8.85 cm3/rev
Compression Speed: 2800 RPM
 Condenser
Type: Plate Heat Exchanger
Medium: Water
 Evaporator
Type: Fan Cooled / Continuous Tube / External
Finned
 Expansion Valve
Type: Thermostatic
 Energy Meter
Rate: 375 rev/kWh

Theory:
Most of the heat pumps operate on the principle of the vapour compression cycle. In this cycle,
the circulating substance is physically separated from the heat source and heat delivery, and is
cycling in a close stream, therefore called ‘closed cycle’. In the heat pump process, the
following processes take place:
  In the evaporator the heat is extracted from the heat source to boil the circulating
substance;
 The circulating substance is compressed by the compressor, raising its pressure and
temperature;
 The heat is delivered to the condenser;
 The pressure of the circulating substance (working fluid) is reduced back to the
evaporator condition in the throttling valve.

The labeled components are:

1. Condenser
2. Compressor
3. Expansion Valve
4. Evaporator

Four basic processes or changes in the condition of the refrigerant occur in a Vapor
Compression Heat Pump Cycle. These four processes shall be illustrated in the most simplistic
way with the aid of above schematic sketch.

i) Compression Process (t1 5 t2)

The refrigerant at the pump suction is in gas at low temperature and low Pressure. In order to
be able to use it to achieve the heat pump effect continuously, it must be brought to the liquid
form at a high pressure. The first
step in this process is to increase the pressure of the refrigerant gas by using a compressor.
Compressing the gas also results in increasing its temperature.

ii) Condensing Process (t2 5 t3)

The refrigerant leaves the compressor as a gas at high temperature and pressure. In order to
change it to a liquid, heat must be removed from it. This is accomplished in a heat exchanger
called the condenser. The refrigerant flows through one circuit in the condenser. In the other
circuit, a cooling fluid flows (normally air or water), at a temperature lower than the refrigerant.

Heat is therefore transferred from the Refrigerant to the Cooling fluid and as a result, the
refrigerant condenses to a liquid state (3). This is where the heating takes place.

iii) Expansion Process (t3 5 t4)

At Point (3), the refrigerant is in liquid state at a relatively high pressure and temperature. It
flows to (4) through a restriction called the flow control device or expansion valve. The
refrigerant loses pressure going through the restriction. The Pressure at (4) is so low that a
small portion of the refrigerant flashes (vaporizes) into a gaseous. In order to vaporize, it must
gain heat (which it takes from that portion of the refrigerant that did not vaporize).

iv) Vaporizing Process (t4 5 t1)

The refrigerant flows through a heat exchanger called the evaporator. The heat source is at a
slightly higher temperature than the refrigerant, therefore heat is transferred from it to the
refrigerant. The refrigerant boils because of the heat it receives in the evaporator. By the time it
leaves the evaporator (4) it is completely vaporized.

The refrigerant has thus returned to its initial state and is now ready to repeat the cycle, in a
continuous manner.
Experiment 1: Determination of power input, heat output and coefficient
of performance

Objective:
To determine the power input, heat output and coefficient of performance of a vapour
compression heat pump system

Procedures:
 Perform the general start-up procedures.
 Adjust the cooling water flowrate to 2.0 LPM.
 Allow the system to run for 15 minutes.
 Record all necessary readings into the experimental data sheet.

Assignments:
Calculate the followings:
o Power input
o Heat output
o Coefficient of performance

Data Sheet

Cooling water
LPM
flowrate, FI2

Cooling water inlet

°C
temperature, TT5

Cooling water outlet

°C
temperature, TT6

Time/rev of energy
s
meter, t
Experiment 2: Production of heat pump performance curves over a
range of source and delivery temperatures

Objective:
To produce the performance of heat pump over a range of source and delivery temperatures

Procedures:
 Perform the general startup procedures.
 Adjust the cooling water flowrate to 4.0 LPM.
 Allow the system to run for 15 minutes.
 Record all necessary readings into the experimental data sheet.
 Repeat the experiment with reducing water flowrate so that the cooling water outlet
temperature increases by about 3°C.
 Repeat similar steps until the compressor delivery pressure reaches around
14.0 bar.
 The experiment may be repeated at different ambient temperature.

Assignments:
Plot the performance curves for Heat Pump (Coefficient of performance, Heat
Delivered, Compressor Power Input) versus Temperature of Water Delivered

Data Sheet:

Test 1 2 3 4
Cooling water
LPM
flowrate, FI2
Cooling water inlet
°C
temperature, TT5
Cooling water
outlet °C
temperature, TT6
Time/rev of
s
energy meter, t
Experiment 3: Production of vapour compression cycle on p-h diagram
and energy balance study

Objective:
 To plot the vapour compression cycle on the p-h diagram and compare with the ideal
cycle.
 To perform energy balances for the condenser and compressor

Procedures:
 Perform the general start-up procedures.
 Adjust the cooling water flowrate to 2.0 LPM and allow the system to run for 15
minutes.
 Record all necessary readings into the experimental data sheet.

Assignments:
 Plot the experimental vapour compression cycle on the p-h diagram of R-134a and
compare with the ideal cycle
 Perform energy balance on the condenser
 Perform energy balance on the compressor

Data Sheet Refrigerant flowrate, cm3/mi

FI1 n
Refrigerant Pressure
Bar(g)
(Low), P1
Refrigerant Pressure
Bar(g)
(High), P2
Refrigerant
°C
Temperature, TT1
Refrigerant
°C
Temperature, TT2
Refrigerant
°C
Temperature, TT3
Refrigerant
°C
Temperature, TT4
Time/rev of energy
s
meter, t
Cooling water
LPM
flowrate, FI2
Cooling water inlet
°C
temperature, TT5
Cooling water outlet
°C
temperature, TT6
Experiment 4: Production of heat pump performance curves over a
range of evaporating and condensation temperatures

Objective:
To plot the performance of heat pump over a range of evaporating and condensation
temperatures which is the saturation temperature at condensing pressure?

Procedures:
 Perform the general start-up procedures.
 Adjust the cooling water flowrate to 4.0 LPM.
 Allow the system to run for 15 minutes.
 Record all necessary readings into the experimental data sheet.
 Repeat the experiment with reducing water flowrate so that the compressor
delivery pressure increases by about 0.6 bar. Maintain the evaporating
 temperature (TT4) by covering part of the evaporator for the purpose of
lowering the evaporating load.
 Repeat similar steps with water flowrate not less than 1.0 LPM. Make sure that the
compressor delivery pressure does not exceed 14.0 bar
 The experiment may be repeated another constant evaporating temperature (TT4).

Assignments:
i. Plot the performance curves for Heat Pump (Coefficient of performance, Heat
Delivered, Compressor Power Input) versus Condensing Temperature

Data Sheet Test 1 2 3 4

Refrigerant
cm3/min
flowrate, FI1
Refrigerant
Bar(g)
Pressure (Low), P1
Refrigerant
Pressure (High), Bar(g)
P2
Refrigerant
°C
Temperature, TT1
Refrigerant
°C
Temperature, TT2
Refrigerant
°C
Temperature, TT3
Refrigerant
°C
Temperature, TT4
Time/rev of
s
energy meter, t
Experiment 5: Estimation of the effect of compressor pressure ratio on
volumetric efficiency

Objective:
To determine the compression ratio and volumetric efficiency

Procedure
 Perform the general start-up procedures.
 Adjust the cooling water flowrate to 2.0 LPM.
 Allow the system to run for 15 minutes.
 Record all necessary readings into the experimental data sheet.
 The experiment may be repeated at different compressor delivery pressure.

Assignments:
Calculate the followings:
o Compressor pressure ratio
o volumetric efficiency

Data Sheet
Refrigerant flowrate, FI1 cm3/min

Refrigerant Pressure (Low), P1 Bar(g)

Refrigerant Pressure (High), P2 Bar(g)

Refrigerant Temperature, TT1 °C
 TH130 MINI STEAM TURBINE POWER PLANT

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

This equipment is designed as a miniature modern day power plant for

educational purpose.

A hand feed pump supplies water from a feed tank to a small gas fired boiler
where steam is further heated by optional superheater. The steam is throttled to
single stage turbine via a nozzle. Exhaust from the turbine is condensed in a water
cooled condenser. Condensate is collected for weight measurement and is
returned to feed water tank. A small DC generator is connected to the turbine by
a belt, and small light bulbs as are provided as electrical load.

Instruments are provided for monitoring and controlling of plant operation and
performance as well as for safety. The unit is on wheels.

Introduction

The function of a steam power plant is to convert the raw energy in coal, oil or gas
into mechanical or electrical energy through the expansion of steam from a high
pressure to a low pressure in a suitable prime mover such as a steam turbine or a
steam engine. A non-condensing plant discharges the steam from the prime
mover at the exhaust pressure equal to or greater than atmospheric pressure. A
condensing plant discharges the steam from the prime mover into a condenser at
the pressure less than atmospheric pressure. In general, the central power
stations are the condensing plant because their sole output is electric energy and
the reduction in the exhaust pressure at the prime mover decreases the amount
of steam required to produce a given quantity of energy. Industrial steam power
plants are frequently non-condensing plants because large quantities of low-
pressure steam are required for manufacturing operations.
The thermodynamic processes are as follows:

2.2.1 Inlet feed water of the pump is at atmospheric pressure pa, temperature T1
with enthalpy of ho.

2.2.2 At outlet of the feed water pump, the water pressure increases to p1 at
temperature T1 with enthalpy of h1.

2.2.3 Heat is supplied to the boiler by burning the fuel. The saturated steam
pressure is p2, temperature T2 with enthalpy of h2.

2.2.4 When the saturated steam is further heated in a superheater (optional), its
pressure remains at p1, temperature increases to T3 inside the superheater
(optional) but leaving the superheater at temperature T4 and the enthalpy
increases to h3 with entropy of s3.

2.2.5 When the steam is throttled through a solenoid valve before the turbine for
speed control, there are heat losses which could be considered as losses in the
turbine. Hence the steam enthalpy and entropy are assumed to remain
unchanged at h3 and s3 at the turbine inlet. The temperature and pressure may
change intermittently to T5 and p2 at this point.
2.2.6 When the steam is used to drive a steam turbine or steam engine, there is a
power output of Wo and the steam pressure and temperature reduce to
atmospheric pressure pa and T6. The steam is assumed to leave the turbine and
enter the condenser as the saturated steam with enthalpy of h4 and s4 = s3,
respectively.

2.2.7 When the condenser is cooled by water, the steam is condensed at

atmospheric pressure pa, temperature T7 with enthalpy of h5.

2.2.8 When the condensate is returned to the feed water tank, it is mixed with
inlet feed water from the filter and the temperature becomes T1, at atmospheric
pressure pa with enthalpy of ho.

Technical Data
Boiler
Type: Fire tube vertical boiler.
Steam rate: Up to 5 kg/hr
Pressure: Up to 5 kg/cm2 gauge.
Boiler accessories: Safety valve, level gauge, low level alarm
Fuel: Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
Fuel tank: 4 kg with pressure regulator (separately supplied)
Feed water tank: Stainless steel with level gauge.
Feed pump: Hand operated.

Steam turbine
Type : Single stage impulse turbine, single nozzle.
Construction : Vacuum cast inconel wheel.
Stainless steel casing, shaft, and nozzle.
Maximum speed : Approx. 26,000 rpm.
Power output measurements : Mechanical brake dynamometer.
Electrical power system : DC generator with lamp loads.
Condenser : Shell and tube type
Plant power output for 5 kg/hr steam at 5 kg/cm2 gauge.
Without super heater: Mechanical over 9W
Electrical over 3W With
super heater (optional): Mechanical over 14W:
Electrical over 4.5W
Safety features

 Turbine speed limit.

 Emergency switch.
Measuring instruments
 Pressures gauges : Boiler and turbine inlet.
 Temperatures : Sensors and 2 indicators with selector switches :
- One for boiler feed water, boiler steam, steam turbine inlet.
- One for a steam turbine outlet, condensate, cooling water inlet and
outlet.
 Flow meters : Boiler fuel, condenser cooling water.
 Turbine speed sensor and an indicator.
 Dynamometer torque sensor and indicator.
 Graduated cylinder and a stop watch for condensate measurement.
 A voltmeter, an ammeter for output power.
 Accessory : Boiler and super heater cleaning kits.
 Power supply : 220V 1Ph 50Hz.
 DATA SHEET 1
TH 130 MINI STEAM TURBINE POWER PLANT: TEST RUN WITH GENERATOR AND LAMP LOAD
Vertical boiler diameter = ……. mm Ambient air temp. (T10) =…….... oC Tested by…………..……Date…………..…..
Atmospheric pressure = ………..... kPa Steam turbine pulley diameter De = ……..mm Generator pulley diameter = …… mm
Turbine, Nozzle  =…… degree
Steam rate Lamp load
PGas qfob qfos qw p1 p2 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 N Time Condensate mc No. V A Poe
2 2 2
(kg/cm ) (lpm) (lpm) (lpm) (kg/cm ) (kg/cm ) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) o
( C) (rpm) (s) Start Stop (kg/s) (W)
(ml) (ml)
4-5

* Lamp 12 V/ 3W
140213
 DATA SHEET 2
TH 130 MINI STEAM TURBINE POWER PLANT: TEST RUN WITH PRONY BRAKE (Optional)
Vertical boiler diameter = ……. mm Ambient air temp. (T10) =…….... oC Tested by…………..……Date…………..…..
Atmospheric pressure = ………..... kPa Steam turbine pulley diameter De = ……..mm
Turbine, Nozzle  =…… degree
Steam rate Prony brake dynamometer
PGas qfob qfos qw p1 p2 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 N Time Condensate mc Wp Ws T Pom
2 2 2
(kg/cm ) (lpm) (lpm) (lpm) (kg/cm ) (kg/cm ) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) o
( C) (rpm) (s) Start Stop (kg/s) (g) (g) (N-mm) (W)
(ml) (ml)
4-6
140213
 Axial Flow Gas Turbine (Jet Engine) TGFAC

A Gas Turbine is an internal combustion rotating engine. Its denomination is due to the
working fluid is a gas, generally the air. Basically, it consists of a compressor, which
increases the inlet air pressure and sends it to a combustion chamber, where a caloric
energy input is carried out. The turbine and the compressor are coupled to the same
shaft, so that a part of the energy generated in the turbine is used by the compressor
to compress the air.

Description
The demonstrating TGFAC unit
developed by EDIBON is a
demonstrating teaching equipment of
a Gas Turbine as a jet engine.

The main element of the TGFAC

unit is the Reaction Turbine, which
consist of:

 Type radial compressor, which is supplied by atmospheric air to compress it.

 Annular combustion chamber. There are fuel (propane gas, kerosene, and
paraffin), comburent (in this case, compressed air received from the
compressor) and activation energy, which will cause the ignition of the mixture,
in any combustion.
 Expansion turbine: The inflamed gases of the combustion chamber transfer a
part of the energy that they have in the turbine paddles.

Operation:
The TGFAC unit control is carried out with the software developed by EDIBON.

The starting process is carried out in an automatic way. First, set up the starter electric
engine which reaches a regime of 3,000 rpm, moment when the engine stops.

Following, the gas line electrovalve is opened together with the spark plug ignition.

As soon as the ignition happens, the starter engine, which accelerates the turbine up
to 5,000 rpm, is ignited again. Later, the fuel pump, which together with the fuel
electrovalve opening will cause a progressive increase of the turbine speed, is set up.

When the engine neutral speed (35,000 rpm) is exceeded, the starter electric engine is
automatically stopped and the turbine is auto-sustained.
Theory:
The gas turbine is an internal combustion rotating engine which transforms the
combustion energy of a gas or liquid into mechanic energy.

Main components of the gas turbine:

1. Compressor: Each compressor stage consists of two main elements: the rotor
and the diffuser. The rotor accelerates the inlet air, and the diffuser transforms
the kinetic energy acquired into pressure energy. The compressor can be
centrifugal or axial, according to the paddles disposition. The centrifugal
compressor has an axial air inlet and the outlet is at the periphery. Depending
on the applications, the one or the other is used.
2. Combustion chamber: On the one hand, the air which comes from the
compressor goes in the chamber and, on the other hand, the combustion
products go out. The fuel injectors are into this chamber. These chambers are
designed so that not all the air is used by the combustion, but it is divided
producing different currents. The primary current is which directly acts on the
combustion. There is a secondary current whose objective is completing the
combustion. The rest of the air introduced in the chamber is mixed with it at the
burner output to reduce the temperature up to a value which does not damage
the turbine paddles; it is the called tertiary current.

The combustion chambers can be classified according to the shape that they adopt:

a) Tubular chamber: It is placed on the shaft which joins the compressor and the
turbine. There can be one or several chambers per each turbine. Each one has
an injector and individual ignition equipment. Into it, there is the called flame
tube, where the flame which inflames the air is generated. In the case of the
turbine developed by EDIBON, it is a type tubular combustion chamber.

b) Annular chamber: It is a chamber which encloses the shaft turbine – compressor. In this way,
engines of more reduced frontal section adequate for aeronautic uses are obtained. The TGFAC
unit has this type of chambers.
Turbine: In the expansion turbine is where the conversion of energy contained in the
combustion gases as pressure and high temperature (enthalpy) at mechanic power as
a one shaft rotation occurs. The turbine is also composed of two elements: the
distributor and the rotor. The distributor reduces the hot gases pressure, increasing
the speed. This speed is transformed in mechanic energy in the rotor.

A gas turbine operates according to the cycle of Brayton. In this cycle, the work
substance is the air which flows in stationary regime through the different stages. In
the ideal cycle of Brayton, the heat transfer and absorption processes are carried out
reversibly at constant pressure. The expansion and compression processes are
isentropic.

This is the ideal work cycle of the gas

turbine. Despising the speed changes and
applying the stationary flow equation in
each part of the cycle, we obtain:

-h4 = Cp(T3-T4) >

0

-h1 = Cp(T2-
T1) < 0

-h2 = Cp(T3-T2) > 0

-h2 = Cp(T3-T2) > 0

Practical exercise 1: Study of the gas turbine operation

Objective

The objective of this practical exercise is to familiarize the student with the gas
turbine operation by identifying its element, as well as by observing the functions of
each one. The starting method will be analyzed.
Practical development

* STEP 1: Before starting, make sure that there is suitable fuel (kerosene or paraffin)
with 5% Jet type special oil.
In this previous step, make sure that all the connections are correctly tight: check that
the bracket that fastens the engine is correctly fixed.

* STEP 2: Connect every sensor and the supply and acquisition cables. Switch on the
electric supply general switch.

* STEP 3: Start the SCADA TGFAC software. For that purpose, follow the
instructions from the M4 section of this manual.

* STEP 4: Once the unit is ready to work, start it. To start the turbine, click the
“START” button of the software. It will begin the starting sequence described in the
section 7.1.3.

* STEP 5: Once the reaction turbine is auto-sustained, accelerate it. For it, act on the
“UP” button. To decrease the turbine acceleration, press “DOWN”. Check that
acceleration is really produced by observing that the thrust register SF-1 increases its
value.

* STEP 6: Record the gas turbine thrust values as in the enclosed table.

* STEP 7: Once we have familiarized with the operation, to finish the practice, the
turbine must be stopped by clicking “STOP” by means of the software.
 Test 1 Test 2

Temperature ST-1

Temperature ST-2

Temperature ST-3

Temperature ST-4

Temperature ST-5

Pressure SP-1

Turbine thrust SF-1 (N)

Air flow SC-1

Air flow SC-2

Fuel consumption

Turbine efficiency (d)

Practical Exercise 2: Determination o f t h e c o m p r e s s i o n r a t i o o f t h e
compressor

Objective

One of the keys for the good operation of the turbine with high efficiency
is getting a high compression ratio of the compressor.
Theory
The function of a compressor is generating compressed air from an
atmospheric air supply. The compression ratio is the relationship between the
compressor outlet absolute pressure and the atmospheric absolute pressure:

p2

p1

Practical development

* STEP 1: Before starting, make sure that there is suitable fuel (kerosene) with 5% of
Jet type special oil.

In this previous step, make sure that every connection is well tight: check that the
bracket which fastens the engine is correctly fixed.

* STEP 2: Connect every sensor and the supply and acquisition cables. Switch on the
electric supply general switch.

* STEP 3: Start the SCADA TGFAC software. For that purpose, follow the instructions
from section M4 of this manual.

* STEP 4: Once the unit is ready to work, start it. To start the turbine, click the “START”
button of the software. It will begin the starting sequence described in the section
7.1.3.

* STEP 5: Once the reaction turbine is auto-sustained, accelerate it. For it, act on the
“UP” button. To decrease the turbine acceleration, press “DOWN”. Check that
acceleration is really produced by observing that the thrust register SF-1 increases its
value.

* STEP 6: Record the gas turbine pressures values in the enclosed table for different
thrust values.
* STEP 7: When the maximum thrust is reached, and the data are recorded, we can
carry out the stop process.

* STEP 8: There is a possibility of acquiring data by means of the software, going to

the menu “VIEW DATA” and selecting an acquisition time of 2 seconds, for
example. When the process has finished, click “SAVING DATA” to record the
sensors values without having to do it manually.

Complete the enclosed table.

Test 1 Test 2

Temperature ST-1

Temperature ST-2

Temperature ST-3

Temperature ST-4

Temperature ST-5

Pressure SP-1

Compressor Pressure SP-2

Combustion chamber pressure SP-3

Turbine thrust SF-1 (N)

Air flow SC-1

Air flow SC-2

Fuel consumption

Turbine efficiency (d)

Practical exercise 3: Determination of the gas turbine efficiency

Objective
Every machine has efficiency. Any improvement of this aspect is translated
into an economic profit.
Theory
The consumption of an internal combustion engine is the fuel mass
flow used in the process.
CONSUMO  QGAS   GAS

Where Q is the gas flow at a

work point r is the fuel
gas density
Specific consumption is the fuel quantity consumed by outlet power unit
Practical development

* STEP 1: Before starting, make sure that there is suitable fuel (kerosene) with
5% of jet type special oil.

In this previous step, make sure that every connection is well tight: check that
the bracket which fastens the engine is correctly fixed.

* STEP 2: Connect every sensor and the supply and acquisition cables. Switch
on the electric supply general switch.

* STEP 3: Start the SCADA TGFAC software. For that purpose, follow the
instructions from section M4 of this manual.

* STEP 4: Once the unit is ready to work, start it. To start the turbine, click the
“START” button of the software. It will begin the starting sequence described
in the section 7.1.3.

* STEP 5: Once the reaction turbine is auto-sustained, accelerate it. For it, act
on the “UP” button. To decrease the turbine acceleration, press “DOWN”.
Check that acceleration is really produced by observing that the thrust register
SF-1 increases its value.

* STEP 6: Record the gas turbine thrust values as in the enclosed table.

* STEP 7: To finish the practical exercise, stop the turbine with the software
“STOP”

* STEP 8: There is a possibility of acquiring data by means of the software,

going to the menu “VIEW DATA” and selecting an acquisition time of 2
seconds, for example. When the process has finished, click “SAVING
DATA” to record the sensors values without having to do it manually.

Complete the enclosed table.

Test 1 Test 2

Temperature ST-1

Temperature ST-2
 Temperature ST-3

Temperature ST-4

Temperature ST-5

Pressure SP-1

Compressor Pressure SP-2

Combustion Chamber pressure SP-3

Turbine thrust SF-1 (N)

Air flow SC-1

Air flow SC-2

Fuel consumption

Turbine efficiency (d)

QUESTIONS:

Q-1: Determine the gas turbine specific consumption.

Q-2: Determine the TGFAC unit efficiency.

 Safety
Measures
Do not perform unauthorized experiments by yourself.
No eating or drinking in the lab.
Do not drink from lab equipment.
Shoes should not be slippery in order to avoid any slippage of student on
lab floor.
Before carrying out any maintenance operation, disconnect the apparatus
from the main.
Electric wires should not be kept at the floor level.
While using lab equipment, keep in mind there are proper draining
points for water drainage.
Be extra careful when handling the hot water. Can cause severe burn if
have direct contact with human skin
Use the handles of the support base of the vessel for the handling, do not
use valves and piping for handling the system
No laboratory work should be carried out in the absence of the
instructor.
Never leave an experiment that is in progress unattended.
Do not exceed wattage limits of devices when plugging them into
electrical outlets.
In case of a fire, chemical, or other emergency alert the instructor and all
students in the laboratory.
In case of serious injury, requiring professional medical attention, the
student(s) should contact the MEDICAL CENTER Department, Extension
1666.