RSH 631: RESEARCH SEMINAR 2

(Parts of a Thesis)

SUBMITTED BY:

MIGUEL PALOMAR GOMEZ JR.

MEM Student, PUP Sta. Rosa

SUBMITTED TO:

Dr. GLORIA T. BAYSA

Prof. PUP-OU, Sta. Rosa

August 15, 2011

 RESEARCH SEMINAR II

Discuss the Different Parts of a Thesis.

Answer:

It is not enough that an investigator knows all the parts in writing a research paper,
thesis and dissertation, but it is necessary for him to know the format and style in writing them.
However, there is no specific and best format for the writing of research paper, thesis and
dissertation but there are only better and acceptable form and style in writing them. It depends
upon the institutions and disciplines promulgating the rules on the format and style in writing
research paper, thesis, and dissertation.

Although research paper, thesis, and dissertation differ considerably in scope and
treatment of problems, the researcher is expected to follow the widely accepted format and style
of writing in the academic community.

The preliminaries of a research paper, thesis, and dissertation are (1) Title page, (2)
Approval sheet, (3) Acknowledgement, (4) Abstract, (5) Table of contents, (6) List of tables, (7)
List of figures and, (8) List of plates.

Title page. The title page is the first page of a research paper, thesis and dissertation
but the page number is not indicated. It counts as page i of a thesis, but the number is not typed
on the page. It sets the tone for the entire thesis. All write-ups should agree with and support the
title. It is suggested that the title should not be more than 20 substantive words. The title should
be brief, descriptive and comprehensive. It should identify the variables in the study, the type of
relationships that may be inferred between the variables, the population to whom the results
may be applied, and other unique or special aspect of the study that distinguishes it from other
works.

The complete thesis title should be written in all capital letters, should be centered
between the margins and double spaced. It begins with a two inches (approximately 10 single
line spaces) from the top of the page. If the title is more than one line in length, it should be
arranged as an inverted pyramid. Certain forms of title phrasing such as a “Study of ...”, “An
Analysis ...”, “A Scientific study of...”, “An experimental Investigation...”, “A preliminary study
of...” are to be avoided. They are vague and not accepted for inclusion in a research title.

The title page presents the title; kind of research work, research paper, thesis or
dissertation; the faculty to be (or was) submitted; name of the school; the submission statement;
the degree granted; full name of the researcher; month and year in which the degree is to be (or
was) granted.

Formulae, symbols, subscripts, Greek letters, acronyms, and abbreviated forms in the
title should be spelled out. The thesis presentation statement, typed single-spaced in upper and
lowercase letters with each line centered between the margins, should begin three inches
(approximately 16 single line spaces) from the first line of the title. The partial fulfilment
statement, typed single-spaced in upper and lowercase letters with each line centered between
the margins, should begin two inches (approximately 10 single line spaces) from the first line of
the presentation statement. The degree being sought or earned typed single-spaced in upper
and lowercase letters after the partial fulfilment statement and centered between the margins.
The word “By,” centered between the margins, should begin 12 single line spaces from the
degree being sought. The date must be the month and year the degree will be conferred (not
the date of defense or submission). There should be no comma between the month and year in
the date.

Approval sheet. The approval sheet is the second page of a thesis or a dissertation
which furnishes the following information.

1. Complete title of research paper, thesis or dissertation

2. Full name of the investigator
3. Degree to which the research paper, thesis or dissertation is applied for
4. Statement of acceptance and approval
5. Adviser’s full name and highest degree
6. Panel of Examiner’s full name and highest degree
7. Grade of the research paper, thesis or dissertation
8. Complete date of comprehensive examination passed
9. Complete date of submission
10. Graduate School dean’s full name and highest degree

The approval sheet is always page ii of a thesis, and it is the first page on which a
number appears. The page number ii is typed no lower than one-half inch from the bottom of
the page and centered between the left and right margins. Every page after this is numbered.
The words APPROVAL SHEET in all capital letters should be centered without terminal
punctuation two inches from the top of the page. It must be typed using the same typeface as
the text of the manuscript and printed on approved thesis/dissertation paper. The thesis title on
the approval page must match exactly that on the title page and the abstract.

Acknowledgement. This is another preliminary section of research in which the

researcher expresses his gratitude to the different persons who assisted, facilitated, oriented,
and guided him to make his research work reality. The researcher should recognize and
appreciate the assistance, guidance and selfless effort and wise counsel of his adviser and
reader.

Abstract. An abstract is a brief and concise descriptive summary of the statement of the
problem, hypothesis, research design, determination of sample size, sampling design and
techniques, the subjects, the research instrument, validation of the research instruments, data
gathering procedure, data processing method, statistical treatment, findings, conclusions and
recommendations.

The abstract gives the reader a panoramic view of the research paper, hence, the reader
has to decide whether to read the whole research paper or not because an abstract is not a part
of a paper and neither numbered nor counted as a page.
 The abstract has two forms, namely, the short form and the long form. The short form
consists of 100-175 words and is required for a research paper for publication in a research
journal. The long form consists of 500 to 1000 words which is required in masteral theses and
doctoral dissertations.

Some institutions do not bind the abstract into the research paper, theses, and
dissertations. They have also different institutional format for abstract.

Table of Contents. Many research papers, write-ups have a title for “CONTENTS” as
“Table of Contents.” The former is preferable because it is understood that contents of a
research paper include the list of all the preliminaries- the chapter titles, the main heading and
subheadings in the text including the bibliography, appendix, and curriculum vitae. The page
number of contents is indicated at the bottom in a small Roman numeral, for instance, iv, and
succeeding pages are indicated along the right-hand margin in small Roman numerals, and so
on. These pages are indicated five single spaces from the top right-hand margin.

However, the page number of each section in the contents is indicated at the right-hand
margin similarly appearing in the text. The numbering of chapters, wording, punctuation of titles
and headings are exactly similar as they appear in the text.

List of Tables. The list of tables should follow the table of contents. If there are only two
or three tables in the text of research papers they may be omitted in the listing. All captions
should appear exactly the same in the listing.

There are two ways of numbering tables. First, they are numbered consecutively in
Arabic numerals throughout the paper. Second, they are double-numbered based on the
chapter number in Arabic numerals.

The first letter of the first word and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs
of table captions should be capitalized.

In the text caption’s table, the Arabic number should be aligned with the rest of the
captions and successive lines are in hanging-indented block style. This is called hanging-
indented-block style caption. However, if the researcher uses only one-way of numbering tables,
the page number of each table in the list of tables is indicated at the right hand margin.

List of Figures. The list of figures follows the list of tables. List of figures are omitted in
the research paper if there are only two or three figures in the text. If there are 4 or more figures
in the text, they are presented in the list of figures of a research paper. Flow charts, graphs,
paradigms, drawings, maps and diagrams are usually grouped as figures.

There are two ways of numbering figures, similar with tables. First, they are numbered
consecutively with Arabic numerals throughout the paper. Second, they are double-numbered
based on the chapter number and with Arabic numerals consecutively indicated.

The first letter of the first word of the figure captions as well as all nouns, pronouns,
adjectives, adverbs, and verbs should be capitalized. The captions are indicated below the
figure in hanging-indented-blocked-style.

Moreover, the page number of each figure in the list of figures in the front matter of a
research paper should be indicated at the right hand margin exactly the same as it appears in
the text. The first page numbers of the list of figures should be indicated at the bottom in small
Roman numbers.

List of Plates. The term plate usually refers to any kind of photographic representation
or illustration. They are common in natural sciences research paper especially on the taxonomic
study of plants and animals.

The plates have only one way in numbering. They are numbered consecutively with
Arabic numerals throughout the paper. The first letter of the first word and all nouns, pronouns,
adjectives, adverbs and verbs of the plate’s caption should be capitalized. In the text, the
captions plate and Arabic number should be aligned with rest of the captions in a hanging-
indented-block-style and placed below the picture. The same is true with tables and figures. The
lists of plates are omitted in the front matter if there are only two or three plates in the text.

By and large, plates follow the References in the body or text of research paper.
Furthermore, the page number of each plate in the list of plates of a research paper should be
indicated at the right hand margin exactly similar as it appears in the text. The first page number
of the list of plates should be indicated at the bottom in small Roman numerals, for instance xvii.
The succeeding page number of the list of plates should be indicated five single spaces from
top right margin.

Chapter I (The Problem and Its Background)

Chapter I consists of the introductory discussion of the problem by citing some phrases
and sentences from published materials relevant to the study to give the reader a panoramic
view of the study. Some researchers integrate assumptions in this chapter.

This portion includes the following subtopics. These are:

1. Introduction

This is not a title of a chapter. It is actually a paragraph side head, which begins Chapter
I. Statement in this chapter, should not only signify the importance of the topic but should also
cause an impact on the reader. It may be composed of three paragraphs enabling the readers to
see at a glance the entire contents of the research work. The intention of the first paragraph is
to provide the readers a mental warm-up, thus giving them information and readiness as to what
the research is all about. It should introduce the study and justify the problem. The second
paragraph carries the bulk of the introduction. The statement of the problem can best be used
as frame of reference to write this paragraph. It is simply telling the readers the scope and
coverage of the study. This will help revolve around mentioning the purpose of the study, which
is to determine the existing or not existing between the independent and dependent variables.
The third or last paragraph is a sort of closing portion that is intriguing and challenging the
readers to become interested in knowing the results of the study. It is one or two sentences to
link between the introduction and the statement of the problem. This part is a 2-3 page
discussions.

2. Background of the Study

Begin this section by setting the context for the problem through a historical background
of the problem. The purpose of this section is to provide information on how the problem arose
and evolved.
 It must explain the candidate’s earnest desire to have a deeper and clearer
understanding of a situation so he or she will be in a better position to initiate remedial
measures or to find a better way to improve the situation. The geographical conditions of the
study locale may also be discussed in this section. Use citations to support the background
where appropriate.

3. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Some researchers use both the theoretical and conceptual framework; however, it is
advisable to use only one. They both provide clear explanations regarding the relationships of
the variables. The fact that variables can be shown to be associated, but does not guarantee
that the relationship of variables has significance, research study must have a framework as a
legal basis to describe properly the process of the study.

The theoretical framework shapes the justification of the research problem objectives in
order to provide the basis on its parameters. It is desirable for a researcher to identify the key
concepts that are used in the study for better understanding of the rule of theory in research. It
is a symbolic construction, which uses abstract, concepts, facts or laws, variables and their
relations that explain and predict how an observed phenomenon exists and operates. An
investigation is required to formulate existing theories which link the study because theories are
useful devices for interpreting, criticizing, and unifying established scientific laws and facts that
guide in discovering new generalizations.

The practice of a research in constructing a theoretical framework is to present the

different theories, models, paradigms, perspectives related to the problem and the hypothesis.
This shows the generalizations already accumulated related to the problem.

To start with, the researcher should consider the field of knowledge in which the problem
statement cab be classified. Then, he decides to focus on one or more theories. This leads to
building the particular theory, by testing and validating it in other settings. Another way is to
practice it to modify or reconstruct the theory into new general framework containing the
variables and relationships for the purposes of the research to be undertaken.

In planning and writing the theoretical framework, it is important to cite the theory that
will be used by giving the assumptions, defining terms-concepts, identifying the variables,
stating the relationship of variables and presenting hypothesis.

The theoretical framework is useful in limiting the scope of the data you need to those
relevant information to the framework by focusing on specific variables, stipulating the specific
frame of mind or viewpoint that the researcher will take in analysis, explaining and interpreting
the data that will be gathered, understanding concepts and variables according to the given
definitions, and building knowledge by verifying and validating the theory, it helps, when the
variables and their proposed relationships are illustrated by drawing a chart.

Conceptual framework presents specific and well-defined concepts, which are called
constructs. Its function is similar with theoretical framework because the constructs used are
derived from abstract, concepts of the theoretical framework.

In constructing the conceptual framework, it is usually anchored on the theoretical

framework. The conceptual and theoretical framework needs to be consistent and related.
 The conceptual framework is part of research but different from theoretical. It is the
detailed presentation of the variables to be observed in the current study, the concepts defined
in a way the researcher wants, it is understood in the current research, the operationalization of
the variables-concepts, the visible indicators or the variable-concepts, the scheme of measuring
the variables. It concentrates on the specific stipulates (orders) and operational definition of
concepts and variables with respect to the particular research problem.

Stipulated definition is the researcher’s choice of the meaning of the concepts and
variable from among the other possible definition. Throughout the research process, this will be
the basis for meaning and interpretation. The operational definition is the way the concept
should be understood by means of certain visible, experiential, observable elements. The
conceptual framework directs the research to focus on the concepts and its observable
indicators. It states which of the concepts will be independent, dependent and intervening
variables and the visible indicators of these variables.

4. Statement of the Problem

This is one of the most important parts of a research report. This is the focus of the study
and all questions stated should be categorically answered. In writing the statement of the
problem, it should consider the following guidelines; (a) the problem should be stated both in
general and in specific terms. The general statement of the problem is usually a reiteration of
the title of the study. (b) The problem is always in an interrogatory form, hence, it must ask a
question and sub-problems must follow the main problem which is the key points for
investigations in the research. (c) The problem should be stated in the infinitive to (action words
in research) such as examine, analyze, determine, measure, assess, evaluate, recommend, find
out, among others, setting 4-5 research objectives is ideal for a research problem. (d) Specific
questions should be stated using the following guide question words: “How,” “Will,” “What,” “Is
there”...

5. Hypothesis

This is understood as:

A statement of what one expects to find;

A statement to be proven;
An initial answer to the research questions;
A common sense statement;
An expected relationship between variables;
An explanation of the phenomena;
A statement of patterns of behavior.

Research that generally describes the nature of the phenomena does not usually require
a hypothesis. However, we can say what we expect to find. In research that goes beyond mere
description and strives to explain and predict, the hypothesis states an expected pattern, a
relationship, a cause.

The hypothesis may have the following format:

There is a pattern in the observed phenomena;

 There is a relationship between variables, where a change in one (independent variable)
causes a change in the other variable (dependent variable).
There is a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables.
There is an association between the variables. A relationship exists between two
variables but it is not in the sense that one is the cause and the other is the effect.

Variables are used in stating the hypothesis. If we want to find the cause-and-effect or
other forms of relationship between two variables, two mutually exclusive hypothesis are
formulated: (1) null hypothesis, (2) alternative hypothesis.

The null hypothesis says that “there is no difference’” meaning the independent variable
does not affect the dependent variable. If data reject the null hypothesis, then alternative
hypothesis should be true. Alternative hypothesis on the other hand says, “there is a difference,”
meaning, that the independent variable affects the dependent variable. The alternative
hypothesis serves as the real concern of the research. It is a definite statement of the
relationship between variables. This is what the research hopes to determine.

In experimental investigation, hypotheses have to be explicit; they have to be expressed.

They have to be expressed also in comparative and correlation studies. In descriptive and
historical investigation, hypothesis are seldom expressed if not entirely absent. No research is
conducted without any hypothesis at all. Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form because
testing a null hypothesis is easier than a hypothesis in the operational/alternative form.

6. Scope and Delimitations of the Study

The scope identifies the boundaries or coverage of the study in term of subjects,
objectives, facilities, area, time frame, and the issues to which the research is focused.

The use of the following phrases could help express the scope of this portion:

This study will focus on...

The coverage of this study...
The study covers the...
The study focuses on...

The delimitations of the study defines the constraints or weaknesses, which are not
within the control of the researcher, therefore, they are not expected to be covered by the study.

The delimitations could be expressed using the following phrases:

This study is limited to...

The study does not cover the...
The investigator limited this research to...
It does not seek to include...

7. Significance of the Study

In this section, the researcher expresses the value or importance of the research study.
It is where the significant contributions of the results of the study are enumerated. Such
contributions may be viewed from the point of the target beneficiaries like the researcher
himself, service providers, client, society, administrators, planners, decision-makers,
implementers, the community, the educational institutions, legislatures, and practitioners. It may
also be viewed on their contributions to the accumulation of knowledge, solving a problem which
improves certain of refinement of concepts and theories, improvement of research instruments
and methods and meeting the priorities of instruments.

In writing the importance or significance of the study, it is guided by the following

guidelines; (1) the rationale, timeless and or relevance of the study to existing conditions must
be explained or discussed, (2) possible solutions to existing problems or improvements to
unsatisfactory conditions, (3) it must be shown who are the individuals, groups, or communities
who may be placed in a more advantageous on account of the study, (4) possible contribution to
be a fount of knowledge, and (5) it should discuss the implications, including the possible
causes of the problems discovered, the positive effects of the problems, and the remedial
measures to solve the problems.

8. Definitions of Terms

This section of the research includes important or key terms that should be substantially
and clearly defined according to how they are used in the study in order to facilitate
understanding of the problem and avoid ambiguous meaning to terms which can be otherwise
interpreted in different ways.

Definitions of terms may be of two categories, namely: (1) Operational definitions

express the meaning of the terms as used in a particular field of study while (2) Conceptual
definition is usually taken from the dictionary. It carries a universal meaning easily understood
by people. The common practice in dealing with this part of the research is to state first the
conceptual, then, the operational definitions, although using one of them is already acceptable.

The terms defined should be arranged in alphabetical order and acronyms should
always be spelled out fully, especially if it is not commonly known or if used for the first time. The
following are the guidelines in writing the definitions of terms, namely: (1) Define those terms,
which, though common, may have a special specific meaning or are differently used. (2) Define
some special terms or languages created by some disciplines. This applies as well to terms
familiar in one discipline and borrowed or transformed by another discipline. (3) Define only
what is absolutely necessary and do so precisely by using an authoritative document. (4) If you
cannot find an authoritative definition, find one two such definitions; cite them and try to create
your own definitions as used in research. (5) Complicated and lengthy definitions like those
required in mathematics or science should be placed in an appendix.

Chapter II (Review of the Related Literature and Studies)

The review of the related literature and studies is one of the components of a research
process. A researcher needs to review the write-ups, readings, and studies related to the
present study in order to determine the similarities and differences of the findings between the
past and present studies. This also aims to gain insight into the aspects of the problem that are
critical and controversial. Likewise, a review of related readings, literature and studies provides
the investigator a background regarding the aspects, which have been studied and not yet
studied. It also assists the researcher on what to do on the components of the research
process; this also gives the ideas to proceed with the study until its completion.
 Furthermore, the researcher should have the ability to compare between what should be
read and included in the study and what should not be read. The investigator is required to read
all literature and studies partially and closely related to the study.

Related readings, literature, and studies must directly bear or relation to the present
study. In a research writing, review of related literature is divided into three parts, these are (1)
related readings and literature, (2) related studies, and (3) relevance or justification of the
reviewed literature and studies to the present study.

In related readings, the major sources are laws and department directives such as
circulars, orders and memoranda, which are related to the present study. These laws and
department directives serve as legal bases for the paradigm of the study. This also presents as
having direct or indirect implications to the government thrusts in presenting the related
readings, the researcher has to arrange related readings chronologically either from the past
readings to most recent readings or vice versa.

Related literature may be defined as written works collectively, especially, those enduring
importance, exhibiting creative imagination and artists’ skill, which are written in a particular
period, language, and subject. In other words, any written matter such as book, journal,
magazine, novel, poetry, yearbook, and encyclopedia are considered as literature.

The elements of good writing style of literature review adhere to the basic rules of clarity
or organization, content, and grammar in order to present the report in an acceptable format.
Clear writing is smooth in terms of presentation of topics, and even the use of language and
syntax. Presentation of ideas must be in orderly progression, continuity and smoothness. It
identifies relationships between ideas and use of transitions to maintain the flow of thought in
the literature of review.

There are guidelines on effective writing of the literature and review. These are; (1)
Research papers must be written in a formal style, which is in the third person, not the first
person, (2) Avoid highly descriptive writing style, not appropriate for a scholarly research, (3)
Use the active voice for direct impact and easy understanding, (4) Avoid the use of jargon; use
familiar terms in place of terminologies, (5) Language should be neutral gender, no sexy
language like his, (6) Make the conclusion and contradictions found in the literature clear in the
report, (7) Use short sentences; avoid elongated and run-on expressions, (8) use proper
grammar and proofread the work, (9) Never plagiarize; give credit to the original author of ideas,
and (10) Pay attention to the structure and form of published articles, which are good examples
of how literature reviews can be written.

Related studies in contrast to related literature are works based on empirical data. In
reviewing related studies, one must be careful to the: (1) problem, (2) methodology, including
the sampling plan, (3) instruments used, (4) findings, and (5) conclusions. The researcher
reviews such studies by commenting on the research design used.

In reviewing related studies, the researcher carefully notes the following points: (1) the
researcher’s motivation for conducting the study, which is usually found in the introduction, (2)
the statement of the problem, (3) the variables involved in the study, including their
quantifications, (4) the research design, including the sampling plan utilized by the investigator,
and (5) the major results and conclusions.
 The researcher reviews both local and foreign studies in order to give a balanced
presentation of the investigation being conducted in various settings. Foreign studies may have
some biases in terms of the cultural background of the respondents of the study; and therefore,
there is a need to review local studies conducted on the same topic so that the effects of cultural
difference may be ascertained.

Chapter III (Methods of Research and Procedures)

This chapter of the research process contains a comprehensive description of the

research designs, research locales, samples and the sampling techniques, the subjects,
research instruments, validation of the instruments, data gathering procedures, data processing
methods, and the statistical tools and treatments.

Research Designs. When a researcher starts to think about existing educational

problems, there seems to be simultaneous concerns with one or more plans obtaining the right
answers. The plans or research designs, in effect, form the structure and the researcher’s
method of answering his questions and conducting studies. Research design in research is
categorized according to the procedure the researcher collects and analyzes data and his
research purpose. The two basic research designs are based on the way information is
collected, synthesized and analyzed are quantitative and qualitative research. It may be
observed that although there are overlapping characteristics in quantitative and qualitative
research, they result from different theoretical perspectives about the overall purpose of
research in spite of these differences the two types are complimentary, and they may be
combined in a single research project.

Quantitative and Qualitative researches share concerns “in problem finding in explaining
the relationships of data to claim, in theory building, and in explaining particular cases in the
light of established knowledge and theory. However, researchers can focus on various kinds of
problems. For example, quantitative methods cannot deal directly with historical problems of
cause and effect or the interpretation of unique social phenomena. On the other hand,
qualitative researcher finds it quite difficult, if not impossible, to represent the responses of large
numbers of individuals to different kinds of stimuli, e.g., different methods of teaching and
attitudes towards social and economic conditions and political events. In the sense that the two
sets of methods allow researchers to deal with problems of various dimensions
in different context, they are complementary.

Research design is the specific format and procedures for data collection and data
analysis and interpretation, the blueprint research where logical model of proof guides the
investigator in the various stages of research, the manner of drawing inferences about the
causal relations among the variables under investigation, the scheme for obtaining
interpretations and formulating generalizations that can be applied to other situations. In
determining the research designs, we have to consider the following: (a) Compare the
objectives, expected outcomes and procedures of the different types of research designs, (b)
Look into the problem statement, hypotheses and objectives of the research and available
resources of time, money, and access to information, and (c) Evaluate the research concerns on
the type of research.

Research Locale. This refers to a brief description of the place where the participants or
respondents are to be obtained.
 Samples and Sampling Techniques Used. Sample: persons, events, places or things
used sources of data. Population refers to a group of people, objects or events. Sampling is the
process of selecting a representative portion of the population that can be the source of data to
test the hypothesis.

Essential concepts and steps in sampling are; (1) determine the population of
individuals, or items, or cases where to find the data collected. The target population or universe
is the totality of possible individuals, or items, or cases where data can be obtained. (2)
Determine the kind of sample you want to have. Identify the basic units of the population. This is
the sampling element. An example of sampling element: a priest is the basic element of the total
target population of priests. If you cannot go directly to the sampling elements, identify the
sampling unit, which is the feature of the population where you can get your sampling element.
(3) Find out what is the appropriate size of the sample, that is, how many of the sampling
elements are needed as sources of data. (4) having the desired sample size, get the samples
from the sampling frame, based on the sampling method that you want to use.

The two general types of sampling designs or methods are:

1. Probability Sampling. This describes that each of the units in the target population has
the same chance of being included in the sample. It includes the following types; (a)
simple random sampling, which is the basic probability sampling design. It means that
we are giving every unit of the population an equal chance and non-zero probability of
being included in the sample. (b) Systematic sampling, which is used when there is a
ready list of the total universe or population. (c) Stratified sampling. This scheme is used
to ensure that different groups of a population are adequately represented in the sample.
(d) Cluster sampling. This is used in large-scale surveys. The researcher arrives at the
set of sampling units to be included in the sample by first sampling larger grouping called
clusters. Then, the cluster is selected by simple or stratified sampling. If not all the
sampling units in the clusters are to be included in the sample, the final selection from
within the clusters is also carried out by a simple random or stratified sampling
procedure. (e) Multi-stage sampling, which is usually used for national, regional,
provincial or country level studies.

2. Non-Probability Sampling. This includes: (a) Accidental or convenience sampling. This is

obtained when the researcher selects whatever sampling units are conveniently
available. (b) Purposive sampling. Under this scheme, the sampling units are selected
subjectively by the researcher, who attempts to obtain a sample that appears to be
representative of the population. The chance that a particular sampling unit will be
selected as the sample depends upon the subjective judgement of the researcher. (c)
Quota sampling, the researcher determines the sampling size which should be filled up.
(d) Snowball sampling. This type of sampling that starts with the known sources of
information, who or which will in turn give other sources of information. It is usually used
when there is inadequate information for making the sampling frame. (e)
Networking sampling. This is used to find socially devalued urban populations such as
addicts, alcoholics, child abusers and criminals, because they are usually hidden from
outsiders.

The Subject. The proponent has to explain how and where the subjects are taken. It
can be either population or census if total number of population is small. If the population
is large, then sampling is used. The agency and frequency of subjects must be
mentioned. This is very important because if it appears that sample is not representative,
 the findings and conclusion will be faulty; hence, neither valid nor reliable. Among the
things that should be explained are: (1) the size of the population, (2) the study of
population, (3) the margin of error and the proportion of the study population used, (4)
the type or technique of sampling used whether pure random sampling, systematic,
stratified, cluster or combination of two or more sampling, (5) the actual computations of
the sample, (6) the sample subjects.

Research Instruments. Questionnaire, test, interview, observation, checklist, rating

scale may be described by the researcher. Each part of the research instrument is explicitly
explained.

1. Questionnaire. It is a set of orderly arranged questions, carefully prepared to answer the

specific problems of the study. It is a list of questions to be answered by a group of
people especially designed to get facts or information. It is a list of written questions
related to a particular topic, provided with space for respondents to fill up. It is the
principal instrument of data collection. The answers to such questions will provide the
bases for hypothesis testing. It needs to consider a number of factors in constructing and
using the questionnaire: content of questions, type of questions, format of questions,
pre-testing of questionnaires and process of questionnaire administration.

2. Questionnaire Pre-test. This stands the test of reliability and validity. Therefore, there is a
need to pre-test the questionnaire. Pre-testing means using the questionnaire on a
sample of respondents to check their understanding of the question. It helps identify
problems and gaps in content, format and words used.

3. Interview. This is a form of data-gathering by talking to people who are sources of

information. Persons who are expected to be very knowledgeable in providing answers
are called key informants. The interview schedule is the term used for the set of
questions to be asked.

Validation of the Instrument. In this section, the suggestions, corrections, and

refinement of the draft may be explained fully thoroughly. The different persons involved in the
correction and refinement of the research instrument may be mentioned. After the refinement of
the instrument, testing the validity and reliability of the instrument may be done. For validity,
experts in line with the field of the study may be requested to go over the research instrument.
Criteria for validation may be recommended and given to experts as their bases.

For reliability, the researcher may use any of the four methods. These are (1) test-retest,
(2) split-half, (3) parallel-form, and (4) internal consistency.

If test-retest is used, the questionnaire is administered twice to the pilot sample with the
same field of specialization in other institutions but not included as subjects of the study.
Spearman rank difference correlation coefficient is used to determine the reliability of the
responses. If the reliability value is high, it means that the research instrument is reliable, it is
now ready to be administered to the subjects.

Data gathering Procedure. Having found the research instrument valid and reliable, the
investigator proceeds to ask permission and approval from the head of the agency where the
subjects are employed. Once permitted, the researcher administers the research instrument to
the subjects. The date of the administration for the questionnaire, the retrieval of the research
instrument, and the percentage return of the questionnaire must be stated.

Data Processing. Once the measuring instruments have been retrieved the next activity
of the researcher is to process the raw data into quantitative and qualitative forms. Data
processing involves input, throughput, and output mechanisms

Input involves the responses to the measuring instrument of the subjects of the study,
throughput includes statistical procedures and techniques, and output, the results of the study
which are presented in data matrix form is based or dummy tables may be used to organize,
summarize, and analyze the data on how the variables differ with each other.

Data-processing is a means of converting information either manually or by machines

into quantitative and qualitative forms for use in research analysis. It consists of the three basic
steps, namely; (1) Categorization of data, (2) Coding of data, and (3) Tabulation of data.

Statistical Tool, Processes and Treatment. Statistics is the systematic collection,

presentation, analysis and interpretation of quantitative data. Its functions are:

1. To reduce a mass of data to a small set without losing the essential characteristics of
the distribution.
2. To analyze characteristics of the population based on samples.
3. To predict future behaviour of variables based on what is known about its present
relationship.

Chapter IV (Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data)

This chapter presents analyses and interprets the data gathered out of the instruments
used in the study presented according to the specific problems.

Data Presentation. This is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and
meaningful categories and classification to make them amenable to the study and interpretation.
Analysis and presentation put data into proper order and in categories reducing them into forms
that are intelligible and interpretable so that the relationships between the research specific
questions and their intended answers can be established. There are three ways of presenting
data, namely:

1. Tabular presentation. This is a systematic arrangement of related data in which classes

of numerical facts or data are given each a row and their sub-classes are given each a
column in order to present the relationships of the sets or numerical facts or data in a
definite, compact, and understandable forms. The purpose is to facilitate the study and
interpretation, the making of inference of the relationships of statistical data. Table
construction for data presentation is a part of analysis because the data are separated
and grouped according to class or category.

The statistical table should have the following parts which are briefly described
below:
a. Table heading. It consists the table number and the title. The table number is
usually written in Arabic and placed at the center, above the title numbered
 consecutively throughout the research. Written below the table number
describing the subject matter or content or the data presented in the table.
b. Boxhead. It is found at the top of the column. It identifies what are contained in
the column. Included in the boxhead are the stubhead, the master caption and
the column captions.
c. Stubs. It is the classification or categories found at the left side of the body of the
table.
d. Body. It is the main part of the table. It contains the substance or the figures of
one’s data.

Graphical Presentation. It is a graphing or a chart, representing the quantitative

variations or changes of a variable in comparison with those of another variable in
pictorial or diagrammatical form. This quantitative variations or changes in the data may
refer to their qualitative, geographic or chronological attributes. The purpose of graphing
is to present the variations, changes and relationships of data in a data in a most
attractive, appealing, effective and convincing way.

A graph is a diagram consisting of a line or lines showing the variations,

relationships of data in different ways. It is represented according to their qualitative and
systematic ways.

a. Bar Graph. Used to make comparison of simple magnitudes very much more
clearly and more distinctively perceptible to the eye. Each bar is drawn to a
height or length equal to the magnitude it represents as indicated in the scale
(Y-axis). The bars are separated from each other by a space equal to one half
the widths of a bar. It is used for multiple responses or overlapping
categories.
b. Frequency Polygon or Line Graph. This is prepared by making a histogram,
putting a point in the center of the top of each bar, connecting the points with
straight lines and removing the original histogram. This kind of graphical
presentation can also accommodate categories of wide range, but it is more
useful for data such as ordinal and interval because it stresses continuity
along a scale.
c. Pie Graph. This is used in presenting frequency distribution wherein the
entire circle represents the total population. The pie is subdivided into
segments each of which is proportional in size to the quantities or percentage
it represents.
d. Pictograph. In this type of chart, actual pictures or facsimiles of the objects
under the study are used to represent values. Each figure is considered a unit
representing a definite number. The pictograph is generally used to compare
the sizes of items or objects among countries, institutions, agencies, and the
like.

Data Analysis and Interpretations. Analysis and interpretation of results are difficult for
the researcher, especially if he is not expected in diagnosing the correct statistical tools to
answers the research problems/objectives.

Analysis should be done first before interpretation. An analysis is useless without

interpretation while interpretations are impossible without analysis. In analyzing the data,
statistical techniques are used to give meaning to the data gathered from the subjects.
Generally speaking, analyzing and interpreting the raw data should go hand in hand in order to
give meaningful results. Interpretation is important to have a clearer meaning of the research
findings.

Data analysis may be defined as an explanation of data or facts in terms of quantity,

quality, attributes, traits, patterns, trends, relationships among others so as to answer research
questions which involve statistical techniques and procedures.

The bases in analyzing research data are specific problems/objectives, hypothesis,

measuring instruments and statistical tools.

Data were also analyzed based on the following types:

1. Univariate Analysis. It is a test of a single variable to determine whether the sample is

similar to the population from which it has been drawn.

2. Bivariate Analysis. It is a test of two variables on how they differ with each other. The
common statistical tools to be used in bivariate analysis are correlation coefficient, z-
test, and t- test. Correlation coefficient is used both in descriptive and experimental
designs; z-test, descriptive designs only and t-test, experimental designs.

3. Multivariate Analysis. Is a test of three or more independent variables at a time on the

degree of relationship with the dependent variable.The statistical tools which may be
used in this type are Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for experimental design and the
Friedman two-way ANOVA including Friedman and Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA and Chi-
Square for descriptive designs. Bear in mind that Friedman and Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA
are applicable both for experimental and descriptive designs.

4. Normative Analysis. It is a data analysis wherein the result of the study is compared with
the norm. The statistical tools which may be used for this type are the Arithmetic Mean
and the Standard Deviation.

5. Descriptive Analysis. This describes the characteristics, compositions, structures,

substructures, that occur as units within the larger structure. The researcher should
consider the forces that hold together and the strains that tend to destroy the system
apart. It analyses what the system work and regulate.

Data Presentation. These are statements of the possible meaning, probable causes
and affects of a situation or condition as revealed by the findings and a veiled suggestions to
continue the situation if it is good or to adopt some remedies/measures to eradicate or minimize
bad effects. Those who are to benefit and those who are going to suffer the bad effects should
also be mentioned.

There are elements to consider in the Interpretation of a data. These are; (1) Statement
of the condition or situation. (2) Probable cause of the conditions. (3) Probable effects of the
condition. (4) A suggestion for continuance or remedial measure, if the possible effect is bad.
Chapter V (Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations)

The whole research study is summarized, and generalizations in the form of conclusions
are presented and the solutions to the problems are offered in the form or recommendations.

Summary of Findings summarizes the results based on chapter 4. If there are only three
specific questions stated in chapter 1 and answer in chapter 4, there are only three results
summarized in this section and no presentations of tables. In writing the summary of findings, it
should be guided by the following;(1) There should be a brief statement about the main purpose
of the study, (2) The findings may be lumped up all together but clarity demands that each
specific question under the statement of the problem must be written first to be followed by the
findings that would answer it. The specific questions should follow the order they are given
under the statement of the problem. (3) The findings should be textual generalizations,
summary of the important data consisting of text and numbers. Every statement of fact should
consist of words, numbers, or statistical measures woven into a meaningful statement. No
deduction on the interpretations is made. (4) They should be stated as concisely as possible.

Conclusions are the dovetails with the findings of the study. If there are only three
summarized results, there are three conclusions. They are arranged as it appears in the
findings. Rejection and acceptance of hypotheses are explained in this section. They are valid
outgrowth of the findings.

In writing the conclusions, it shall consider the following guidelines, namely: (a) They
should not contain any numerals, (b) They appropriately answer the specific questions raised at
the beginning of the investigation, (c) No conclusions should be drawn from the implied or
indirect effects of the findings, (d) They should not be given any hint at the researcher’s doubts.
The use of qualifiers such as, probably, perhaps, may be, and others should be avoided as
much as possible, and (e) they should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the
research, thesis, and dissertations. They may be recapitulations if necessary but they should be
worded differently and they should convey the same information as the statements
recapitulated.

Recommendations are based on the conclusions. They are appeals to people or entities
concerned to solve or help solve problems. In writing the recommendations, it should follow the
following guidelines below:

1. It should aim to solve problems in the society.

2. It ensures a continuous benefit being accorded to the universe involved.
3. It should be logical and valid to recommend the acquisition of the lacking of the
difficulties.
4. It should recommend a further study or research in a wider application.

Bibliography
 This is a concluding section of any research where listings of sources of materials are
alphabetically arranged. This follows after the recommendations.

Functions are; (1) gives the reader the scope of the study behind the paper, (2)
determines if a particular work has been used, (3) gives necessary descriptive details for the
sources materials as a whole in order to be located and consulted by the reader.

Some ways of listing the bibliography are; (1) listing source materials such as books,
journals, unpublished works, school directives, and many others separately where the surname
of authors per sources materials are alphabetically arranged, and (2) listing all sources
materials into one and surname of authors are alphabetically arranged.

Appendices

This section is the second to the last part of a research study. Appendix materials
included the questionnaire, letter of transmittal, computations of data, supporting legal
documents, supplementary illustrative materials. Appendix is listed by letter and may be
submitted according to certain logical classification.
This section also gives supplementary information in the main text. The reader who
wants to learn more about the technical aspects of the research study may take a look at the
statistical breakdowns. The questionnaire that is inclusive in this section is the list of planned,
written questions related to a particular topic, with space provided for indicating the response to
each question, intended for submission to a number of persons for reply. Request to conduct
requires a letter of authorization to administer that the research should be sought from the head
of the agency or the institution being considered as respondents of the study.
I