MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
Measurement of Distance
MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL
DISTANCES
Distance by Pacing
• Pacing consists of counting the number of steps or paces
in a required distance. A pace is defined as the length of a
step in walking. It may be measured from heel to heel or
from toe to toe.
• Counting strides instead of paces is sometimes
preferred by surveyors. A stride is equivalent to two
paces or a double step.
• Distances by pacing are sufficiently accurate for
small-scale mapping, for locating details and traversing
with the plane table, and in reconnaissance surveys. It is
also used for many purposes in geology, forestry,
engineering, and agriculture.
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• The accurate determination of the distance
between points on any surface is one of the
basic operations of plane surveying. Such linear
measurements are understood to mean the
horizontal distance.
• Under average conditions, a good pacer will
have little difficulty in pacing distances with a
relative precision of 1/200.
• If the distances to be paced is quite long, it is
advisable to bring along a mechanical counter
for recording the number of paces taken. A
device, called a pedometer, may be hand carried
to register the number of paces. Another device
used is the passometer which is strapped to the
leg of the pacer. This device will register a pace
by impact each time either foot touches the
ground.
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Example 2-1 Distance by Taping

• : In walking along a 75-m course, the pacer of a
field party counted 43.50, 44.00, 43.50, 43.75,
44.50 43.25 strides. Then 105.50, 106.00, 105.75,
and 106.25 strides were counted in walking from
one marker to another established along a
straight and level course. Determine the distance
between the two markers.
• The use of a graduated tape is probably the most
common method of measuring or laying out horizontal
distances. Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape
between two points and reading the distance indicated
on the tape. It is a form of a direct measurement which
is widely used in the construction of buildings, dams,
bridges, canals, and many other engineering as well as
non-engineering activities.
• Taping may vary from a relative precision of about
1:1000 to 1:25000 or better.

Measuring Tapes: Steel Tape

• also known as surveyor’s or engineer’s tape, is
• 1.0 Steel Tape
made of a ribbon of steel 0.50 to 1.0cm in width,
• 2.0 Metallic Tape
and weighs 0.8 to 1.5kg per 30meters. Lengths of
• 3.0 Non-metallic Tape
10, 20, 30, 50, and 100 meters are available. The
• 4.0 Invar Tape 30-m tape is most common. Usually steel tapes
• 5.0 Lovar Tape are wound on a reel, or done up in loops about 2
• 6.0 Fiberglass Tape meters long to make a figure 8. Steel tapes are
• 7.0 Wires designed for most conventional measurements in
• 8.0 Builder’s Tape surveying and engineering work.
• 9.0 Phosphor- Bronze Tape
• 10.0 Nylon- coated Steel Tape

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Invar Tape Taping Accessories

• – A special tape made of an alloy of nickel (35%) • 1.0 Range Pole
and steel (65%) with very low coefficient of • 2.0 Tape Clamping Handles
thermal (1/30 to 1/60 that of a steel tape). Its • 3.0 Chaining Pins
name was derived from the word “invariable” • 4.0 Tension Handles
since it is less affected by temperature changes • 5.0 Tape Thermometer
• 6.0 Plumb Bob
than in a steel tape. Invar tapes are used only
• 7.0 Wooden Stake or Hub
for precise measurements in geodetic work and
• 8.0 Leather Thongs
for checking the length of other kinds of tape.
• 9.0 Hand Level and Clinometer
• 10. Tape Repair Kit
• 11. Crayons

Composition of Taping Party The Procedure of Taping

• 1. Head Tapeman
• 1. Aligning the Tape
• 2. Recorder
• 2. Stretching the Tape
• 3. Flagman • 3. Plumbing
• 4. Rear Tapeman • 4. Marking Full Tape Lengths
• 5. Tallying Taped Measurements
• 6. Measuring Fractional Lengths

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Breaking the Tape

• It is standard practice to hold the tape
horizontally above ground and to plumb at
one or both ends when taping on sloping
or uneven terrain surfaces. This requires
the measurement of shorter distances
which are accumulated to total a full tape
length. The procedure is referred to as
“breaking tape”.

Slope Taping
• Taped measurements may be made
directly along the slope when the ground is
of uniform inclination and fairly smooth,
rather than break tape every few meters.
This very practical method is generally
preferred since measurements could be
made quickly and more accurately than • d = s cos a
horizontal measurements. • d = [s2 – h2]1/2

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Correction in Taping Correction due to Incorrect Tape

• 1st Rule: Length.
• When a line is measured with a tape that is “too long”,
the corrections are applied to the observed length by
adding. • Corr = TL – NL
• 2nd Rule: • Cl= Corr (ML/NL)
• CL = ML +- Cl
• When a specified or required length is to be laid out
with a tape that is “too long”, the corrections are • Where:
subtracted from the known length to determine the • Cl= total correction to be applied to the measured length or
corrected length to be laid out. length to be laid out.
• 3rd Rule: • CL = corrected length of the line to be measured or laid out
• When measuring or laying out lengths with tape that is • ML = measured length or length to be laid out
“too short”, the corrections are applied opposite to • NL = nominal length of tape
those stated in the first two rules. • TL = True or actual length of the tape

Example 2-3:
Example 2-2: Laying Out Distances
Measurements w/ Tape
• A track and field coach wishes to lay
• A 30-m steel tape when compared out for his team a 200-m straightway
with a standard is actually 29.95m course. If he uses a 50-m tape known
long. Determine the correct length of a to be 50.20m long, determine the
line measured with this tape and found measurements to be made so that the
to be 466.55m. course will have the correct length.

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MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
Correction due to Slope
• d = s - Ch
• Gentle Slopes (Less than 20%)
• Ch= h2/ 2s
• Steep Slopes (between 20% and 30%)
• Ch= h2/2s + h4/ 8s3
• Very Steep Slopes (Greater than 30%)
• Ch = s(1-cosq)
Example 2-4:
• Slope distances AB and BC measures 350.49m
and 640.57m, respectively. The differences in
elevation are 12.25m for A and B, and 10.65m
for points B and C. Using the approximate slope
correction formula for gentle slopes, determine
the horizontal length of line ABC. Assume that
line AB has a rising slope and BC a falling slope.
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Where:
• s = measured slope distance between points A
and B
• h = difference in elevation between A and B
• d = equivalent horizontal distance AC
• Ch= slope correction or the difference between
the slope length and the horizontal distance,
• Ch = s – d
Correction due to Temperature
• Ct = CL(T – Ts)
• Where:
• C = the coefficient of linear expansion or the amount of change in
length per unit length per degree change in temperature
• L = the length of the tape or length of line measured
• T = the observed temperature of the tape at the time of
measurement
• Ts = the temperature at which the tape was standardized.
• ** C = 0.0000116 per degree Celsius
• Ts = usually 20 deg Celsius
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Correction due to Tension

Example 2-5:
• A 30-m steel tape is of standard length at
the coefficient of thermal expansion of steel is
0.0000116/10C, determine the distance to be
laid out using this tape to establish two points
exactly 1235.65m apart when the temperature is
330C.
• Cp= (Pm – Ps) L
If 200C. – AE
• L’ = L +- Cp
• Where:
• Cp = total elongation in tape length due to pull or the
correction due to incorrect pull applied on the tape (m)
• Pm= pull applied to the tape during measurement (kg)
• Ps = standard pull for the tape or pull for which the tape is
calibrated (kg)
• L = measured length of line (m)
• A = cross-sectional area of the tape (sq cm)
• E = modulus of elasticity of the tape material (kg/cm2)
• L’ = corrected length of the measured line (m)

Example 2-6:
Correction due to Sag
• A heavy 30-m tape having a cross-sectional area of 5 mm2 has
been standardized at a tension of 5 kg. If E=2.10 x106 kg/cm2,
calculate the elongation of the tape for an applied tension of • Cs = w2L3
20kg.
• Given: – 24P2
• L = 30m – W = w L or
• A = 5 mm2
• E = E=2.10 x106 kg/cm2
– W2 = w2 L2
• Ps = 5 kg • Cs = W2 L
• Pm = 20 kg
• Req’d: Cp • 24 P2
• Solution:
• Cp= (Pm – Ps) L = (20 – 5)(30)
– AE (0.05)(2.10x106)
• Cp=0.004286m

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• Where: Example 2-7:

• Cs = correction due to sag or the difference
• A 30-m steel tape weighs 1.5kg and is supported
between the tape reading and the
at its end points and at the 5 and 15- meter
horizontal distance between supports (m)
marks. If a pull of 8 kg is applied, determine the
• w = weight of tape per unit length (kg/m) correction due to sag between supports and for
• W = total weight of tape between supports (kg) one tape length.
• L = interval between supports or the
unsupported length of tape (m)
• P = tension or pull applied on the tape (kg)

Example 2-8
Normal Tension • Determine the normal tension required to make a tape
exactly 30.0m between its ends when used in an
• PN = 0.204 W [AE ]1/2 unsupported mode, if the tape has a cross-sectional
– [PN – Ps]1/2 area of 0.045cm2 and weighs 0.90kg. Assume that the
tape is exactly 30.0m when supported throughout its
Where:
length under a standard pull of 6.0kg, and its modulus
• PN = normal tension or the pull which will of elasticity is 2.10x106 kg/cm2.
eliminate the effect of sag (kg) • Given:
• W = total weight of tape between • L = 30.0m
supports (kg) • A = 0.045cm2
• A = cross- sectional area of tape (cm2) • W = 0.90kg
• E = modulus of elasticity of tape material (kg/ cm2) • Ps = 6.0kg
• Ps = standard pull for the tape (kg) • E = 2.10x106 kg/cm2

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MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
Correction due to Alignment
• Error due to alignment is generally the least important among
the different errors encountered in taping. Utmost care in
aligning a tape is not extremely important since the error is
practically negligible for measurements of ordinary precision.
• The correction due to incorrect alignment, Ca, can be
calculated by employing the slope correction formulas. The only
difference is that both h and s are in the horizontal plane; that is,
h is the distance the tape is off-line at one end and s the length
of tape used. Due to poor alignment, resulting errors are
systematic in effect and such errors make the measured length
slightly longer than the correct distance.
• The error cannot be eliminated, but can be reduced to a
negligible amount by lining-in carefully, setting pins properly,
stretching the tape taut, and keeping the tape straight. The tape
may also be laid out straight by snapping it while tension is being
applied.
Combined Corrections
• The corrections for the effects of incorrect
length of the tape, temperature, tension,
slope, and sag may be combined as a single net
correction per tape length. Each correction is
computed separately and it is important to
identify which correction tends to make the
tape too long or too short.
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Correction due to Wind
• A strong wind blowing perpendicular to the direction of
taping will move the middle and unsupported portion of
the tape to one side of the line measured. This
introduces an error to the measurement which is similar
to the effect of sag but is usually much less. To avoid this
type of error, it is preferable not to undertake any taping
work during windy days. If it cannot be avoided and the
measurement has to be done on windy days, efforts
should be taken to support the tape from being affected
by the blowing wind.
Example 2-9:
• A 30-m tape weighs 12.5g/m and has a cross-section of 0.022
cm2. It measures correctly when supported throughout under a
tension of 8.0 kg and at a temperature of 200C. When used in the
field, the tape is only supported at its ends, under a pull of 9.0
kg, and at an average temperature of 280C. Determine the
distance between the zero and 30-m marks, if E=2.10x106 kg/cm2
& C = 0.0000116/10C
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Distance by Tachymetry
Assignment # 1:
• Tachymetry (or tacheometry) is another procedure of
Probs: 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 10, 16, 20, 23, 24 obtaining horizontal distances. It is based on the optical
of pages 521 to 524 geometry of the instruments employed and is an
indirect method of measurement. A transit or a
theodolite is used to determine subtended intervals
Assignment # 2: and angles on a graduated rod or scale from which
Probs: 2, 6, 14, 16, 19, 21, 23 distances are computed by trigonometry. Tachymetric
measurements are performed either by the stadia
of pages 525 to 528 method or the subtense bar method.

Stadia Method Formula: D = Ks + C

• This method provides a rapid means of determining horizontal distances. It
was introduced in 1771 by James Watt of Scotland and was at that time
referred to as a micrometer for measuring distances. The precision of the • Where:
stadia method depends upon the following factors: the refinement with which
the instrument was manufactured, the skill of the observer, the length of • C = stadia constant, the distance from the center
measurement, and the effects of refraction and parallax. Horizontal distances of the instrument to the principal focus. Usually
determined by this method will yield a relative precision of only between
1/300 and 1/1000. zero for internal focusing telescope.
• The equipment for stadia measurements consists of a telescope with two
horizontal hairs called stadia hairs and a graduated rod called a stadia rod. The • K = stadia interval factor of the instrument, most
telescope of most surveying instruments are equipped with stadia hairs which
are placed an equal distance on either side of the horizontal cross hair. The instruments are so designed that this value is
spacing of the stadia hairs is so designed that at a distance of 100 meters their
intercept on a vertical rod will be about 1 meter. At 200 meters, then, the made equal to 100.
intercept should be about 2 meters, and so on. It is important that the line of
sight is horizontal and it intersects the rod at right angles. • s = stadia interval, is determined in the field by
observing the difference between the upper
stadia hair reading and the lower stadia hair
reading.

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MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
Example 2-10 :
• An instrument set up at A sighted a stadia
rod held at a distant point B. The upper
and lower stadia hair readings were
observed as 1.400m and 0.950m,
respectively. If the stadia interval factor (K)
is 100, and the instrument constant ( C ) is
0.30m, determine the length of line AB.
• Formula:
• D = ____1_____ = cot (a/2)
• [tan (a/2)]
• Where:
• D = HORIZONTAL DISTANCE
• a = the angle subtended by the targets.
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Subtense Bar Method
• The subtense bar is a convenient and practical device used for quick
and accurate measurement of horizontal distances. The bar, which is
precisely 2 meters long, consists of a rounded steel tube through
which runs a thin invar rod. At each end of the frame the target
marks are housed. It is mounted horizontally on a tripod and placed
perpendicular to the line of sight by means of a sighting device on top
of the bar.
• The accuracy of the subtense method depends mainly upon the
precision with which the subtending angle is measured. For sights of
about 150 m or less and using a 1 sec theodolite, a relative precision
of 1/3000 can easily be obtained. When the measured is farther
increased, the accuracy correspondingly diminishes.
• The subtense bar method is often used in obtaining distances
over very rough or inaccessible terrain such as across canyons, wide
rivers, ravines, and even across busy city streets.
Example 2-11:
• A 2-m long subtense bar was first set up at
A and subsequently at B, and the
subtended angles to the bar, as read from a
theodolite positioned somewhere along
the middle of line AB, were recorded as
0024’51” and 0020’30”, respectively.
Determine the length of AB.
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Distance by Graphical and

• 2.6 2.6.1 Odometer
Mathematical Methods
• 2.6.2 Measuring Wheel
• 2.6.3 Optical Rangefinder • By graphical or mathematical methods,
• 2.7 Distance by Photogrammetry unknown distances may be determined
through their relationship with known
• 2.8 Geodimeter distances geometrically. These methods are
• 2.9 Tellurometer widely employed in plane table surveys, and in
triangulation work. Determining distances by
scaling from maps or aerial photographs could
also provide sufficiently accurate results.

Distance by Mechanical Devices Electronic Distance Measurement

• There are a few mechanical devices which could • The development of electronic distance measurement (EDM) has
also be employed for the measurement of provided a significant advance in surveying instrumentation &
techniques. These electronic instruments allow a rapid and
distances. These devices, however, are only accurate determination of linear distances, horizontal and
applicable for low precision surveys or where quick vertical angles suitable even for large extent surveys requiring
measurements are desired. higher order of precision.
• Classifications:
• Some of which are:
• a. Electro-optical Instruments
• 1. Odometer • b. Microwave Instruments
• 2. Measuring Wheel • EDM instruments are now used for determining linear
measurements required in traversing, engineering constructions,
• Optical Rangefinder optical tooling, triangulation, trilateration, and various other
tasks where precise measurements or lay-outs are needed. They
are extremely useful in measuring distances over rough and
rugged terrain which are difficult to access, or where
conventional taping methods would be impractical.

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GEODIMETER
• It is an acronym for geodetic distance meter.
• It is set up at one station, projects a pulsating
visible light beam to a reflector (at another
station) which returns the light to the
instrument. Its use is based upon the known
velocity of light.
TELLUROMETER
• The tellurometer utilized high frequency
microwave transmission and was capable of
measuring distances up top 80km day or
night.
• Distances are computed on the basis of the
velocity of radio waves.

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