FBP-427; No.

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Food and Bioproducts Processing

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fbp

Modelling of dehydration–rehydration of instant rice in

combined microwave-hot air drying

Aiquan Jiao a,b , Xueming Xu a,b , Zhengyu Jin a,b,∗

a The State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi, China
b School of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi, China

a b s t r a c t

The drying operation is one of the critical steps in the preparation of instant rice. Drying methods and conditions
play important roles in achieving the desired quality. In this study, instant rice was subjected to convective hot
air, microwave and combined microwave-hot air dehydration. Three air temperature (70 ◦ C, 80 ◦ C, 90 ◦ C) and three
microwave power (210 W, 300 W, 560 W) settings were investigated to find the drying kinetics, rehydration kinetics and
colour change. The results showed that combined microwave-hot air drying decreased the drying time required when
compared to drying with either hot air or microwave energy alone. Predictive models were developed to describe
dehydration and rehydration kinetics. Dehydration rate, rehydration rate and total colour change of rehydrated
product generally increased with microwave level and air temperature. Combination drying with MW = 300 W and
T = 80 ◦ C was optimal in terms of drying time, rehydration time and colour.
© 2013 The Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Instant rice; Convective hot air drying; Microwave drying; Microwave-hot air drying; Dehydration;
Rehydration

1. Introduction tions play important roles in achieving the desired quality. The
characteristics of dried instant rice depend mainly on the dry-
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is considered the main staple food not ing characteristics.
only for the population of China but also for the population of Different drying methods are used in the drying of instant
several other countries, and is a major source of nutrients due rice. Convective air-drying (Ratti, 2001), in particular, is an
to its daily consumption (Heinemann et al., 2005). Nowadays, ancient process used to preserve foods has been proven
the accelerated pace of modern life has promoted new appli- to be effective in the drying of many foods and is there-
cations of staple rice to the preparation of instant (quick-cook) fore commonly used in instant rice industry. The properties
rice, which is fully or partially cooked and dehydrated, and it of dried instant rice are affected by chemical and physical
takes only 3–5 min to prepare for consumption after rehydra- changes. Chemical changes mainly affect sensory charac-
tion. Various forms of instant rice products, such as expanded, teristics such as colour, taste and aroma where as physical
frozen, and dried were produced to meet consumer’s demand changes affect handling properties such as rehydration char-
(Chen et al., 2006). While convenient, eating quality of instant acteristic, texture and cooking time. However, a number of
rice is not as good as that of regular rice because of organolep- undesirable attributes are associated with hot air convec-
tic and nutritional loss during preparation (Champagne and tion drying, which can result in the deterioration of dried
Lyon, 1998; Juliano and Hicks, 1996; Semwal et al., 1996). product quality (Lin et al., 1998; Drouzas et al., 1999). These
The quality of the instant rice depends on the raw mate- include case-hardening, shrinkage and product discoloura-
rial and methods of drying conditions. The drying operation tion. Other disadvantages of air-drying are long drying times
is the most critical step in the preparation of instant rice and low energy efficiency (Mayor and Sereno, 2004). These
(Ramesh and Rao, 1996). Drying methods and drying condi- limitations have lead to the implementation of newer tech-
nologies, including microwaves, in the drying of foodstuffs.
Use of microwave radiation in drying the products has become
∗
Corresponding author at: The State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi, China.
E-mail address: jinlab2008@yahoo.com (Z. Jin).
Received 26 March 2013; Received in revised form 17 July 2013; Accepted 1 August 2013
0960-3085/$ – see front matter © 2013 The Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2013.08.002

Please cite this article in press as: Jiao, A., et al., Modelling of dehydration–rehydration of instant rice in combined microwave-hot air drying.
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2 food and bioproducts processing x x x ( 2 0 1 3 ) xxx–xxx
common, because it prevents the decline in quality and
ensures rapid and efficient distribution of heat in the mate-
rial (Ahmad et al., 2001; Berteli and Marsaioli, 2005; Nijhuisa
et al., 1996). However, the application of microwaves can result
in uneven heating of certain products, depending on their
dielectric and thermophysical properties (Oliveira and Franca,
2002). This problem is more significant when processing at
low frequencies, where the dielectric properties are consid-
erably dependent on temperature variations. Combination of
microwave energy with convective air drying has been pro-
posed as a means to overcome the disadvantages associated
with the application of each method alone (Alibas, 2007; Varith
et al., 2007; Gowen et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2006; Andres
et al., 2004). The quick microwave energy absorption by water
molecules causes rapid evaporation of water from the interior
of the product towards the surface of the product, where it is
then removed by convective hot air currents. Simultaneously
the combined drying method results in a reduction in the dry-
ing time to an extent of 80–90% in comparison to conventional
hot air drying and a superior quality final product (Sharma and
Prasad, 2001). In addition to improving the drying rate, this
outward flux can help to prevent the shrinkage of tissue struc-
ture (DÍaz et al., 2003), which prevails in most conventional air
drying techniques.
In this study, the effects of fast dehydration, caused by
combination of high levels of air temperature and microwave
power, on rehydration kinetics and colour of instant rice were
investigated. Our goal was to find the optimum drying method
in the drying of instant rice with respect to rehydration char-
acteristic, edible quality, colour and drying period. To achieve
this goal, the following specific objectives were selected:
i. Evaluate the efficacy of microwave, air and combined
microwave-hot air drying technique for instant rice.
ii. Investigate the effect of microwave power and air temper-
ature on drying and rehydration kinetics of instant rice.
iii. Examine the changes in the colour values of the product
after drying.
iv. Estimate optimal drying conditions with respect to
processing time and quality.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Hybrid indica rice (Type 9718) was obtained from Xinghua Rice
Industry Co., Ltd. (Jiangsu Province, China) with a moisture
content ranging between 14.15 ± 0.35% on a dry basis (d.b.).
Carbohydrate, protein, fat, and ash contents of rough rice
were 89.2%, 9.7%, 0.42%, 0.66% (d.b.), respectively. We use high
temperature-high pressure-short time extrusion technology
to produce reformed rice (Wang et al., 2011). To generate com-
pletely gelatinised rice, 200 g of reformed rice was soaked in 1 L
of water at room temperature (20 ◦ C) for 30 min then separated
by straining. The soaked rice was cooked in 3.5 L of water pre-
heated to 100 ◦ C for 1 h in a conventional rice cooker, preset at
100 ◦ C, and stirred occasionally. The rice was cooled by dipping
in 1.7 L of water at room temperature for 5 min and then sepa-
rated by strainer and stored for later analysis. Initial moisture
content of instant rice was determined by conventional hot
air using air temperature of 105 ◦ C, drying for 72 h.
Please cite this article in press as: Jiao, A., et al., Modelling of dehydration–rehydration of instant rice in combined microwave-hot air drying.
Food Bioprod Process (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2013.08.002
2.2. Drying equipment and drying method
A unit of the mobile microwave-hot air drying equipment
consisted of a 2450 MHz 600 W microwave oven (Belling
Triplette, Belling & Co., UK, magnetron: Sanyo 2M218J) was
used in all drying experiments. Microwave power (operating
range: 210–560 W), air temperature (operating range: 70–90 ◦ C)
and processing time were varied using a digital display panel.
The combined microwave-hot air oven was altered so that
an attachment could be fitted between the plate of the oven
and an electronic balance, attached to a PC. This allowed for
the continuous measurement of sample weight during drying.
Fan speed in air oven was at 1 ± 0.05 m/s. The area on which
each drying conducted was 327 mm × 370 mm × 207 mm in
size, and consisted of a rotating glass plate with 280 mm diam-
eter at the base of the oven. It is important to note that the
very small instant rice samples presented in the oven do not
fully absorb the applied microwave power, since a substantial
amount is reflected back by the oven walls. This prevents rapid
burning of the sample on application of such high microwave
power levels.
Three types of drying were studied:
(1) Convective drying: Three temperature settings (70 ◦ C, 80 ◦ C,
90 ◦ C) were investigated (air velocity = 1 ± 0.05 m/s).
(2) Microwave drying: Three microwave levels (210 W, 300 W,
560 W) were investigated. Air temperature was measured
to be 23 ± 1 ◦ C (natural convection).
(3) Combined microwave–hot air drying: Nine levels of com-
bined drying (comprised of the three convective and three
microwave settings described above) were investigated
((70 ◦ C, 80 ◦ C, 90 ◦ C) × (210 W, 300 W, 560 W)) (air veloc-
ity = 1 ± 0.05 m/s).
Each experiment was performed in triplicate, in a random
order. Initial sample weight was 50 g. The following semi-
empirical Page’s equation Eq. (1) was used to describe drying
kinetics of instant rice (Sharma and Prasad, 2001; Soysal, 2004).
M − Me
MR = = exp(−ktn ), (1)
M0 − Me
where MR is the moisture ratio; M, Me and M0 refer to moisture
content (g water/g dry solids) at time t, at equilibrium time and
at t = 0, respectively; k is the drying constant in min−1 ; and n is
the dimensionless exponent. After dehydration, samples were
stored in sealed bags over a desiccator, for further analysis.
All dehydration experiments could be done with replace-
ment.
2.3. Rehydration procedure
Approx. 15 g of dried samples (from drying experiments
described above) were rehydrated in 1 L boiling water. Samples
were removed every minute and weighed until difference in
successive weightings was insignificant. Weight gain on rehy-
dration (WRG) was calculated from Eq. (2), where Wt and We
refer to weight at time t and at equilibrium time respectively.
Wt − We
WGR = × 100 (2)
We
All rehydration experiments could be done with replace-
ment.
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Table 1 – The value of kp and n at different drying method and time.

Experiment no. MW (W) T (◦ C) kp n F Me (%)

1 210 23 0.055 6 1.549 857.23 9.5

2 300 23 0.077 3 1.550 353.65 8.9
3 560 23 0.144 5 1.551 625.45 8.6
4 0 70 0.005 8 2.117 653.26 11.6
5 210 70 0.058 6 2.119 864.19 7.9
6 300 70 0.081 3 2.127 530.15 7.8
7 560 70 0.145 3 2.128 620.13 7.6
8 0 80 0.006 7 2.126 436.52 10.7
9 210 80 0.059 6 2.135 379.86 7.8
10 300 80 0.081 5 2.130 392.76 7.3
11 560 80 0.147 7 2.116 630.74 7.2
12 0 90 0.007 4 2.127 1 026.61 9.9
13 210 90 0.060 8 2.136 1 053.87 7.5
14 300 90 0.083 7 2.115 1 426.58 7.6
15 560 90 0.148 0 2.12 957.32 7.0

2.4. Colour measurement error (RMSE) analyses were used to determine the best fit.
These parameters are calculated as follows:
The colour of rehydrated rice was evaluated by a Minolta
CR 300 colorimeter (Konica-Minolta, Osaka, Japan), calibrated  1/2
1
N
with a white standard tile. For each drying method exam- 2
RMSE = (MRpre,i − MRexp,i ) (5)
N
ined, CIE colour parameters for the surface of five individual i=1
rice samples were measured and then averaged. Colour
values were represented on the CIE colour scales as L* Differences among mean values were established using
(lightness/darkness), a* (redness/greenness) and b* (yellow- Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) test (Petersen,
ness/blueness). Total colour change (DE*) was then calculated 1985). Mean values were considered significantly different
from Eq. (3), where L∗0 , a∗0 and b∗0 refer to the CIE colour values when p ≤ 0.05.
for cooked rice, before drying.

3. Results and discussion


DE∗ =
2 2 2
(L∗ − L∗0 ) + (a∗ − a∗0 ) + (b∗ − b∗0 ) (3)
3.1. Dehydration kinetics

2.5. Synthetic evaluation index A series of drying curves, exemplified by Fig. 1, exhibit the
change in the Moisture ratio (MR) of sample with time under
In order to valuate each of the drying methods investigated different drying conditions. As seen in Fig. 1, MR generally
by a single process indicator, a synthetic evaluation index (S) decreased with time to an asymptotic value of 0. The equi-
was constructed (Hu et al., 2006), considering the relative prod- librium time for drying was clearly subjected to the drying
uct colour (Y1 ), rehydration rate (Y2 ), rehydration ratio (Y3 ) and method used: hot air drying was the slowest method, taking
dehydration rate (Y4 ). The quality parameters measured in the up to 40 min; microwave drying was faster, taking up to 25 min
study were ranked in order of decreasing significance (pre- and combined drying was faster again, requiring up to just
sumed from a consumer’s point of view) as follows: colour, 15 min reaching a constant moisture level (Table 1). The mois-
rehydration rate (kr ), rehydration ratio, dehydration rate (kd ), ture content of dehydrated samples was also dependent on
and assigned weights (1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ) of 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, respec- the drying method, ranging from 7.0% (d.b., for MW = 560 W,
tively. Synthetic evaluation index (Gowen et al., 2008) was then T = 70 ◦ C) to 11.6% (d.b., for MW = 0 W, T = 70 ◦ C) (Table 1). Com-
calculated for each of the experimental conditions from Eq. (4): pared with convective drying and microwave drying alone,
combined drying allowed for a more efficient drying process
and resultant lower final moisture content. Given the absence

4
of a constant rate period and the asymptotic shape of the
S= i Yi dehydration curves (Fig. 1), the semi-empirical drying mod-
i=1 els described below (Eqs. (6)–(9)) were all fitted to the drying
DE∗ − DE∗min kr − kr min (4)
Y1 = 1 − ; Y2 = ; data to discriminate which one was best suited to describ-
DE∗max − DE∗min kr max − kr min
ing the dehydration data. Following nonlinear regression of
RR − RRmin kd − kd min
Y3 = ; Y4 = each model on the rice data set, the pooled standard error
RRmax − RRmin kd max − kd min
(SE) and Akaike information criterion were estimated (Table 2).
The Akaike information criterion (AIC) is defined as: AIC =
2.6. Statistical analysis −2 × log lik + 2 × npar. Therefore, the AIC can be used to com-
pare models in their suitability in describing datasets, taking
Data were analysed using ANOVA of MINITAB (Minitab Inc., into account numbers of model parameters (npar). The Page
1994). Regression analysis was performed by using the Sta- model (Eq. (9)) resulted in the lowest SE and AIC, and was
tistica computer programme. The correlation coefficient (r) therefore the best suited to describe the drying kinetics of
was the primary criterion for selecting the best equation to instant rice for the purpose of simulation and scale up of the
describe the drying curves. In addition to r, root mean square process.

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Fig. 1 – Moisture ratio (MR) as a function of different drying method and time; solid lines indicate predictive plots for
non-linear regression of Eq. (12) on instant rice dehydration data (a). Residual (b) and quantile–quantile (c) plots for
nonlinear regression of Eq. (12) on instant rice dehydration data.

A similar model has been employed to describe dehydra- and (8.26 ± 0.25) × 10−5 ◦ C−1 min−1 , respectively. Page model
tion kinetics of the grains and other agricultural materials parameter n was significantly smaller for microwave-dried
(Shivhare et al., 1990; Daimante and Munro, 1991; Prabhanjan samples than for convective dried or combined samples
et al., 1995; Sharma and Prasad, 2001). kp is the dehydra- (p < 10−3 ). This indicates that the drying process is quite
tion rate constant, n is the parameter of Page’s equation, and different when microwave drying is the dominant drying
t is the time. The parameters ‘n’ and ‘kp ’ of the nonlinear mechanism. After careful inspection of a number of different
regression analysis and the value are tabulated in Table 1. candidate models, the following model (see Eq. (11)) was found
As Table 1 shown, all of the values of F (F-test statistic) were to describe the Page model parameter n.
all much higher than F0.01 (1, 13) = 9.07, F0.01 (1, 18) = 8.29 from
F-distribution table, which meant that all of these nonlinear
n = n1 + Im · n2 (11)
regression equations were notable. After careful inspection of
a number of different candidate models, a linear model (see
Eq. (10)) was found to best describe the dependence of kp on where Im = 1 for microwave drying, and zero otherwise. The
MW and T (r2 > 0.95). coefficients n1 and n2 were estimated to be 2.12 and −0.58,
respectively. The dehydration rate, related to the sample of kp
kp = ap MW + bp T (10) and n, increased significantly with both air temperature and
microwave power (r2 > 0.95). Taking into account the depend-
The coefficients ap and bp from Eq. (10) were esti- ence of kp and n on the operating parameters, the following
mated by linear regression to be (2.51 ± 0.13) × 10−4 W−1 min−1 model was therefore proposed to describe the dependence
of MR on time, microwave power, air temperature and drying
Table 2 – Pooled standard error (SE) and Pooled Akaike method.
information criterion (AIC) for nonlinear regression of
Henderson and Pabis model (Eq. (6)), Lewis model (Eq.
(7)), Bi-exponential model (Eq. (8)) and Page model (Eq. MR = exp(ap MW + bp T) × t(n1 +Im n2 ) (12)
(9)) on instant rice drying data.
Model Equation SE AIC Predictive plots were generated from the model parameters
Henderson and MR = aH exp(−kd tn ) (6) 0.063 −8248.67
(Fig. 1(a)), and represent the experimental data appropriately.
Pabis The residual and quantile–quantile plots are shown in Fig. 1(b)
Lewis MR = exp(−kp t) (7) 0.075 −7237.64 and (c), respectively. The residuals seemed to be randomly dis-
Bi-exponential MR = aBi exp(−k1 t) + 0.109 −5519.58 tributed, with most residuals lying with 2 standard deviations.
bBi exp(−k2 t) (8) The quantile–quantile plot was close to linear, indicating a
Page MR = exp(−kp tn ) (9) 0.032 −15,062.66
reasonable model fit.

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Fig. 2 – Weight gain on rehydration (WGR) as a function of different drying method and time ( MW = 0 W, 䊉 MW = 210 W, 
MW = 300 W,  MW = 560 W); solid lines indicate predictive plots for non-linear regression of Eq. (15) on instant rice
dehydration data (a). Residual (b) and quantile–quantile (c) plots for nonlinear regression of Eq. (15) on instant rice
dehydration data.

3.2. Rehydration kinetics
The water intake curves for instant rice under different dry
conditions, showing weight gain on rehydration (WGR) as
a function of rehydration time, are shown in Fig. 2. In all
the cases the amount of moisture absorbed increases with
rehydration time, but at a decreasing rate up to an asymp-
totic value. The rehydration stabilised ranged from 3 min (for
MW = 560 W, T = 70 ◦ C) to 15 min (for MW = 0 W, T = 90 ◦ C) and
WGR was around 2.5 under various drying conditions. These
curves followed a general pattern of bounded growth, charac-
teristic of a first order process. Therefore an asymptotic model
(Eq. (13)) with non-zero asymptote was chosen to describe the
kinetics of rehydration, where the subscript e refers to equi-
librium time:
WGR = WGRe − WGRe × exp(−kr t)
To build a model to describe the effect of microwave power
(MW), air temperature (T) and rehydration time on WGR, the
regression parameters were investigated. The experimental
data for each rehydration experiment was fitted by nonlinear
regression to Eq. (13). The value for equilibrium weight gain
on rehydration (WGRe ) was fairly constant over the range of
experimental conditions studied. However, rehydration rate,
kr , showed an increasing trend significantly with both MW and
T. After careful inspection of a number of different candidate
models, a linear model (see Eq. (14)) was found to best describe
the dependence of kr on MW and T (r2 > 0.95).
kr = ar MW + br T
The coefficients ar and br from Eq. (14) were esti-
mated by linear regression to be 6.3 × 10−4 W−1 min−1 and
1.05 × 10−3 ◦ C−1 min−1 , respectively. A non-linear model of the
form below (Eq. (15)) was therefore proposed to describe the
dependence of WGR on drying time, microwave power and air
temperature.
WGR = WGRe − WGRe × exp[−(ar MW + br T)]t (15)
Predictive plots were generated from the model param-
eters (Fig. 2(a)), and represent the experimental data quite
well. The residual and quantile–quantile plots were shown in
Fig. 2(b) and (c), respectively. The residuals seemed to be ran-
domly distributed, with most residuals lying with 2 standard
deviations. The quantile–quantile plot was close to linear,
indicating model suitability.
3.3. Colour change upon rehydration
(13)
Colour is an important quality criterion in foods and agricul-
tural products. Undesirable changes in colour of food may lead
to a decrease in its quality and marketing value. In this study,
regardless of drying method, instant rice experienced colour
change during drying. The results of colour parameters, as a
function of microwave power (MW) and air temperature (T)
for rehydrated instant rice, are presented in Fig. 3(a) and (b)
for L* and DE*-values, respectively. An overall examination of
the data of L* and DE*-values showed that the hot air drying
had less influence on the colour of instant rice as compared to
microwave drying and combined convective–microwave dry-
ing. When the datasets for microwave and combined drying
were considered, the parameters L* tended to decrease faster
significantly (p < 0.01) with MW and T. This indicated signif-
(14) icant darkening of samples during drying, which increased
as microwave power increased. The parameters DE* tended
to increase with significantly (p < 0.01) with MW and T. Thus,
combination drying with MW = 560 W and T = 90 ◦ C resulted in
significant darkening and colour change when compared to
lower temperature drying, although it was the fastest method

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Fig. 3 – Colour change upon rehydration ( T = 23 ◦ C, 䊉 T = 70 ◦ C,  T = 80 ◦ C,  T = 90 ◦ C). (a) Lightness (L*) as a function of
microwave power. (b) Total colour change (DE*) as a function of and air temperature microwave power and air temperature.

the processing times required. Samples subjected to combined

Table 3 – Rehydration time (tr ) and synthetic evaluation
index (S) for each drying microwave power level and air convective–microwave drying could be dried in approximately
temperature level examined. 25% of the time required by air-dried or microwave dried
samples, and rehydrated approximately 3-folds faster than
Experiment no. MW (W) T (◦ C) tr (min) S
air-dried samples. Increasing microwave power accelerated
1 210 23 12.1 0.67 ± 0.06 the dehydration kinetics, but had an adverse effect on the
2 300 23 9.2 0.67 ± 0.16 rehydrated sample’s colour. Total colour change of the rehy-
3 560 23 7.0 0.38 ± 0.06
drated samples generally increased with increasing levels
4 0 70 14.5 0.62 ± 0.07
5 210 70 5.7 0.77 ± 0.02
of microwave power and air temperature. Combination of
6 300 70 4.8 0.79 ± 0.08 microwave and convective drying at microwave power of
7 560 70 3.0 0.47 ± 0.08 300 W, and air temperature of 80 ◦ C, resulted in a rehydrated
8 0 80 14.8 0.58 ± 0.14 product with optimal quality within the range of experimental
9 210 80 6.8 0.88 ± 0.09 conditions studied.
10 300 80 5.0 0.91 ± 0.12
11 560 80 3.4 0.49 ± 0.02
Acknowledgements
12 0 90 15.0 0.54 ± 0.12
13 210 90 7.0 0.80 ± 0.10
14 300 90 5.7 0.83 ± 0.03 We are grateful to Dr. Kim for providing language help, Dr.
15 560 90 3.8 0.45 ± 0.08 Z.F. Li and C.Y. Ma for their technical assistance, and Miss
W.H. Cui and G.Q. Wang for secretarial assistance. This study
of dehydration. The combination drying with MW = 300 W and was supported by National ‘Twelfth Five-Year’ Plan for Sci-
T = 80 ◦ C minimised both darkening and colour change. ence & Technology Support of China (Nos. 2012BAD37B02,
2012BAD37B03 and 2012BAD37B06), and Nature Science Foun-
3.4. Evaluation of optimal drying conditions dation of Jiangsu Province (BY201119).

Synthetic evaluation index (S, Eq. (4)), considering the relative
product colour, rehydration rate, rehydration ratio and dehy-
dration rate, was calculated for each of the drying methods
examined (Table 3). The dehydration rate constant (kd ) was
calculated by the product of Page constants kp and n. In terms
of drying time, rehydration time and colour, the drying method
that gave the highest S value was the combination drying, i.e.
MW = 300 W, T = 80 ◦ C. The optimal drying method at this level
produced an acceptable final product in terms of colour and
moisture content, with relatively fast rehydration properties
and within a relatively short processing time.
4. Conclusions
Dehydration and rehydration kinetics of instant rice were
influenced by drying method, microwave power and air tem-
perature. Generalised empirical models were proposed to
describe the dehydration and rehydration kinetics. Both the
dehydration and rehydration rate constant increased linearly
with air temperature and microwave power, and the mod-
els built predicted the dehydration and rehydration processes
reasonably well. Application of microwave energy during hot
air drying of instant rice was beneficial in terms of reducing
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