Genetic modification is the process of altering the genetic makeup of an

organism. This has been done indirectly for thousands of years by controlled,
or selective, breeding of plants and animals. Modern biotechnology has made
it easier and faster to target a specific gene for more-precise alteration of the
organism through genetic engineering.
The terms "modified" and "engineered" are often used interchangeably in the
context of labeling genetically modified, or "GMO," foods. In the field of
biotechnology, GMO stands for genetically modified organism, while in the
food industry, the term refers exclusively to food that has been purposefully
engineered and not selectively bred organisms. This discrepancy leads to
confusion among consumers, and so the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) prefers the term genetically engineered (GE) for food.
A brief history of genetic modification

Genetic modification dates back to ancient times, when humans influenced

genetics by selectively breeding organisms, according to an article by Gabriel
Rangel, a public health scientist at Harvard University. When repeated over
several generations, this process leads to dramatic changes in the species.
Dogs were likely the first animals to be purposefully genetically modified, with
the beginnings of that effort dating back about 32,000 years, according to
Rangel. Wild wolves joined our hunter-gatherer ancestors in East Asia, where
the canines were domesticated and bred to have increased docility. Over
thousands of years, people bred dogs with different desired personality and
physical traits, eventually leading to the wide variety of dogs we see today.

The earliest known genetically modified plant is wheat. This valuable crop is
thought to have originated in the Middle East and northern Africa in the area
known as the Fertile Crescent, according to a 2015 article published in
the Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine. Ancient farmers
selectively bred wheat grasses beginning around 9000 B.C. to create
domesticated varieties with larger grains and hardier seeds. By 8000 B.C., the
cultivation of domesticated wheat had spread across Europe and Asia. The
continued selective breeding of wheat resulted in the thousands of varieties
that are grown today.
Corn has also experienced some of the most dramatic genetic changes over
the past few thousand years. The staple crop was derived from a plant known
as teosinte, a wild grass with tiny ears that bore only a few kernels. Over time,
farmers selectively bred the teosinte grasses to create corn with large ears
bursting with kernels.
Beyond those crops, much of the produce we eat today —
including bananas, applesand tomatoes — has undergone several
generations of selective breeding, according to Rangel.
 The technology that specifically cuts and transfers a piece of recombinant
DNA (rDNA) from one organism to another was developed in 1973 by Herbert
Boyer and Stanley Cohen, researchers at the University of California, San
Francisco, and Stanford University, respectively. The pair transferred a piece
of DNA from one strain of bacteria to another, enabling antibiotic resistance in
the modified bacteria. The following year, two American molecular biologists,
Beatrice Mintz and Rudolf Jaenisch, introduced foreign genetic material into
mouse embryos in the first experiment to genetically modify animals using
genetic engineering techniques.

Researchers were also modifying bacteria to be used as medications. In

1982, human insulin was synthesized from genetically engineered E.
coli bacteria, becoming the first genetically engineered human medication
approved by the FDA, according to Rangel.

There are four primary methods of genetically modifying crops, according

to The Ohio State University:
 Selective breeding: Two strains of plants are introduced and bred to produce
offspring with specific features. Between 10,000 and 300,000 genes can be
affected. This is the oldest method of genetic modification, and is typically not
included in the GMO food category.
 Mutagenesis: Plant seeds are purposely exposed to chemicals or radiation in
order to mutate the organisms. The offspring with the desired traits are kept and
further bred. Mutagenesis is also not typically included in the GMO food category.
 RNA interference: Individual undesirable genes in plants are inactivated in order
to remove any undesired traits.
 Transgenics: A gene is taken from one species and implanted in another in order
to introduce a desirable trait.
The last two methods listed are considered types of genetic engineering.
Today, certain crops have undergone genetic engineering to improve crop
yield, resistance to insect damage and immunity to plant diseases, as well as
to introduce increased nutritional value, according to the FDA. In the market,
these are called genetically modified, or GMO crops.
"GMO crops presented a lot of promise in solving agricultural issues," said
Nitya Jacob, crop scientist at Oxford College of Emory University in Georgia.
The first genetically engineered crop approved for cultivation in the U.S. was
the Flavr Savr tomato in 1994. (In order to be grown in the U.S., genetically
modified foods must be accepted by both the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) and the FDA.) The new tomato had a longer shelf-life thanks to
the deactivation of the gene that causes tomatoes to start becoming squishy
as soon as they're picked. The tomato was also promised to have enhanced
flavor, according to the University of California Division of Agriculture and
Natural Resources.
Today, cotton, corn and soybeans are the most common crops grown in the
U.S. Nearly 93 percent of soybeans and 88 percent of corn crops are
genetically modified, according to the FDA. Many GMO crops, such as
modified cotton, have been engineered to be resistant to insects, significantly
reducing the need for pesticides that could contaminate groundwater and the
surrounding environment, according to the U.S.Department of Agriculture
(USDA).
In recent years, the widespread cultivation of GMO crops has become
increasingly controversial.

"One concern is the impact of GMOs on the environment," Jacob said. "For
example, pollen from GMO crops can drift to fields of non-GMO crops as well
as into weed populations, which can lead to non-GMOs acquiring GMO
characteristics due to cross-pollination."

A handful of large biotechnology companies have monopolized the GMO crop

industry, Jacob said, making it difficult for individual, small-scale farmers to
make a living. However, while some farmers may be driven out of business,
those that work with the biotech companies may reap the economical benefits
of increased crop yields and reduced pesticide costs, the USDA has said.

Labeling of GMO food is important to a majority of people in the U.S.,

according to polls conducted by Consumer Reports, The New York
Times and The Mellman Group. People strongly in favor of GMO labeling
believe that consumers should be able to decide whether they wish to
purchase genetically modified foods.
However, Jacob said, there is no clear scientific evidence that GMOs are
dangerous for human health