CHAPTER 4

• Ivan Pavlov, a Russian

psychologist, is known for his
famous experiment with
conditioning the salivation
response in dogs
• Classical conditioning is a
reflexive or automatic type
of learning in which a stimulus
acquires the capacity to evoke
a response that was originally
evoked by another stimulus
• Learning that occurs when a
neutral stimulus becomes
associated with a stimulus
that naturally produces a
behavior
• Stimulus
– Something that
exist in the
surroundings or
that is presented
• Response
– How the animal
responds to the
stimulus
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
– Something that triggers a
naturally occurring response

• Unconditioned Response (UR)

– The naturally occurring
response that follows the
unconditioned stimulus

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

– A neutral stimulus that,
after being repeatedly
presented prior to the
unconditioned stimulus, evokes
a similar response as the
unconditioned stimulus

• Conditioned Response (CR)

– The acquired response to the
formerly neutral stimulus
 In the early part of the 20th century, Russian
psychologist, Ivan Pavlov was studying the digestive
system of dogs when he noticed an interesting
behavioral phenomenon:
The dogs began to salivate when the lab
technicians who normally fed them entered the room,
even though the dogs had not yet received any food.
Pavlov realized that the dogs were salivating because
they knew that they were about to be fed. The dogs
had begun to associate the arrival of the technicians
with the food that soon followed their appearance in
the room.
With his team of researchers, Pavlov began
studying this process in more detail. He conducted a
series of experiments in which, over a number of
trials, dogs were exposed to a sound immediately
before receiving food.
 He systematically controlled the onset of
the sound and the timing of the delivery of the
food and recorded the amount of the dogs’
salivation. Initially the dogs salivated only when
they saw or smelled the food, but after several
pairings of the sound and the food, the dogs
began to salivate as soon as they heard the
sound. The animals had learned to associate the
sound with the food that followed.
Pavlov identified a fundamental associative
learning process called Classical Conditioning.
• Conditioning
– Evolutionarily beneficial because it allows organisms to
develop expectations that help them prepare for both
good and bad events

After he had demonstrated that learning could

occur through association, Pavlov moved on to study
the variables that influence the strength and the
persistence of conditioning. After the conditioning had
taken place, Pavlov presented the sound repeatedly but
without presenting the food afterward, “Acquisition,
extinction and spontaneous Recovery” shows what
happened.
 After the initial acquisition (learning) phase
in which the conditioning occurred, when the CS
was then presented alone, the behavior rapidly
decreased---the dogs salivated less and less to
the sound, and eventually the sound did not elicit
salivation at all.

Extinction refers to the reduction in

responding that occurs when the conditioned
stimulus is presented repeatedly without the
unconditioned stimulus.
 Spontaneous Recovery is the increase in
responding to the CS following a pause after
extinction.
Although at the end of the first
extinction period, the CS was no longer
producing salivation, the effects of
conditioning had not entirely disappeared.
After a pause, sounding a tone again elicited
salvation, although to a lesser extent than
before extinction took place
 Generalization refers to the tendency to
respond to stimuli that resemble the original
conditioned stimulus.
Pavlov experimented with presenting a new
stimuli that were similar, but not identical, to
the original conditioned stimulus.
The dog had been conditioned to being
scratched before the food arrived, the stimulus
would be changed to being rubbed rather than
scratched. He found that the dogs also salivated
upon experiencing the similar stimulus.
 Discrimination is the tendency to
respond differently to stimuli that are
similar but not identical.

The dogs salivated when they heard

the specific tone that had preceded food,
but not upon hearing similar tones that
had never been associated with the food.
• Edward L. Thorndike
is one of the few
psychologist who
focused on
education
• Thorndike believed
that forming
associations or
connections between
sensory experiences
and neutral impulses
results in the prime
type of learning
• Law of Exercise
– Law of use
– Law of disuse
• Law of Effect
• Law of Readiness
• Drills are vital to acquire and sustain learning.
Bonds between stimuli and responses are
strengthened through being exercised
frequently, recently, and vigorously
• Divided into two parts: the Law of Use and
the Law of disuse
– The Law of Use. The frequent recurring of the
response to the stimulus strengthens their
connection
– The Law of Disuse. When a response is not made
to a stimulus, the connection’s strength is
weakened or even forgotten
• Learners usually learn faster when they of ten
apply a certain skill (law of use) and tend to
forget when such a response does not recur
over some time (law of disuse)
– EXAMPLE:
Pianists repeatedly practice their pieces before their
performance. By practicing (law of use), they ensure
that they will play correctly. If they do not exercise
playing their pieces (law of disuse), they may encounter
difficulty in smoothly accomplishing their performances
 Thorndike, later revised
the Law of Exercise. He
confessed that by merely
practicing, one does not bring
improvement in learning.
Practicing, according to
Thorndike, is not sufficient.
The constant practice must
be followed by some reward or
satisfaction to the learner. In
short, the pupil must be
motivated to learn.
• Emphasizes that if a
response is followed by a
“satisfying” state of
affairs, the S-R
connection is
strengthened; if a
response is followed by
an “annoying” state of
affairs, the S-R
connection is weakened.
• Satisfiers and annoyers
are critical to learning.
• If one is prepared to act, to do is
rewarding, and not to do is punishing
• Before learning commences, one must be
physically, emotionally, mentally, and
psychologically prepared
• When students are ready to learn a
particular action, then the behaviors
that foster this learning will be rewarding.
Meanwhile, when students are not ready
to learn or do not possess prerequisite
skills, then attempting to learn is
punishing and even becomes a waste of
time
– When a learner knows the answer to a
particular question, thus he will raise his
hand. Calling him to recite is rewarding.
– When a teacher calls on a student who
does not know
• Burrhus Frederick Skinner ,
well-known as B.F. Skinner,
the father of Operant
Conditioning
• Believed that we do have such
thing as a mind, but that it
is simply more productive to
study observable behavior
rather than internal mental
events
• He believed that the best way
to understand behavior is to
look at the causes of an
action and its consequences.
He called this approach
Operant Conditioning.
 BF Skinner placed a rat in a special cage
(called the Skinner’s box) that has a bar on
one wall that, when pressed, causes a little
mechanism to release a food pellet into the
cage. The rat is moving around the cage when
it accidentally presses the bar and as a result
of pressing the bar, a food pellet falls into the
cage.
The rat “learns” to press the bar
whenever it wants food. This leads to one of
the principles of operant conditioning- A
behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus
results in an increased probability of that
behavior in the future.
• Operant Conditioning is a method of
learning that occurs through
rewards and punishments for
behavior
• Was based on Thorndike’s Law of
Effect
• Behavior that is followed by
pleasant consequences is likely to be
repeated, and behavior followed by
unpleasant consequences is less likely
to be repeated
• Through operant conditioning, an
individual makes an association
between a particular behavior and a
consequence
• Reinforcement. Behavior which is
reinforced tends to be repeated ,
behavior which is not reinforced
tends to die
Skinner identified three (3) types of
responses, or operant, that can
follow behavior:
1. Neutral operants
– Responses from the environment
that neither increase nor decrease
the probability of a behavior being
repeated.
2. Reinforcers
– Responses from the environment
that increase the probability of a
behavior being repeated.
Reinforcers can be in positive or
negative.
3. Punishers
– Responses from the environment
that decrease the likelihood of a
behavior being repeated.
Punishment weakens behavior.
 (Strengthens Behavior)

Positive Reinforcement
• Strengthens a behavior by providing a
consequence an individual finds
rewarding
• After the reinforcement is given, an
individual is more likely to repeat the
behavior in the future thus
strengthening the behavior

Negative Reinforcement
• The removal of an unpleasant
reinforcer can also strengthen
behavior
• Removal of an adverse stimulus which
is rewarding to the animal or person
• Strengthens behavior because it stops
or removes an unpleasant experience
• Continuous Reinforcement
– The original scenario; every
time that the rat does the
behavior
– A human is positively
reinforced every time a
specific behavior occurs
• Fixed Ratio Reinforcement
– Behavior is reinforced only
after the behavior occurs a
specified number of times
• A child receives a star for
every five words spelled
correctly
• Fixed Interval Reinforcement
– One reinforcement is given after
a fixed time interval providing
at least one correct response
has been made
• Being paid by the hour
• Variable Ratio Reinforcement
– Behavior is reinforced after an
unpredictable number of times
• Gambling or fishing
• Variable Interval Reinforcement
– Providing one correct response
has been made, reinforcement is
given after an unpredictable
amount of time has passed
• A self-employed person being paid at
unpredictable times
 (Weakens Behavior)
• The opposite of
reinforcement since it is
designed to weaken or
eliminate a response rather
than increase it
• Positive Punishment
– Addition of an unpleasant
stimulus to decrease the
behavior
• Negative Punishment
– The removal of pleasant
stimulus to decrease the
behavior
(NOTE: It is not always easy to
distinguish between punishment
and negative reinforcement)
Problems with using
Punishment:
1. Punished behavior is not forgotten, it
is suppressed- behavior returns when
punishment is no longer present
2. Causes increased aggression- shows
that aggression is a way to cope with
problems
3. Creates fear that can generalize to
undesirable behaviors
4. Do not necessarily guide toward desired
behavior- reinforcement only tells you
what to do, punishment only tells you
what not to do
CHANGE THE DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULI
Move misbehaving student away from other
misbehaving students
 ALLOW THE
UNWANTED BEHAVIOR
TO CONTINUE
 EXTINGUISH THE
UNWANTED BEHAVIOR
CONDITION AN
INCOMPATIBLE
BEHAVIOR
• Latent learning was
not original to
Edward C. Tolman,
but he developed it
further.
• Tolman’s theory
combines the
advantages of
stimulus-response
theories and cognitive
field theories, also
called as purposive
behaviorism
• Latent learning is a
type of learning which
is not apparent in the
learner’s behavior at
the time of learning,
but which manifest
later when a suitable
motivation and
circumstances appear.
• Tolman’s experiments
with rats
demonstrated that
organisms can learn
even if they do not
receive immediate
reinforcement
 In the experiment, Tolman placed hungry rats in a maze with no
reward for finding their way through it. He also studied a comparison
group (of rats) that was rewarded with food at the end of the maze.
Group 1: Rewarded
Day 1-17. Every time they got to end, given food.
Group 2: Delayed Reward
Day 1-10. Every time they got to end, taken out.
Day 11-17. Every time they got to end, given food.
Group 3: No Reward
Day 1-17. Every time they got to end, taken out.

As the unreinforced rats explored the maze, they developed a

cognitive map; a mental picture of the layout of the maze.
After 10 sessions in the maze without reinforcement, food was
placed in a goal box at the end of the maze. As soon as the rats became
aware of the food, they were able to find their way through the maze
quickly, just as quickly as the comparison group, which has been rewarded
with food all along.
this is the LATENT LEARNING, learning that occurs but is not
observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it.
 Result. The delayed reward group
learned the route on days 1 to 10 and
formed a cognitive map of the maze.
They took longer to reach the end of
the maze because there was no
motivation for them to perform. From
Day 11 onwards, they had a motivation
to perform and reached the end before
the reward group.
Example
Stephen’s dad drives him
to school everyday. In this way,
Stephen learns the route from
his house to his school, but he’s
never driven there himself, so
he has not had a chance to
demonstrate that he’s learned
the way. One morning, Stephen’s
dad has to leave early for a
meeting, so he cant drive
Stephen to school. Instead,
Stephen follows the same route
on his bike that his dad would
have taken in the car.
Stephen had learned the
route to school but had no need
to demonstrate his knowledge
earlier.
 Edward Tolman propose that
people and animals are active
information processes and not
passive learners as behaviorism
had suggested. Tolman developed a
cognitive view of learning that has
become popular in modern
psychology.
Tolman believed individuals do
more than merely respond to
stimuli; they act on beliefs,
acttitudes, changing conditions,
and they strive toward goals.
Tolman is virtually the only
behaviorist who found the
stimulus-resonse theory
unacceptable, because
reinforcement was not necessary
for learning to occur. He felt
behavior was mainly cognitive
• Social Learning Theory,
theorized by Albert
Bandura, people learn
from one another, via
observation, imitation,
and modeling.
• The theory has often
been called a bridge
between behaviorist and
cognitive learning
theories because it
encompasses attention,
memory and
motivation.
• Children observe the people around them behaving
in various ways.
• Bobo Doll Experiment
• Reinforcement can be internal and external
– External Reinforcement. If a child wants approval
from parents or peers
– Internal Reinforcement. Feeling happy about being
approved
• Children will have a number of models with whom
they identify.
• These may be people in their immediate world
such as parents or older siblings, or could be
fantasy characters or people in the media
• The motivation to Identify with a particular
model is that they have a quality which the
individual would like to posses
– Identification. Occurs with another person (the model)
and involves taking on observed behaviors, values,
beliefs and attitudes of the person of whom you are
identifying
– Identification is different to imitation as it may
involve a number of behaviors being adopted, whereas
imitation usually involves copying a single behavior.
• SLT is a bridge between traditional learning
theory and the cognitive approach. This is
because it focuses on how mental factors
are involved in learning
• Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1977) believes that
humans are active information processors
and think about the relationship between
their behavior and its consequences
• Observational learning could not occur
unless cognitive process were at work
• Therefore, individuals do not automatically
observe the behavior of a model and
imitate it, there is some thought prior to
imitation and this consideration is called
the Mediation Process- observing the
behavior (stimulus) and imitating it or not
(response)
1. Attention
– We cannot learn if we are not
focused on the task. This is the
extent to which we are
exposed/notice the behavior
– For a behavior to be imitated, it
has to grab your attention
2. Retention
– How well the behavior is
remembered
– The behavior may be noticed but
is not always remembered which
obviously prevents imitation
– It is important that a memory
of the behavior is formed to be
performed by the observer
3. Reproduction
– This is the ability to perform the
behavior that the model has just
demonstrated
– We are limited by our physical ability
and for that reason, even if we wish
to reproduce the behavior, w cannot.
This influences our decisions whether
to try and imitate it or not
4. Motivation
– The will to perform the behavior
– The rewards and punishment that
follow a behavior will be considered by
the observer.
– If the perceived rewards outweigh the
perceived costs, then the behavior will
be more likely to be imitated by the
observer. If the vicarious
reinforcement is not seen to be
important enough to the observer,
then they will not imitate the behavior
4
 QUIZ 1.2
Directions:
• Use yellow papers for your
answer RUBRICS
• Do not use the back part of
your paper Neatness (10)
Mechanics (15)
Organization (15)
Essay Content (30)

1. Enumerate the Cognitive

Learning Theories. Discuss and
Elaborate the concepts of each
theories.
2. Enumerate the Behavioral
Learning Theories. Discuss and
Elaborate the concepts of each
theories.
 Constructivism lies on the premise that
in which
learners construct new ideas or concepts based
upon their current or past knowledge.
Cognitive structure provides meaning and
organization to experiences and allows the
individual to “
”. The instructor and student should
engage in an active dialog.
The task of the instructor is to translate
information to be learned into a format
appropriate to the learner’s current state of
understanding. Curriculum should be organized
in a spiral manner so that the student
continually builds upon what they have already
learned.
• Jerome Bruner believes that
learning is an active process
• He was concerned with how
knowledge is presented and
organized through different
modes of thinking (or
representation).
• Bruner’s constructivist theory
suggests it is effective when
faced with new material to follow
a progression from enactive to
iconic to symbolic representation,
holds true for adult learners
• Bruner’s work also suggest that a
learner even of a very young age is
capable of learning any material so
long as the instruction is
organized appropriately.
Three modes of representation:
1. Enactive Representation
(action-based)
2. Iconic Representation
(image-based)
3. Symbolic Representation
(language-based)
Enactive Representation (0-1 year)
• The first kind of memory
• Thinking is based entirely on physical actions,
and infants learn by doing, rather than by
internal representation (or thinking)
• Involves encoding physical action based
information and storing it in our memory
• May adults can perform a variety of motor
task that they would find difficult to
describe in iconic (image) or symbolic (word)
form.
Iconic Representation (1-6 years)
• Information is stored as sensory images
(icons), usually virtual ones, like
pictures in the mind.
• This may explain why, when we are
learning a new subject, it is often
helpful to have diagrams or
illustrations to accompany the verbal
information
• Thinking is also based on the use of
other mental images (icons), such as
hearing, smell or touch
Symbolic Representation (7 years onwards)
• This is where information is stored in
the form of a code or symbol, such
as language.
• Knowledge is stored primarily in
words, mathematical symbols, or in
other symbol systems, such as music
Bruner emphasized four major aspects to
be addressed during the teaching and
learning process.

1. Predisposition toward learning

2. How a body of knowledge can be
structured so that it can be most
readily grasped by the learner
3. The most effective sequence in which
to present material
4. The nature and pacing of rewards and
punishments
1. Predisposition toward learning

• The child’s readiness to learn is an

important aspect to consider in learning
concepts and skills. Love of learning
should be emphasized at an early age.
• One of the factors that can contribute
to this is the parent and teacher
influences on a child. When both parents
and teachers provide enjoyable
opportunities for exploration and play,
the child can discover concepts in
interesting ways
2. How a body of knowledge can be
structured so that it can be most readily
grasped by the learner

• Topics and concepts are effectively learned

when details of such are arranged and
ordered in the context of the learner.
• Structures are usually arranged from
simple to its more complex from.
• Patterns are also based on what is
recognizable or familiar to the learners
than to those who are very new to them
3. The most effective sequence
in which to present material
• Sequencing of presentation is part of
a teacher’s innovation in teaching.
The teacher considers which the
learners need most, and can
understand first and can master
first as a prerequisite knowledge or
skill to the next topic concept
4. The nature and pacing of
rewards and punishments
• Rewards and punishments should be
properly selected and that whenever
they are given to learners, they
should know and understand why
they are rewarded or punished
Bruner’s Principle of Instruction:
1. Instruction must be concerned with
the experiences and context that make
the student willing and able to learn
(readiness)
2. Instruction must be structured so
that it can be easily grasped by the
student (spiral organization)
3. Instruction should be designed to
facilitate extrapolation and or fill in
the gaps (going beyond the
information given)
Gestalt Theory
• Gestalt theory emphasizes
that the whole of anything is
greater than its parts.
• The word Gestalt is used in
modern German to mean the
way a thing has been “placed” or
“put together”.
• Form and Shape are the usual
translations, in psychology the
word is often interpreted as
pattern or configuration
• Max Wertheirmer was one of
the principal proponents of
Gestalt theory which
emphasized higher-order
cognitive process in the midst
of behaviorism
 The focus of Gestalt theory was the
idea of “grouping”, characteristics of
stimuli cause us to structure or interpret
a visual field or problem in a certain way.

The primary factors that determine

grouping were:
a. Proximity c. Closure
b. Similarity d. Simplicity
Proximity
Elements that are near to each
other are grouped together
Similarity
Elements that have the same or nearly similar features
are grouped together
Objects that look similar in shape, size, or color are
perceived being grouped together or related
Continuity
Elements that define smooth lines or even
curves are also grouped together
Closure
Elements that fill up missing parts to
complete an entity that are grouped
together
 When teachers present information or concepts
to their learners, instructional strategies should use
these laws of groupings. The strategies a teacher
uses will help learners discover if there are elements
hindering them from learning new concepts.
Teachers assist learners in removing these
barriers to learning so that new knowledge can be
stored and effectively used in varied situations.
A person can solve a problem if he has a good
understanding of the overall or general structure of
the problem. Understanding a problem means knowing
and seeing the whole and its parts.
Gestalt theory also looks into how people
organize their learning by looking at their experiences
both inside and outside of the classroom. When the
instruction given are related to their experiences,
learning effectively takes place.
 Implications of Gestalt theory in
the teaching and leaning process
1. Law of Proximity
• Related concepts or lessons should be
taught aligned or closely to each
other.
– Example:
• Pronoun is taught after nouns- we cannot
directly proceed to figures of speech
• Addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division
2. Law of Similarity
• Similar lessons or concepts should be
grouped together to make learners
develop understanding more
efficiently and effectively.
– Example:
• Unit 1. Metacognition
• Unit 3. Cognitive Learning Theories
• Unit 4. Behavioral Learning Theories
3. Law of Continuity
• Lessons should be presented in such a
way that learners will see these as
connected and continuous.
• “Review” is conducted for continuity
• Students will realize that the new
lesson has continuity and is related
to what they already know
4. Law of Closure
• When a concepts or topic is incomplete
it is not “closed”, incomplete
information may make learners want to
discover what is missing rather than
concentrating on the given instruction.
• Learners get lost. Make the lesson
complete. Present it clearly, simply and
always be ready for students’
clarification
5. Law of Pragnanz
• When things grasped as wholes, the
minimal amount of energy is exerted
in thinking.
• Make your lesson holistic, complete
and most of all, simple
6. Law of Figure/Ground
• For a figure to be perceived, it must
stand out from the background
• Emphasis should be done on
important aspects of the lesson
Major Principles of Gestalt theory of learning
(Koffka, 2013):

1. The learners should be encouraged to discover

the underlying nature of a topic or a problem.

2. Gaps, incongruities, disturbance are an

essential stimulus for learner.

3. Instruction should be based upon the laws of

organization: similarity, proximity, continuity,
and closure.
 Subsumption Theory
• Developed by David Ausubel
• Theory emphasizes how
individuals learn large amounts
of meaningful material from
both verbal and textual
presentation in a school setting
• Subsumption means to include
or put something within
something larger or more
comprehensive.
• A person learns something from
what he already knows
• An individual’s cognitive
structure consist of all his
learning experiences that makes
up his knowledge of facts,
concepts, and other data.
• A primary process in learning is subsumption in
which new material is related to relevant ideas in
the existing cognitive structure on a
substantive, non-verbatim basis
• Forgetting occurs because certain details get
integrated and lose their individual identity
• Advance Organizers.
– Act as a subsuming bridge between new learning
material and existing related materials.
– One way of strengthening one’s cognitive
structure because they enable the learner to see a
general picture (bird’s view) of the concept even
before looking into its details or parts.
– Enable the learner to connect new information with
what he already knows about it and also helps the
learner see interrelationships of concepts to each
other.
 The Subsumption Theory presents four
learning process where a piece of new knowledge
is assimilated into an existing cognitive
structure.

1. Derivative subsumption. A new concept

learned is an example of a concept that you
have already learned before.
2. Correlative subsumption. A new concept
learned is an extension or modification of a
previously learned information.
3. Superordinate subsumption. What was learned
are specific examples of a new concept.
4. Combinatorial subsumption. A new concept is
combined with a prior known concept to
enrich both concepts.
Cooperative and Experiential
Learning
 Cooperative Learning
• Cooperative Learning allows many
opportunities to develop learner’s
interpersonal skills
• It would give them experiences on how they
can properly interact with the others and at
the same time listen and learn from their
groupmates
• Cooperative learning is a part of
constructivism because it allows the
creation and innovation of knowledge
through group interaction and active
participation of each member
Features of Cooperative Learning
1. Students are actively engaged, thus developing
in each member their cooperative spirit
2. Each member is challenged to give his best
because it can create a healthy and
competitive spirit
3. It allows learners creativity and innovation
because they interact with people at their
age, peers or classmates
4. It develops positivity like open-mindedness,
humility and give-and-take attitude, as well as
listening skills
5. It reduces pressure from works and creates a
positive classroom atmosphere
 When teachers use cooperative
learning as an instructional strategy,
PROPER GUIDANCE should be established.
CLEAR INSTRUCTIONS should be given
before the groupings.
EXPECTATIONS and OUTPUTS should
be made clear so that the learners will
not be wasting their time during their
groupings.
 Stages in Cooperative Learning:
1. Teachers assign learners to groups. Learners can also be
given a chance to choose their groupmates depending on the
nature of the task given. Teachers should be creative;
groupings should also be varied now and then so that
learners get to experience working with others
2. Tasking is a vital component of cooperative learning.
Everybody should clearly understand what is expected from
them and what kind of output are they supposed to
accomplish at the end of the grouping. Clear and concrete
instructions should be given by the teacher, like the time
element involved to finish the task, materials to use, the
role of the members , and the like. This way, time is also well
spent.
3. The working time and task collaboration should be an active
process. Teachers need to also actively monitor how tasks
are done. Each member performs his assigned role. Learners
should be free to interact and to comment on each others
work.
Experiential Learning
Actual hands-on activities are still THE MOST EFFECTIVE MEANS
OF LEARNING. Experiences that are direct and purposeful are
still the learner’s best opportunity to master a concept or a
skill.
Direct and purposeful experiences are RICH experiences
that the senses bring, from which ideas, concepts,
generalizations are constructed.
Realities can be brought to the classroom through the
planned activities of the teacher. The learners can see and feel
what is being learned is a part of their real-life situations.
LEARNING BY DOING is an essential element in discovering
and constructing new knowledge and concepts.
Learners enjoy when they take active roles in
experiential learning activities. Teachers challenge them to
come up with their creative styles of presentation. With all
their access to varied information combined with their
experiences, creation and construction of new concepts are
seen visibly from them.
 Constructivism is a very essential theory
in the field of education. They have a lot of
skills and even knowledge that are products of
both their experiences and exposure to their
immediate environment.
An inclusive teacher is one who takes into
consideration all the unique characteristics of
his learners. He has to look into their individual
learning needs, strengths, cognitive abilities,
skills, potentials, and limitations.
Psychosocial, Psychosexual,
and Humanist Theories of
Learning
 Psychosocial Theory
• Erik Erikson’s work describe
the development of human
beings, including all the
human lifespan-from
infancy to adulthood.
• He stressed the importance
of interpersonal, social and
cultural influences in the
development of the people.
• Each stage presents
challenges called crisis
• Successful development of
the personality depends on
meeting and overcoming
these tasks or crises
 Terms to Ponder
• Epigenetic Principle
– Refer to the different stages because Erikson
believed that human beings develop through a
predetermined unfolding of personalities in
eight successive psychosocial stages. Each
stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two
opposing emotional forces.
• Syntonic. Positive disposition in each crisis
• Dystonic. Negative disposition
• Malignancy
– If there is too little of the positive and too
much of the negative aspect
• Maladaptation
– If there is too much of the positive and too
little of the negative
The Psychosocial Stages
 1. Trust vs Mistrust
During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the
world in which they live, and looks towards their primary
caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
• Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust
is based on the dependability and quality of the child's
caregivers.
• Caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to their
baby’s basic needs, such as food and shelter, help their
baby develop a sense of security. When these babies learn
that they will receive the care they need when they need
it, they begin to feel safe and learn to trust the people
around them
• On the other hand, caregivers who are unresponsive to
their baby’s needs can cause their baby to view this “new
world” as unreliable and unpredictable. These babies may
develop a sense of anxiety and mistrust, which will affect
how they interact with others as they grow up
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By
developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope
that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that
other people will be there as a source of support. Failing to
acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of
fear.
2. Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt (1-3 years
old)
During this stage children begin to assert their
independence, by walking away from their mother,
picking which toy to play with, and making choices
about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.
• Children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are
starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple
decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices
and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a
sense of autonomy
• Children who can’t take care of their own basic needs and continue
to rely on their caregivers may begin to doubt their abilities
• What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of Control?
– Parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities
within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.
– Rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have
the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for
assistance. So, the parents need to encourage the child to become
more independent while at the same time protecting the child so that
constant failure is avoided.
• A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not
to do everything for the child, but if the child fails at a
particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and
accidents (particularly when toilet training).
• The aim has to be “self control without a loss of self-esteem”
 3. Initiative vs Guilt
During this period the primary feature involves the child
regularly interacting with other children at school.
Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with
the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills
through initiating activities.
• Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and
initiate activities with others. If given this
opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and
feel secure in their ability to lead others and make
decisions.
• It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many
questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the
parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a
nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their
behavior as threatening then the child may have
feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”.
• Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact
with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some
guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child
would not know how to exercise self-control or have a
conscience.
• A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is
important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.
 4. Industry vs Inferiority
It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain
greater significance and will become a major source of
the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to
win approval by demonstrating specific competencies
that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of
pride in their accomplishments.
• If children are encouraged and reinforced for
their initiative, they begin to feel industrious
(competent) and feel confident in their ability
to achieve goals. If this initiative is not
encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or
teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior,
doubting his own abilities and therefore may
not reach his or her potential.
• If the child cannot develop the specific skill they
feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic)
then they may develop a sense of inferiority.
• Some failure may be necessary so that the child
can develop some modesty. Again, a balance
between competence and modesty is necessary.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of
competence.
 5. Identity vs Role Confusion
During adolescence, the transition from childhood to
adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more
independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of
career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual
wants to belong to a society and fit in.
• This is a major stage of development where the child has to
learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage
that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find
out exactly who he or she is.
• What should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated
sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s
appropriate sex role”.
• the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a
while until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success
in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity. Fidelity involves
being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of
accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences.
• During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form
their own identity based upon the outcome of their
explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within
society ("I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up") can
lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not
being sure about themselves or their place in society.
• In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent
may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g., work,
education or political activities).
• Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in
the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to
this feeling of unhappiness.
 6. Intimacy vs Isolation
During this period, the major conflict centers on forming
intimate, loving relationships with other people.
• During this period, we begin to share ourselves more
intimately with others. We explore relationships leading
toward longer-term commitments with someone other
than a family member.
• Successful completion of this stage can result in
happy relationships and a sense of commitment,
safety, and care within a relationship.
• However, as they form relationships with others, they
also get to experience rejections, such as being rejected
by someone they like and breaking up with their
partners. Painful rejections and sometimes fear of
being rejected may result in what Erikson called
“distantiation”. This happens when young adults
isolate themselves to avoid and even destroy the
people and negative forces that appear to be harmful
to them.
• Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and
relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and
sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to
the virtue of love.
 7. Generativity vs Stagnation
Generativity refers to "making your mark" on the
world through creating or nurturing things that
will outlast an individual.
• We give back to society through raising our
children, being productive at work, and becoming
involved in community activities and
organizations. Through generativity we develop
a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.
• Success leads to feelings of usefulness and
accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.
• By failing to find a way to contribute, we
become stagnant and feel unproductive. These
individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved
with their community and with society as a
whole. Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of care.
 8. Ego Integrity vs Despair
It is during this time that we contemplate our
accomplishments and can develop integrity if we
see ourselves as leading a successful life.
• ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one
and only life cycle as something that had to be”
• As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior
citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity
and explore life as a retired person.
• if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt
about our past, or feel that we did not
accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied
with life and develop despair, often leading to
depression and hopelessness.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of
wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on
their life with a sense of closure and
completeness, and also accept death without
fear.
Psychosexual Theory
• In Sigmund Freud’s
Psychosexual Theory, he
proposed that the behavior
and development of a person
are influenced by the
interaction between the
conscious and unconscious
aspects of that person’s
mind
• He posited a series of
universal development stages
in which psychic energy
becomes focused in different
erogenous zones.
– Erogenous zones are the
areas of the body that
become erotically sensitive in
successive stages of
development
Three components of the psychic apparatus
function on different levels of
consciousness, and they interact with each
other to generate behavior
• Id
– It comprises our needs that require
constant fulfillment and operates on the
pleasure principle, as well as the need for
immediate gratification, without regard
for consequences or realities.
– The biological drives with which the infant Is
born. The unconscious and usually operates
with the goal of seeking pleasure
• Ego
– The Ego is also a decision-maker that operates on the
reality principle, evaluating conditions of the real world
which may or may not satisfy the Id’s demands and
seeking acceptable methods of fulfilling the Id’s wishes.
– The Ego develops as a result of our attempts to satisfy
our needs through interactions with our physical and
social environment. In other words, it arises from the Id.
– This structure is the rational, logical, problem-solving
component of the personality
• Superego
– The Superego arises from the Ego and develops as an
internal representation of the moral values of the
environment.
– The Superego judges what we should morally do or not do,
and guides us about the should’s and should nots of our
lives.
– It rewards us with pride and positive feelings upon doing
good, and punishes us with feelings of guilt, shame or fear
for not abiding by values that we have set for ourselves.
• Freud further stipulated that development is completed
through a series of psychosexual stages that occur in a
predetermined sequence.
• The Freud psychosexual stages contain activities that revolve
around a certain erogenous zone of an individual. The
erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as a source
of pleasure
• Libido-the psychosexual energy, the driving force behind the
behavior
• By successfully moving from one Freud psychosexual stage to
the next, the individual will develop a healthy personality.
• Failure to resolve issues or getting stuck at any of the Freud
psychosexual stages will result in a problematic personality
• Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly
established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large
role in personality development and continue to influence
behavior later in life
• If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage,
fixations can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an
earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the
individual will remain "stuck" in this stage
The Freud Psychosexual Stages of
Development
Oral Stage (0 – 1 year old)
A child derives pleasure from oral
activities, such as sucking and tasting.
The Oral Stage
Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth

• During the oral stage, the infant's primary

source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is
especially important.
• The primary conflict at this stage is the
weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers.
• If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud
believed the individual would have issues with
dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can
result in problems with drinking, eating,
smoking, or nail-biting
Anal Stage
(2 – 3 years old)
The main source of
gratification at this stage
is the ability to control
bladder movement and the
elimination or retention of
feces.
The Anal Stage
Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

• During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the
libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements.
• The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to learn
to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense
of accomplishment and independence
• success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which
parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards
for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes
and help children feel capable and productive.
• A positive and appropriate experience revolving around potty training can
encourage competence, creativity and productivity in individuals.
Contrarily, anal fixations can translate into obsession with perfection,
extreme cleanliness, and control or the opposite which is messiness and
disorganization in adulthood.
– Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive
personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of
authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions
– This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and
their mum's then insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty
until they perform!
– The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training regime
during the anal stage.
– In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with
you. They like giving things away. In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!' An anal-
expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized and rebellious.
Phallic Stage (3 – 6 years old)
Boys start to perceive their father as
rivals for their mother’s affections, while
girls feel similarly towards their mother.
The Phallic Stage
Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals

• The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of

wanting to possess the mother and the desire to
replace the father. However, the child also fears
that he will be punished by the father for these
feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety
• Electra complex has been used to described a
similar set of feelings experienced by young girls.
Freud, however, believed that girls instead
experience penis envy.
Oedipus Complex
• The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth
where Oedipus, a young man, kills his father and marries his
mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes
blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for both
Oedipus and Electra complexes.
• Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out
about all this, his father would take away what he loves the
most. During the phallic stage what the boy loves most is his
penis. Hence the boy develops castration anxiety.
• The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating,
copying and joining in masculine dad-type behaviors. This is called
identification, and is how the three-to-five year old boy resolves
his Oedipus complex.
• Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and
behaviors of another person. The consequence of this is that the
boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and
values that become the superego.
Electra Complex
• For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less
than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl desires the
father, but realizes that she does not have a
penis. This leads to the development of penis
envy and the wish to be a boy.
• The girl resolves this by repressing her desire
for her father and substituting the wish for a
penis with the wish for a baby. The girl blames
her mother for her 'castrated state,' and this
creates great tension.
• The girl then represses her feelings (to remove
the tension) and identifies with the mother to
take on the female gender role.
Latency Period (6 years to puberty)
• At this stage, sexual urges are usually repressed and the
individual spends most of his/her time interacting with
same sex peers, engaging in hobbies and acquiring skills.
The Latent Period
Age Range: 6 to Puberty
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

• The development of the ego and superego contribute to this

period of calm. The stage begins around the time that
children enter into school and become more concerned with
peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests
• The latent period is a time of exploration in which the
sexual energy repressed or dormant. This energy is still
present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as
intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is
important in the development of social and communication
skills and self-confidence
• As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that
it was possible for children to become fixated or "stuck" in
this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity
and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult
Genital Stage (Puberty onward)
The focus at this Freud psychosexual stage is on the
sexual urges that are reawakened and are directed
toward opposite sex peers, with genitals as the primary
source of pleasure.
The Genital Stage
Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

• The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active

once again. During the final stage of psychosexual
development, the individual develops a strong sexual
interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during
puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life
• The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between
the various life areas
• If the other stages have been completed successfully, the
individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring.
• Freud believed that the ego and superego were fully
formed and functioning at this point. Younger children
are ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction
of the most basic needs and wants. Teens in the genital
stage of development are able to balance their most basic
urges against the need to conform to the demands of
reality and social norms.
 One importance of Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual
theory is the emphasis on early experiences in the
development of personality and as an influence on later
behavior. The relationships that children cultivate, their
views about themselves and others, and their level of
adjustment and well-being as adults are all influenced by
the quality of experiences that they have had in each
psychosexual stage
Without doubt, Sigmund Freud’s Theory of
Psychosexual Development is one of the most complex
and controversial theories of child development.
Although his theory has been the subject of much
criticism, we cannot discount the important ideas that
Freud has contributed to the field of psychology and
human development.
Moral Development Theory
• Kohlberg defined three levels of
moral development and each level
has two distinct stages
• Morality is the distinction
between good and evil or between
right and wrong; respect for
and obedience to the rules of
right conduct; the mental
disposition of behavior in a
manner intended to produce
good results
• One of the best known of
Kohlberg’s (1958) stories
concerns a man called Heinz who
lived somewhere in Europe.
 Heinz Dilemma
Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular
type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might
save her. The drug had been discovered by a local
chemist, and the Heinz tried desperately to buy
some, but the chemist was charging ten times the
money it cost to make the drug, and this was
much more than the Heinz could afford.
Heinz could only raise half the money, even
after help from family and friends. He explained to
the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if
he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of
the money later.
The chemist refused, saying that he had
discovered the drug and was going to make money
from it. The husband was desperate to save his
wife, so later that night he broke into the
chemist’s and stole the drug.
 Kohlberg's
Stages of Moral Development
Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality

At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and

younger, some over nine), we don’t have a personal code
of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the
standards of adults and the consequences of following or
breaking their rules.
Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based
on the physical consequences of actions.

• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment

Orientation.
– The child/individual is good in order to avoid being
punished. If a person is punished, they must have done
wrong.
• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange.
– At this stage, children recognize that there is not just
one right view that is handed down by the authorities.
Different individuals have different viewpoints.
Level 2 - Conventional morality
At the conventional level (most adolescents and
adults), we begin to internalize the moral
standards of valued adult role models.
Authority is internalized but not questioned, and
reasoning is based on the norms of the group to
which the person belongs.

• Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships.

– The child/individual is good in order to be seen as
being a good person by others. Therefore,
answers relate to the approval of others.
• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order.
– The child/individual becomes aware of the wider
rules of society, so judgments concern obeying
the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid
guilt.
Level 3 - Post-conventional morality

Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and

moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice.
According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as
most people get.
Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking
necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). That
is to say, most people take their moral views from those
around them and only a minority think through ethical
principles for themselves.

• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual

Rights.
– The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might
exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when
they will work against the interest of particular individuals. The
issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma,
the protection of life is more important than breaking the law
against stealing.
• Stage 6. Universal Principles.
– People at this stage have developed their own set of moral
guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to
everyone.
 In this era of fast development
and improvement, understanding
learners’ characteristics and how
teaches could provide a more realistic
and healthy learning environment for
the learners is a very important
consideration. Identifying their
social, sexual, and moral
characteristics is such a crucial part
of becoming a teacher.