Function of Roots

• Anchor plants into soil

• Absorption of water and minerals
• Store food or water
Roots
• Other specialized functions

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Root Development Root Development (2)

Or, after radicle formation,

Upon germination, embryo’s adventitious roots may arise
radicle grows out and develops that develop into a fibrous root
into first root. system.
Radicle may develop into thick Adventitious roots do not
taproot with thinner branch develop from another root,
roots. but instead from a stem or
Dicotyledonous plants leaf.
(dicots) Fibrous roots - Large number of
fine roots of similar diameter
Monocotyledonous plants
(monocots) and some dicots Fibrous root system

Taproot system

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Root Structure Root Structure (2)

4 regions:
Root cap
Region of cell division Region of Cell Division - Composed
Region of cell elongation of apical meristem in the center of
Region of maturation root tip
Root Cap - Thimble-shaped mass of Subdivided into 3 meristematic
parenchyma cells covering each areas:
root tip Protoderm - Gives rise to
Protects tissues from damage epidermis
as root grows Ground meristem - Gives
Secretes mucilage that acts rise to cortex and pith
Longitudinal section Procambium - Gives rise to
as lubricant through root tip
primary xylem and primary
phloem Root tip showing
– Functions in gravitropism (gravity perception) primary meristems

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 Root Structure
Root Structure (3)
Region of Maturation
Cortex - Parenchyma cells between epidermis and vascular
cylinder
Region of Elongation - Cells Mostly stores food
become several times their original
length.
Vacuoles merge
Region of Maturation - Cells
differentiate into various
distinctive
– Epidermalcell
celltypes.
extensions with thin
cuticle
Root hairs form.
– Absorb water and minerals
– Adhere tightly to soil particles Root hair zone of radish seedling
– Increase total absorptive surface of
root Cross section of
dicot root

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Root Structure Root Structure

Region of Maturation (2) Region of Maturation (3)
Endodermis - Inner boundary of cortex, consisting of a single-layered
cylinder of compact cells
Cell walls impregnated with suberin and lignin on radial and transverse Vascular cylinder - Core of tissues inside
walls endodermis
bands called Casparian strips
Forces water and dissolved substances entering and leaving the Pericycle - Outer boundary of vascular
central core to pass through endodermis cylinder
Regulates types of minerals absorbed
– Eventually inner cell walls become thickened
with suberin, except for passage cells.

Region of– Continues to divide, even after

endodermis
and pericycle
mature
in dicot root
– Forms lateral (branch) roots and
part of the vascular cambium

Enlargement of vascular cylinder of dicot root Lateral root formation

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Root Structure Root Structure (3)

Region of Maturation (4)
• Growth
– Determinate growth - Growth that stops after an organ is fully
Most of cells of vascular cylinder expanded or after a plant has reached a certain size
are primary xylem or primary
– Indeterminate growth - New tissues are added indefinitely, season
phloem. after season
In dicot or conifer roots -
Solid core of xylem, with
“arms” in cross section

Vascular cylinder
of dicot root

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 Specialized Roots Specialized Roots (2)
v Propagative Roots
• Adventitious buds on roots - Develop into suckers Pneumatophores
(aerial stems) In plants with roots growing in
– Fruit Trees water
Spongy roots that extend above
Food Storage Rootsother the water’s surface and
carbohydrates enhance gas exchange between
Starch and atmosphere and subsurface
Sweet Potatoes roots
Water Storage Roots
Pumpkin family, especially in
arid regions
Manroot, water storage root

Mangrove pneumatophores
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Specialized Roots (3) Specialized Roots (4)

v Parasitic Roots
Aerial Roots • Most have no chlorophyll
Orchids - Velamen roots, and dependent on
with epidermis several layers
chlorophyll-bearing
thick to reduce water loss
Corn - Prop roots support plants for nutrition
plants in high wind Contractile Roots
Pull plant deeper into the soil
Ivies (English ivy, Virginia
Lilly bulbs, dandelions
creeper) - Aerial roots aid
plants in climbing Buttress Roots
Buttress roots of
Stability in shallow soil
Tropical Trees tropical fig tree

Orchid aerial (velamen) roots

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Mycorrhizae Mycorrhizae (2)

Mycorrhizae - Fungi that form a mutualistic
association with plant roots
Mutualistic association: Both fungus and
root benefit and are dependent upon
association for normal development
Fungi facilitate absorption and
concentration of nutrients, especially
phosphorus for roots.
Plant furnishes sugars and amino acids
to fungus.
Plants with mycorrhizae develop few root
hairs compared with those growing without
an associated fungus.
Particularly susceptible to acid rain

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 Root Nodules
Plants cannot convert free nitrogen
to usable form
A few species of bacteria produce
enzymes that converts nitrogen Stems
nitrates and other nitrogenous
substances readily absorbed by
roots.
Root nodules contain large
numbers of nitrogen-fixing
bacteria.
Legume Family (Fabaceae)
Root nodules on roots

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Outline External Form of A Woody Twig

Origin and Development of Stems

Cells produced by stem meristem become shoot system
Tissue Patterns in Stems
with branches and leaves.
Herbaceous Dicotyledonous
Woody twig consists of an axis with attached leaves.
Stems
Node - Area of stem where leaves are attached
Woody Dicotyledonous Stems
External Form of a Woody Twig Alternate or spiral
Opposite - Attached in pairs
Monocotyledonous Stems
Whorled - In groups of three or more
Specialized Stems
Internode - Stem region between nodes
Wood and Its Uses
Leaf has a flattened blade and is usually attached to
the twig by petiole.

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External Form of A Woody Twig (2) External Form of A Woody Twig (3)

Axil - Angle between petiole and Deciduous trees and shrubs (lose
stem all leaves annually) - After leaves
Axillary Bud located in axil. fall, have dormant axillary buds
Will become branches or with leaf scars below
flowers in flowering plants Bundle scars mark food and
Bud scales protect buds. water conducting tissue within
Terminal Bud at twig tip leaf scars.
Growth makes twig longer.
Number of groups of bud
scale scars tells age of twig.
Stipules - Paired, often leaflike
appendages at base of a leaf

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 Origin and Development of Stems Origin and Development of Stems (2)

Apical meristem at stem tip

Contributes to increase in Apical meristem cells form 3
stem length primary meristems.
Dormant before growing Protoderm - Gives rise to
season begins epidermis
Protected by bud scales and Procambium - Produces
by leaf primordia primary xylem and phloem
Leaf primordia - Tiny Ground Meristem - Produces
embryonic leaves that pith and cortex, both
develop into mature composed of parenchyma cells
leaves

Longitudinal section Longitudinal section

through stem tip through stem tip
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Origin and Development of Stems (3) Origin and Development of Stems (4)
Narrow band of cells between the primary
• Leaf primordia and bud xylem and primary phloem may become
primordia develop into mature vascular cambium.
leaves and buds. Cells produced by the vascular cambium
– Traces branch off from cylinder of become components of secondary xylem
xylem and phloem, and enter leaf toward center and secondary phloem
or bud. toward surface.
• Trace = strand of xylem and
phloem

gap filled with parenchyma in the cylinder of vascular tissue, forming

leaf gap or bud gap.

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Origin and Development of Stems (5) Tissue Patterns in Stems

Steles
In many plants cork cambium (phellogen) produces
cork cells with suberin and phelloderm cells.
Stele - Central cylinder of primary xylem, primary phloem, and
Function to reduce water loss and to protect
pith (if present)
stem against injury
Protostele - Solid core, phloem surrounds xylem
Lenticels - Parenchyma cells in cork for exchange
In primitive seed plants, whisk ferns, club mosses and
of gases
ferns
Siphonosteles - Tubular with pith in center
Common in ferns
Eusteles - Discrete vascular bundles
In flowering plants and conifers

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 Tissue Patterns in Stems Tissue Patterns in Stems
Herbaceous Dicotyledonous Stems
Cotyledons - Seed leaves attached to embryonic stems
Store food needed by young seedling
Dicotyledons (Dicots) - Flowering plants that develop from seeds Annuals - Plants that die after
having two cotyledons going from seed to maturity within
Monocotyledons (Monocots) - Flowering plants that develop one growing season
from seeds with a single cotyledon Usually green, herbaceous
plants
Most monocots are annuals,
but many dicots are also
annuals.
Tissues largely primary

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Tissue Patterns in Stems Tissue Patterns in Stems

Herbaceous Dicotyledonous Stems (2) Woody Dicotyledonous Stems
Herbaceous dicots have discrete vascular bundles arranged
Wood = Secondary xylem
in a cylinder.
Differences in wood:
Vascular cambium arises between primary xylem and
Vascular cambium and cork cambium active all year:
primary phloem.
Ungrained, uniform wood produced
Adds secondary xylem and secondary phloem
Some tropical trees
If wood produced seasonally:
In spring: Relatively large vessel elements of secondary
xylem produced - Spring wood.
After spring wood: Fewer, smaller vessel elements in
proportion to tracheids and fibers - Summer wood.
In conifers, vessels and fibers absent
Tracheids in spring larger than later in season

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Tissue Patterns in Stems Tissue Patterns in Stems

Woody Dicotyledonous Stems (2) Woody Dicotyledonous Stems (3)

One year’s growth of xylem = annual ring

Vascular cambium produces more secondary xylem
than phloem.
Bulk of tree trunk consists of annual rings of
wood.
Indicates age of a tree
Indicates climate during tree’s lifetime
Vascular Rays consist of parenchyma cells that function
in lateral conduction of nutrients and water.
Xylem Ray - Part of ray within xylem
Phloem Ray - Part of ray through phloem Cross section of
young stem with
secondary
growth
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 Tissue Patterns in Stems Tissue Patterns in Stems
Woody Dicotyledonous Stems (4) Woody Dicotyledonous Stems (5)
• Prevent conduction of
water
• Resins, gums, and
tannins accumulate, and
darken wood, forming
heartwood.
– Heartwood - Older, darker wood in
center
– Sapwood - Lighter, still-functioning
xylem closest to cambium
3-D view of
dicot wood

©McGraw-Hill Education. ©McGraw-Hill Education. Tyloses - Protrusions of adjacent parenchyma cells into conducting cells of xylem

Tissue Patterns in Stems Tissue Patterns in Stems

Woody Dicotyledonous Stems (6) Woody Dicotyledonous Stems (7)
Softwood - Wood of conifers v Laticifers - Ducts found mostly in phloem that
No fibers or vessel elements have latex-secreting cells
Hardwood - Wood of dicot trees • Rubber, chicle (chewing gum), morphine
Resin canals - Tubelike canals scattered throughout xylem Bark - Tissues outside the vascular cambium, including secondary phloem
and other tissues Mature bark may consist of alternating layers of crushed phloem and cork.

Cross section
of young
stem with
secondary
Resin growth
canals in
pine

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Tissue Patterns in Stems Tissue Patterns in Stems

Monocotyledonous Stems Monocotyledonous Stems (2)
Monocots stems have neither a vascular cambium nor a In a typical monocot vascular
cork cambium. bundle:
Produce no secondary vascular tissues or cork Two large vessels with several
small vessels
Primary xylem and phloem in discrete vascular
bundles scattered throughout the stem • formed xylem cells stretch
and collapse.
– Vascular bundles oriented – Leave irregularly
with xylem closer to center shaped air space
of stem and phloem closer
to surface.
• Phloem consists of sieve
tubes and companion cells.
– Parenchyma (ground tissue)
surrounds vascular bundles. Cross
• Vascular bundle
section of surrounded by sheath of
monocot sclerenchyma cells.
stem Monocot vascular bundle

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 Specialized Stems Specialized Stems (2)
Rhizomes - Horizontal stems that grow
below-ground and have long to short
internodes Tubers - Swollen, fleshy, underground
Irises, some grasses, ferns stem
Store food
Potatoes - Eyes of potato are
v Runners - Horizontal stems that nodes
grow above ground and have Bulbs - Large buds surrounded by
long internodes. numerous fleshy leaves, with a small
• Strawberry stem at lower end
Store food
v Stolons - Produced beneath the Onions, lilies, hyacinths, tulips
surface of the ground and tend to grow
in different directions.
• Potato
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Specialized Stems (3) Wood and Its Uses

Corms - Resemble bulbs, but
composed almost entirely of stem
tissue, with papery leaves
Store food In a living tree, 50% of the wood weight comes from
Crocus and gladiolus water content.
Dry part of wood composed of about 60-75%
cellulose and about 15-25% lignin.
v Cladophylls - Density - Weight per unit volume
Flattened, leaf-life Durability - Ability to withstand decay
stems Tannins and oils repel decay organisms.
• Greenbriars, some
orchids, prickly pear
cactus
Prickly pear cactus
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Wood and Its Uses Wood and Its Uses (2)

Types of Sawing Knots - Bases of lost branches covered by new annual
rings produced by the cambium
Radially cut (quartersawed) Wood Products
boards show annual rings in side About half of U.S. and Canadian wood production is
view. used as lumber, primarily for construction.
Tangentially cut (plain-sawed or Sawdust and waste used for particle board and
slab cut) boards are cut pulp.
perpendicular to rays. Veneer - Thin sheet of desirable wood glued to
Show annual rings as cheaper lumber
irregular bands of light and Pulp is second most widespread use of wood.
dark streaks Paper, synthetic fibers, plastics, linoleum
In developing countries, about half of cut timber is
used for fuel.
Less than 10% in US and Canada.

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 Introduction

All leaves originate as primordia in buds.

At maturity, most leaves have:
Stalk = petiole
Leaves Leaves sessile if lacking petiole
(monocots)
Flattened blade = lamina
Network of veins = vascular bundles
Stipules at base of petiole
Leaves of flowering plants associated with
leaf gaps and have axillary buds at base.

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Introduction (2) Introduction (3)

Leaves may be simple or compound. Green leaves capture light energy by means of
Simple leaves - With a single blade
Compound leaves - Blade divided into
photosynthesis.
leaflets Photosynthesis - Trapping and storing of
Pinnately compound leaves - Leaflets energy in sugar molecules that are
in pairs along rachis (petiole)
Bipinnately compound leaf - constructed from water and carbon dioxide
Leaflets subdivided Stomata - Tiny pores on lower surfaces of
Palmately compound leaves - All leaves
leaflets attached at same point at
end of petiole.
Bipinnately Allow carbon dioxide to enter and oxygen to
compound
leaf diffuse out
Water vapor also escapes via stomata.
Guard Cells control water loss by
opening or closing pore of stomatal
apparatus.
Palmately
compound leaf

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Introduction (4) Leaf Arrangements and Types

Leaves are attached to stems at nodes, with stem
Other functions of leaves: regions between known as internodes.
Wastes from metabolic processes accumulate in leaves Phyllotaxy - Arrangement of leaves on stem
and are disposed of when leaves are shed. Alternate - One leaf per node
Opposite - Two leaves per node
Play major role in movement of water absorbed by roots
Whorled - Three of more leaves at a node
Transpiration occurs when water evaporates from
leaf surface.
Guttation - Root pressure forces water out
hydathodes at tips of leaf veins in some plants.

Alternate Opposite Whorled

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 Leaf Arrangements and Types (2) Leaf Arrangements and Types (3)
Venation - Arrangement of veins in a leaf or leaflet blade
Monocots - Primary veins parallel = Parallel venation
Pinnately veined leaves - Main midvein included within
Dicots - Primary veins divergent in various ways =
enlarged midrib.
netted or reticulate venation.
Secondary veins branch from midvein.
Dichotomous venation - Veins fork evenly and
Palmately veined leaves - Several primary veins fan out
progressively from base of blade.
from base of blade.

Parallel
venation

Palmate Dichotomous
Pinnate venation venation
venation
Reticulate venation
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Internal Structure of Leaves Stomata

Lower epidermis typically has thinner layer of cutin and is
Three regions: Epidermis, mesophyll, veins (vascular bundles)
perforated by numerous stomata.
Epidermis - Single layer of cells covering the entire surface of
Stomata bordered by two guard cells.
the leaf
Guard cells originate from the same parent cell, and
Devoid of chloroplasts
contain chloroplasts.
Coated with cuticle (with cutin) Primary functions:
Functions to protect tissues inside leaves
Regulate gas exchange between leaf interior
Waste materials may accumulate in epidermal cells.
and atmosphere
Different types of glands may also be present in the
Regulate evaporation of water
epidermis.
Changes in amount of water in guard cells cause
them to inflate or deflate.
Inflate - Stomata open
Deflate - Stomata close

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Mesophyll and Veins

Most photosynthesis takes place in the
mesophyll between the two epidermal layers.

• Palisade Mesophyll
– Compactly stacked,
barrel-shaped
parenchyma cells,
commonly in two rows
– Contains most of leaf’s
chloroplasts

• Spongy Mesophyll
– Loosely arranged parenchyma cells with abundant air spaces

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 Mesophyll and Veins (2) Mesophyll and Veins (3)
Monocots have some differences:
Veins (vascular bundles) are scattered throughout mesophyll. Usually do not have mesophyll differentiated into palisade
Consist of xylem and phloem tissues surrounded by and spongy layers
bundle sheath of thicker-walled parenchyma
• Often have bulliform
cells on either side
of main central vein
– Bulliform cells partly collapse
under dry conditions.
o Causes leaf to fold or roll,
reducing transpiration

Monocot leaf cross section

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Specialized Leaves Specialized Leaves (2)

Shade Leaves Leaves of Arid Regions
Receive less total light than
sun leaves
Arid regions have limited availability of water, wide
Compared to sun leaves, temperature ranges, and high light intensities.
shade leaves: Leaves reduce loss of water by:
Tend to be larger
Tend to be thinner Thick, leathery leaves
Have fewer well- Fewer stomata or sunken stomata
defined mesophyll Succulent, water-retaining leaves, or no leaves
layers and fewer
chloroplasts Dense, hairy coverings
Have fewer hairs Leaves of Aquatic Areas
Less xylem and phloem
Mesophyll not differentiated into palisade and spongy
layers.
Large air spaces

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Specialized Leaves (3) Specialized Leaves (4)

Tendrils
Modified leaves that curl
around more rigid objects,
helping the plant to climb or to
support weak stems
Garden peas Tendrils

v Spines
• Modified leaves that reduce leaf
surface and water loss, and protect
v Prickles - Outgrowths Thorn

from herbivory. from epidermis or cortex

Thorns - Modified stems arising in the axils of
– Cacti leaves of woody plants
o Leaf tissue replaced with
sclerenchyma.
o Photosynthesis occurs in stems. Spine

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 Specialized Leaves (5) Specialized Leaves (6)

Storage leaves
Succulent leaves are modified Flower-Pot Leaves
for water storage. Leaves develop into urn-like
Have parenchyma cells with pouches that become home of
large vacuoles ant colonies.
Many desert plants Ants carry in soil and add
Fleshy leaves store nitrogenous wastes that
carbohydrates. provide good growing medium
Onions, lily for the plant’s own roots.
Dischidia, an epiphyte of
Australia

Flower-pot leaf sliced lengthwise

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Specialized Leaves (7) Specialized Leaves (8)

Reproductive Leaves
Window leaves
Walking fern - New plants at leaf tips
In succulent desert plants of Africa
Air plant - Tiny plantlets along leaf margins
Leaves buried in ground, except for exposed end.
End has transparent, thick epidermis and transparent
water storage cells underneath.
Allows light into leaf, while buried leaves keep plant
from drying out

Air Plant

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Specialized Leaves (9) Specialized Leaves (10)

Floral Leaves (bracts)
At bases of flowers or flower stalks Insect-Trapping Leaves
Poinsettia - Flowers do not have petals, instead brightly Grow in swampy areas and
colored bracts surround flowers. bogs
Clary’s sage - Colorful bracts are at top of flowering stalks Nitrogen and other
above flowers.
elements are deficient in
soil.
Specialized leaves trap
and digest insects.
Pitcher Plants
Insects trapped and
digested inside cone-
shaped leaves.
Poinsettia
Clary’s sage Pitcher plant

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 Specialized Leaves (11) Specialized Leaves (12)
Insect-Trapping Leaves
Bladderworts
Insect-Trapping Leaves
Submerged or floating in shallow water
Sundews
Tiny bladders on leaves have trap doors that trap
Have round to oval
insects inside bladders.
leaves covered with
glandular hairs that have
a sticky fluid of digestive
enzymes at tip
Venus’s Flytraps
Only in North Carolina
and South Carolina
Blade halves trap insects.

Bladder of bladderwort

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Autumnal Changes in Leaf Color Abscission

Deciduous plants drop leaves seasonally.
Abscission - Process by which leaves are shed
Chloroplasts of mature leaves contain Occurs as a result of changes in abscission zone
several groups of pigments: near base of petiole
Chlorophylls - Green
– Protective layer
Carotenoids - Yellows
In fall, chlorophylls break down and o Cells coated and
other colors are revealed. impregnated with
Water soluble anthocyanins (red or blue) suberin.
and betacyanins (red) may also be present – Separation layer
in the vacuole. o Pectins in middle
lamella of cells are
broken down by
enzymes.

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Introduction
• Annual plants - Cycle completed in single season.
– Cycle = from seed germination to mature plant producing seeds
Flowers, Fruits, and • Biennial plants - Cycle completed in two growing seasons.
Seeds • Perennial plants - Cycle takes several to many growing seasons
or plant produces flowers on new growth, while other plant
parts persist indefinitely.

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 Differences Between Dicots and Monocots
v Two major classes of flowering plants:
• Magnoliopsida (dicots) and Liliopsida (monocots)
Dicots
Two cotyledons
Flower parts in multiples of four or
five
Leaves with distinct network of
veins
Vascular cambium and cork
cambium present
Vascular bundles of stem in ring
Monocots
One cotyledon
Flower parts in multiples of three
Leaves with parallel primary veins
Vascular cambium and cork cambium
absent
Vascular bundles of stem scattered
Structure of Flowers
Flowers begin as embryonic primordium that
develops into a bud.
Flowers occur as specialized branches at tips of
peduncles.
May have branchlets of pedicels (stalk of single
flower)
Receptacle - Swollen end of peduncle or pedicel
Other parts of flower attached to receptacle in
whorls: sepals, petals, stamens, and pistil.

Pollen grains with three apertures Pollen grains with one aperture

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Structure of Flowers (2) Structure of Flowers (3)

Sepals - Outermost whorl
Collectively referred to as calyx
Protects flower while in bud
Petals - Next whorl inside sepals
Collectively referred to as corolla
Showy corollas attract pollinators.
Inconspicuous or missing corollas in many trees,
weeds, grasses, and wind-pollinated plants

• Calyx and Stamens attached around base of pistil.

corolla form Each stamen consists of filament with anther at top.
perianth in Pollen grains developed in anthers.
monocots Pistil consists of stigma, style, and ovary.
Ovary develops into fruit.

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Structure of Flowers (4) Structure of Flowers (5)

Flowers can be produced singly or in
Ovaries evolved from carpels with margins rolled inward. inflorescences.
Carpel - Leaf with ovules on margins Inflorescence - Group of flowers
Carpels may be fused together into compound
ovary.
Pistil can consist of one to several carpels.
Superior Ovary - Calyx and corolla attached to receptacle at
base of ovary.
Inferior Ovary - Receptacle grows up and around the ovary.
Calyx and corolla appear attached at top of ovary.
Ovary contains ovules.
Ovules develop into seeds after fertilization.

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 Fruits Fruits (2)
Fruit - Matured ovary and its accessory parts
Fruit Regions
Contains seeds
Exocarp - Skin
All fruits develop from flower ovaries and accordingly are
Endocarp - Inner
found exclusively in flowering plants.
boundary around
seed(s)
Mesocarp - Tissue
between exocarp
and endocarp
Peach fruit

– Three regions collectively called pericarp.

Tomato
fruit

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Fruits (3) Fruits (4)

Fleshy Fruits - Mesocarp at least partly fleshy at maturity.
Simple fleshy fruits develop from flower with single pistil.
Variability of fruits
Can consist of only ovary and
seeds
Can include adjacent flower • Drupe - Simple
parts
May be fleshy or dry at
fleshy fruit with
maturity single seed
May split or not split enclosed by hard,
May be derived from a one or stony endocarp (pit)
more ovaries
Drupes: peaches,
almonds, olives

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Fruits (5) Fruits (6)

• Berry
Simple fleshy fruits – Hesperidium - Leathery skin containing oils
Berry o Citrus
From compound ovary, with
more than one seed, and Pome - Flesh comes from
enlarged floral tube or
with fleshy pericarp receptacle that grows up
True berry - With thin skin around ovary.
and relatively soft pericarp
Endocarp papery or
Tomatoes, grapes, leathery
peppers, blueberries,
bananas Apples, pears - Core and
a little of adjacent tissue
Pepo - Relatively thick rind is from ovary; remainder
Pumpkins, cucumbers Apple pomes
is from floral tube and
Grape berries
receptacle

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 Fruits (7) Fruits (8)
• Follicle - Splits Dehiscent fruits
along one side Siliques and silicles - Split along two sides, but seeds
on central partition, which is exposed when two
– Larkspur, milkweed,
peony halves separate.

• Legume - Splits – Silique - More than three

along two sides times longer than wide
– Silicle - Less than three
– Legume family: peas, times longer than wide
beans, lentils, peanuts
– Mustard family: broccoli,
Milkwee cabbage
Dry Fruits - Mesocarp dry
at maturity
Dehisicent or
indehiscent Legumes
Dehiscent fruits - Split at
Maturity Silique Silicle
d follicle
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Fruits (9) Fruits (10)

Dehiscent fruits
Capsules - Consist of at least two carpels, and
split in a variety of ways • Single seed united with
Irises, poppies, violets, snapdragons
pericarp
– Achene - Base of seed attached to Inside of
pericarp. sunflower
o Sunflower seed, buttercup, achene
buckwheat
– Nut - Similar to achene, but larger,
with harder and thicker pericarp,
and a cluster of bracts at base
o Acorns, hazelnuts, hickory
nuts

Capsules Dry Fruits

Indehiscent Fruits - Do Not Split at Maturity Acorn

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Fruits (11) Fruits (12)

Indehiscent Fruits
Grain (Caryopsis) - Pericarp tightly united Aggregate Fruits
with seed Derived from single flower
Grasses: corn, wheat, rice, oats, barley with several to many pistils
Individual pistils mature as
• Samara - Pericarp clustered unit on single
extends as wings for receptacle.
dispersal. Blackberry aggregate fruits
Corn section v Multiple Fruits
– Maples, ashes, elms
• Derived from several to
• Schizocarp - Twin many individual flowers
fruit that breaks in single inflorescence
Samaras into one-seeded – Mulberries, Osage orange,
– Parsley segments called pineapples, figs
family: mericarps o Raspberries, blackberries,
carrots, Schizocarp of mericarps strawberries
anise, dill Osage orange multiple fruit
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 Fruit and Seed Dispersal Fruit and Seed Dispersal (2)

Dispersal by Wind
Dispersal by Animals
Fruits: Samaras, plumes or
Seeds pass through digestive
hairs on fruit
tract.
Seeds: Small and lightweight,
Fruits and seeds adhere to fur
or with wings
or feathers.
Oils attract ants.
Elaiosomes on bleeding
hearts used as food by ants.
Seeds from bleeding hearts.
Elaiosome is white.

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Seeds Seeds (2)

Structure
v Epigeous germination
Ovules develop into seeds.
Cotyledons - Food storage organs that Hypocotyl lengthens,
function as “seed leaves” bends and becomes
Embryo = cotyledons and plantlet hook-shaped.
Plumule - Embryo shoot
Top of hook emerges
from ground, pulling
– Epicotyl - Stem above cotyledon cotyledons above
attachment
ground.
– Hypocotyl - Stem below
cotyledon attachment
Epigeous germination
– Radicle - Tip of embryo that
develops into root v Hypogeous germination
Bean seed • Hypocotyl remains short and cotyledons do not emerge above surface.

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Germination Germination (2)

Germination is beginning or resumption of seed growth.

Favorable environmental factors
Some require period of dormancy.
needed for germination.
Brought about by mechanical or physiological factors,
Water and oxygen
including growth-inhibiting substances present in seed
Light or its absence
coat or fruit
Proper temperature range
Break dormancy by mechanical abrasion, thawing and
Enzymes in cytoplasm begin to
freezing, bacterial action, or soaking rains.
function after water is imbibed.
Scarification - Artificially breaking dormancy
After ripening - Embryo composed of only of few cells when
fruit ripens; seeds will not germinate until embryo develops.

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 Longevity

Seed viability varies, depending on

species and storage conditions.
Viability extended:
At low temperatures
When kept dry
Vivipary - No period of dormancy;
embryo continues to grow while
fruit is still on parent.

Vivipary in red mangrove

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