Gracia Arredondo - Symmetry-Gracia Arredondo (2019)

Symmetry
Gracia Arredondo
The Higgs field
1
2
Symmetry
Gracia Arredondo
3
Published by Gracia Arredondo Fernández, Granada, Spain, 2019
Copyright @ Gracia Arredondo Fernández, agosto 2019
Email: pendulo@protonmail.com
Intellectual property registration:
https://www.safecreative.org/work/1907311591434-symmetry
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be
lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher´s prior consent in any
form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar
condition, including the condition, being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
ISBN: 978-84-09-13742-8
4
Preface
This book is the result of a search that began in 1968, when a very old universal atlas
fell in my hands. The first pages caught my attention, for they described the knowledge about
the universe at the beginning of the 20th century, how the 19th century idea of the existence
of the ether had been discarded by the Michelson-Morley experiment and the theory of
relativity. I thought the idea of the ether was beautiful, some fixed spacetime structure to
hold, sort of platonic, and I got convinced that there had to be a way to make the existence of
the ether compatible with relativity. Somehow, somehow, perhaps making the structure
flexible…, its flexibility conspiring to make the speed of light an invariant and to allow
relativity.
In the following decades, whenever I found a lattice -a honeycomb, the structure of

graphite, cubes in playgrounds- I wondered whether that might be the structure of the ether.
The answer came as a surprise in 2009, after having spent many months playing with
the geometry that appears in Escher´s Waterfall, modifying it so as to turn that impossible
fascinating object into something possible.
When I realized I had found a special geometry I tried to contrive it to match the ideas
described in Sean Carroll´s From Eternity to Here, but the fit was not perfect. Then I turned to
the very small, to David Griffiths´ Introduction to Elementary Particles and, to my
astonishment, everything seemed to find its right place in the structure, which is not the ether
but the structure of the Higgs field, spacetime quantified.
Geometry beyond the standard model and relativity:
The first part of the book describes how the main questions in particle physics fit in
this proposed geometric structure for the ether, built from a modification of that structure
that appears in Escher´s Waterfall. There is a geometric representation of quarks, leptons, the
four types of gauge bosons, the weak isospin and the geometry and algebra of many
interactions and decays. It is explained how to calculate the values of the Weinberg angle and
the Cabibbo angle, the parameters in the CKM matrix. Simple formulas for the calculation of
the masses of the six quarks are also given.
5
After that a geometric representation of CPT symmetry is described in the structure to give
accommodation to:
• Special relativity.
• The tensors of general relativity.
• The geometry of the measurement problem.
• The geometry of the uncertainty principle.
• The second law of thermodynamics.
• Neutrino oscillations and the Pontecorvo-Maki-Nakagawa-Sakata (PMNS) matrix.
• The gravitational constant, the dielectric constant and Planck´s constant.
• The process of formation of a black hole.
• The four fundamental interactions: gravitation, electromagnetism, the strong
interaction and the weak interaction.
• All the free parameters of the standard model find their precise values in the proposed
structure. The fundamental constants -the gravitational constant, Planck´s constant,
the fine structure constant and vacuum permittivity- are related by the golden ratio.
The primes:
The link between the distribution of prime numbers and symmetry.
I had always thought that there was a hidden rule governing the distribution of the
prime numbers among the natural numbers. There is a very simple program that controls that
distribution, it is described in the second part of the book.
Does this idea and the geometric structure described in the first part of the book mean
that we live in a gigantic computing machine? I think so. It is not boring, though.
6
Symmetry
7
8
First part: Geometry beyond the standard model: Escher´s Waterfall............................ 13
I. The geometry of the elementary particles ...................................................................... 13
1. Introduction [1-11] ........................................................................................................ 13
2. Matrix representation ................................................................................................... 19
3. Antimatter .................................................................................................................... 21
4. Weak isospin ................................................................................................................. 23
5. Conservation of angular momentum ............................................................................. 25
6. Symmetry [15, 16] ......................................................................................................... 25
7. The gauge bosons ......................................................................................................... 26
8. Examples of decays and interactions [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 17, 18, 19] ................................ 30
9. The Weinberg angle, 𝛉𝐰 ............................................................................................... 95
10. The Cabibbo angle, 𝛉𝐜 ................................................................................................... 96
11. The CKM matrix ............................................................................................................ 97
11. The angles of the three generations ............................................................................ 101
12. Mass of hadrons and leptons (in MeV) ........................................................................ 102
II. Geometry of relativity and of some other questions in physics [23-36] ........................ 105
1. CPT. Duality of the structure ....................................................................................... 105
2. Intrinsic parity ............................................................................................................. 109
3. The arrow of time ....................................................................................................... 109
4. Linking basic units. Velocity ......................................................................................... 111
5. Frame time and proper time in different inertial frames .............................................. 114
6. The relativity of simultaneity ....................................................................................... 115
7. Energy, momentum and mass [38-41] ......................................................................... 116
8. The mass of the fermions ............................................................................................ 121
9. Dark matter and dark energy....................................................................................... 124
10. The cosmological constant [42] ................................................................................... 125
11. The flatness problem [43] ........................................................................................... 125
12. The wave function ....................................................................................................... 127
13. Energy levels and the primes ....................................................................................... 128
14. Lorentz transformations [23] ...................................................................................... 129
15. Momenergy [23] ......................................................................................................... 130
16. Parametric equations .................................................................................................. 131
17. Tidal forces ................................................................................................................. 133
18. The stress-energy tensor ............................................................................................. 134
19. The Weyl tensor .......................................................................................................... 142
9
20. Gravity and entropy gradients .................................................................................... 144
21. The Ricci tensor .......................................................................................................... 145
22. Neighbouring units: Gravity in action .......................................................................... 146
23. What happens behind the scenes ............................................................................... 148
24. The 8G factor. Spherical objects ............................................................................... 150
25. Spherical object collapsing to form a black hole [46] ................................................... 154
26. Geometric interpretation of the uncertainty principle and Planck´s constant .............. 156
27. Geometry of the measurement problem and Planck´s constant .................................. 159
28. Temperature and Boltzmann constant ........................................................................ 161
29. The infrared cut-off and the ultraviolet cut-off ........................................................... 162
30. The second law of thermodynamics [32, 47] ............................................................... 164
31. Neutrino oscillation and the PMNS matrix .................................................................. 165
32. The vacuum expectation value, the coupling constants, the mass of the top............... 169
33. The interactions and the golden ratio ......................................................................... 175
34. The hidden transactions within the golden ratio ......................................................... 176
35. Range of the interactions ............................................................................................ 177
36. Table with the main values obtained from the structure ............................................. 179
37. The naturalness problem ............................................................................................ 181
Second part: The symmetry of the prime numbers .......................................................187
1. The program of the primes ......................................................................................... 187
2. The twin primes.......................................................................................................... 198
3. Chained symmetries for the even numbers................................................................. 200
4. Program of the odd composite numbers ..................................................................... 201
Third part: The prime numbers in the structure ............................................................205
1. The natural numbers and the energy levels. The primes ............................................. 206
2. The Goldbach´s conjecture and particle physics .......................................................... 208
3. The primes and the Riemann curvature tensor ........................................................... 213
Fourth part: The process of thought ..............................................................................217
1. Thought as the CP conjugate of reality ........................................................................ 217
References .....................................................................................................................223
10
First part: Geometry beyond the standard model:
Escher´s Waterfall
11
12
First part: Geometry beyond the standard model:
Escher´s Waterfall
I. The geometry of the elementary particles

1. Introduction [1-11]
Q= +1- - - - - -
Q= 0 - - - - - -
Angular
momentum
axis
Q= 0 - - - - - -
Q= - 1- - - - - -
Colour charge
Q- electric charge
Colour charge, electric charge and angular momentum are the three chosen variables.
The proposed structure, a modification of Escher´s lithograph Waterfall [1, 2], can be a
geometric representation that answers some questions beyond the Standard Model, like the
strong CP problem or neutrino oscillations. The data of the particle interactions and decays
shown as examples fit. The geometry of relativity is also described via CPT symmetry.
13
Colour charge will be represented by three parallel axes (red, blue and green), angular
momentum in the axis connecting those three (perpendicular to them, as can be seen in the
figure), and electric charge in the perpendicular direction to the plane of the paper or the
screen, in depth (from Q= +1, the charge of the proton to Q= -1, the charge of the electron).
Thus, the basic structure is
Q= +1- - - - -
-
Q= 0 - - - - - -
Angular
momentum
axis
Q= 0 - - - - - -
Q= - 1- - - - -
-
1
Notation: In order to avoid the confusion that could arise from using Spin = ± with all the
2
fractional charges of the quarks it will be considered that each elementary particle spins either
clockwise (cw) or counterclockwise (ccw) in this structure. Then, to the effects of graphic
representation, the isobaric isospin (I) and the spin (S) can be defined as follows:
1
I= |q or q̅ up or down ccw − cw| (1.1)
2
The isobaric isospin is taken to be half the absolute value of the number of quarks or
antiquarks up or down that spin counterclockwise (ccw) minus those that spin clockwise (cw).
The total angular momentum is J = L + S, where L is the orbital angular momentum and S the
spin.
(1.2)
q ccw = number of quarks that spin ccw
q cw = number of quarks that spin cw 1

S= |q ccw − q cw + q̅cw − q̅ ccw |
2
q̅ cw = number of antiquarks that spin cw
q̅ ccw = number of antiquarks that spin ccw
14
Geometric representation of the quarks:
• A red up quark spinning ccw:
Q= +1- - - - -
-
Q= 0 - - - - - -
Angular
momentum
axis
Q= 0 - - - - - -
Q= - 1- - - - -
2
-
Its charge is Q = + , it spins ccw and its colour is red.
3
It can be shortened to:
ccw
It is represented that it is spinning ccw also by an arrow in the horizontal line.
And its matrix:
u
𝟐 The first component corresponds to its electric charge in the
𝟑 red axis, the second to the blue axis, where it has zero charge
and the third to the green axis, where it also has zero charge.
0
0
ccw
15
• A green down quark spinning cw:
Q= +1- - - - -
-
Q= 0 - - - - - -
Angular
momentum
axis
cw
Q= 0 - - - - - -
Q= - 1- - - - -
-
It can be shortened to:
cw
Its matrix representation:
d
The components in the red and the blue axes are zero,
0 1
whereas it has electric charge of − in the green axis
3
0
𝟏
−
𝟑
cw
16
• A blue up quark spinning ccw:
Q= +1- - - - -
-
Q= 0 - - - - - -
ccw
Angular
momentum
axis
Q= 0 - - - - - -
Q= - 1- - - - -
-
In abbreviated form:
ccw
Its matrix:
0
𝟐
𝟑
0
ccw
17
That is all about the first generation of quarks. For the second generation we need three
additional axes, increasing the asymmetry [12]:
A green charm quark ccw:
ccw
Its matrix representation:
c
0
0
𝟐
𝟑
ccw
• Here are the axes of the three generations, with increasing asymmetry:
Yellow → First generation
Blue → Second generation
Green→ Third generation
18
For the sake of visualization in some of the examples only the yellow axes shall be used,
marking the second generation with the index prime and the third generation with the index
double prime. However, in most of the examples the axes for the second and the third
generations shall be drawn.
A bottom quark:
cw’’
2. Matrix representation
As we have already seen with some examples of quarks each fermion has an associated
column matrix, where the first row corresponds to its electric charge in the red axis, the second
to the charge in the blue one and the third to the charge in the green one.
• An electron can be represented as having the three following components [13]:
e−
1
− cw
3
0
2 cw
− ccw
3 ccw
2
The right component of the electron (− 3 ccw) is neither an up-type component (it is
1
negative) nor a down-type component (its charge is not − 3), so it does not compute in
the calculation of the spin of the electron.
19
• A neutrino (left handed):
ccw
𝐞
2
3
0
2
−
3
ccw ccw
The idea for two non-zero components for the neutrino comes from Chieng-Shiung Wu,
the experimentalist codiscoverer of the violation of parity: “This was a golden opportunity for a
beta-decay physicist to perform a crucial test…This result is just what one should expect for a two
component theory of the neutrino” [32]
It is drawn as a chargeless fermion, with a positive component that has an electric

2 2
charge Q = + 3 , cancelled out by the right negative one, Q = − 3
The right components of the neutrino and the electron are the same.
The fact that, unlike the quarks, neither the electron nor the neutrino has any horizontal
part conveys that they do not experience the strong interaction since, as we will be seeing soon,
gluons will be drawn in the two horizontal segments between the three coloured axes.
“If the Higgs weren´t there the left-handed parts of the electron and electron neutrino
would indeed be undistinguishable” [14]
In yellow, the basic unit structure of

Left-handed part of an electron neutrino
the Higgs field
Left-handed part of an electron
20
3. Antimatter
To represent what we consider as antimatter we need three additional axes carrying the
three anticolours:
- - - Q = +1
---Q=0
- - - Q = -1
- - - Q = +1
---Q=0
- - - Q = -1
• A charged pion + (ud̅) with a green up quark and a down antigreen quark:
𝛑+
ccw
u ̅
d
0 0
0 0
ccw
𝟐 𝟏
𝟑 𝟑
ccw ccw
I=1
J=0
For the pion, according to equations (1.1) and (1.2):
1
I= |2| = 1
2
1
J= |1 − 1| = 0
2
21
• A positron:
e+
1
+ ccw
3
0
2 ccw
+ cw cw
3
• An electron antineutrino (right handed):
ν̅e
2
− cw
3
0
2
+ cw
3
cw
22
4. Weak isospin
Its third component, T3, is conserved in all the interactions.

Left handed structure:
To see the representation of T3 we must adopt the point of view drawn in the diagram. If
the component in the first colour axis found is on the left of the observer (inside the paper or
1 1
the screen), then T3 = . If it is on the right (outside the paper or the screen), T3 = − . To
2 2
calculate T3 for a particle with various components in the first pair of axes, just add them. For
1 1
example, for the π− , T3 = − − = −1
2 2
1
T3 = → u-type quarks and neutrinos
2
Left handed fermions

1
(left handed chirality, yellow axes) T3 = − → d-type quarks, e− , μ− and τ−
2
Negative
chirality
1
T= 1
2 T3 = − 2 → u
̅ -type quarks and antineutrinos
Right handed antifermions
1
(right handed chirality, pink axes) T3 = 2 → d̅-type quarks, e+ , μ+ and τ+
For the Higgs boson (p.91 ) and for the graviton (p.92) T3 = 0.
The sign of T3 is the sign of the electric charge of the first component found from that point
of view.
• Right handed structure:
23
Right handed T3 = 0
fermions
(pink axes)
Positive
chirality
T =0
Left handed antifermions T3 = 0

(yellow axes)
24
5. Conservation of angular momentum
The conservation of angular momentum has its graphic translation in the conservation
of the arrows: in each of the two segments of the horizontal line the net result of the arrows
that represent angular momentum is the same before and after every interaction. We will see it
soon with all the decays and interactions.
6. Symmetry [15, 16]

Finally, we have to define the unit of HL symmetry (S) in hadrons and leptons. It will be each
pair of components matter-antimatter symmetric with respect to the plane A (Figure 1) belonging
to hadrons or leptons, one of the components spinning clockwise and the other counterclockwise.
The net increase in symmetry in an interaction (S) is the number of resulting symmetries minus
the number of initial symmetries. That number, as we shall see, is always equal to the increase in
(hadrons + leptons) in each interaction. It is also the number of initial gauge bosons minus the
number of final gauge bosons (GB). So, the number of particles (gauge bosons + hadrons +
leptons) is the same before and after each interaction or decay.
Decrease in gauge bosons = increase in (hadrons + leptons) = increase in symmetry
∇GB = ∆HL = ∆S
PLANE A
Figure 1
Symmetry between an up quark and an up antiquark:
ccw
S=1
cw
25
7. The gauge bosons
• The photon:
ccw
cw
• The W+ boson (turquoise) between the first and the second generation (d → c quark):
d W+c
1 1 2 2
− ccw + cw + ccw → ccw
3 3 3 3
ccw
ccw
26
• The W − boson (turquoise) between the first and the second generation (u quark →s quark):
ccw
u W− s
2 2 1 1
ccw − cw − ccw → − ccw
3 3 3 3
ccw
2 1
W + = ccw + cw
3 3
2 1
W + = cw + ccw These are the four types of W boson. Their spins are well defined
3 3
(S=1 for all of them) and their parity, as will be seen on p.108 , is
1 2
W − = − cw − ccw negative.
3 3
1 2
W − = − ccw − cw
3 3
27
• The Z boson:
2 2
Z = ccw − cw
3 3
2 2
Z = − ccw + cw
3 3 These are the four possible types of Z boson. Their net
1 1 electric charge is zero, their spin is 1 and their parity negative
Z = cw − ccw (p.108)
3 3
1 1
Z = − cw + ccw
3 3
• The eight gluons are represented in the two horizontal segments between the three
colour axes:
𝜆1= ̅ + 2bg̅
= 2rb
𝜆2= ̅
= 2brҧ + 2gb The net colour charge of the remaining
possibility is zero:
𝜆9= ̅ + brҧ + gb
= rb ̅ + bg̅
𝜆3= ̅ + 2gb
= 2rb ̅
As can be seen on pages 39, 48 and 49, it
implies the production of a photon
𝜆4= = 2brҧ + 2bg̅
𝜆5= ̅ + bg̅ + gb
= 2rb ̅
𝜆6= ̅ + brҧ + 2bg̅

= rb
𝜆7= ̅
= 2brҧ + bg̅ + gb
𝜆8= ̅ + brҧ + rb
= 2gb ̅
As
28
Without exception, bosons and fermions follow this rule:
• Bosons have zero or an even

number of components
In each of the three pairs of axes (red-antired, blue –antiblue

• Fermions have zero or one
and green-antigreen)
component
29
8. Examples of decays and interactions [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 17, 18, 19]
Convention: From now on, the colours used to represent the particles will not be related to
quantum chromodynamics, but will instead be used as a way to distinguish the order of the
particles. Red and orange will be the colours of the initial particles and blue, green and purple
the colours of the resulting particles. The number that goes with each component in the graphic
also indicates the order of the particle it belongs to.
𝚲𝟎 p+ + 𝛑−
s d u u d u d u̅
𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏
− 0 0 0 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 1 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
3
0 + 0 0
𝟐 𝟐
0 0 0 0 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
cw cw ccw ccw cw ccw cw cw
I=0 1
I= I=1
2
1 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
2ccw 1ccw
2ccw
3cw
1cw 1cw
3cw 2cw
s Z d Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
− cw + ccw − cw → − cw + ccw − cw
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z u u
̅
2 2 2 2
ccw − cw → ccw − cw
3 3 3 3
1 = Increase in symmetry (between the up quark and the up antiquark) = Increase of hadrons = decrease in
the number of gauge bosons
30
𝚲+𝐜 p+ 𝐊−
+ + 𝛑+
d u c u u d s u̅ u 𝐝ҧ
𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏
− 0 0 𝟎 0 − − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐
0
𝟑
0 0
𝟐
0 + 0 0 + 0 0
𝟑
𝟐 𝟏𝒔𝟐
0 0 0 0 0 0 𝟐 𝟏𝒔𝟐
𝟑 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
cw ccw ccw ccw ccw cw cw cw ccw ccw
I=0 1 1
I= I= I=1
2 2
1 1
J= J= J=0 J=0
2 2
∆𝐒 = 𝟐𝐬𝟏+𝐬𝟐
2ccw 1ccw 1ccw 4ccw

2ccw
3cw
4ccw
1cw 3cw 2cw
d Z s Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z uu
̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
c Z u Z
2 2 2 2 2 2
ccw − cw + ccw → ccw − cw + ccw
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
− cw + ccw → − cw + ccw
3 3 3 3
Increase in symmetry HL = Increase in hadrons = Decrease in gauge bosons= 2
31
𝚲𝟎𝐛 𝚲+𝐜 + 𝛑−
u b d c d u d u̅
𝟐 𝟐
0 0 𝟎 0 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 1 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝒔𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
3
0 + 0 0
𝟏
0 0 − 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏
𝟑 0 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
ccw cw cw ccw cw ccw cw cw
I=0 I=0 I=1
1 1
J= J=0
2 J=
2
1ccw 2ccw
2ccw’’
3cw
1cw’’ 1cw
2cw 3cw
u Z c Z
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
b Z d Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
32
Beta decay
n p+ + 𝐞− + 𝛎̅𝐞
d d u u d u
𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟏 cw 𝟐𝒔𝟏
− 0 0 0 0 −
𝟑 𝟑 −
𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 1 ∆𝐒 = 𝟐𝐬𝟏+𝐬𝟐
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
3
0 + 0 + 0
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝐬𝟐
0 0 0 0 ccw 𝟐𝐬𝟐
𝟑 𝟑 −
𝟑 𝟑
cw cw ccw ccw cw ccw cw
1 1
I= I= Seth Lloyd wrote in [47]: Neutrons, I saw, had to
2 2
spin clockwise and counterclockwise at the same
1 1
J= J= time. They had no choice: it was in their nature.
2 2
2ccw 1ccw
2ccw
4cw
1cw 1cw
3cw 2cw 4cw
3ccw
Z u ν̅e The geometric representation in this model ensures

2 2 2 2 that in all the interactions and decays:
3 3 3 3
• Electric charge is conserved.
−
Z ν̅e e • Baryon number is conserved.
2 2 2 2 • Lepton number is conserved.
cw − ccw → cw − ccw
3 3 3 3
33
𝚺+ p+ + 𝛑𝟎
u u s u u d u ̅
𝐮 d 𝐝ҧ
𝟐 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝐬𝟏
0 0 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 2
0
𝟑
0 0
3
0 + 0 0 0 0
𝟏 𝟏𝐬𝟐
0 0 − 0 0 0 0
𝟏 𝟏𝐬𝟐
𝟑 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
ccw ccw cw cw ccw ccw ccw ccw cw cw
I=1 1
I= I=1 I=1
2
1 1 J=0
J= J=0
2 J=
2
∆𝐒 = 𝟐𝐬𝟏+𝐬𝟐
1ccw 1ccw
2cw 2ccw
3ccw
3ccw
2ccw 3cw
3cw 1cw
Z u
u
̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
s Z d Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
− cw − ccw + cw → − cw − ccw + cw
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
− ccw + cw → − ccw + cw
3 3 3 3
Symmetry has been increased in two units. The neutral pion counts as two particles.
34
𝚲𝟎 n𝟎 + 𝛑𝟎
u d s u d d u ̅
𝐮 d 𝐝ҧ
𝟐 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝐬𝟏
0 0 𝟎 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 1
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
3
0 + 0 0 0 0
𝟏 𝟏𝐬𝟐 𝟏 𝟏𝐬𝟐
0 0 − 0 0 0 0 −
𝟑 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
ccw cw cw cw cw ccw ccw ccw cw cw
I=0 1
I= I=1 I=1
2
1 1 J=0 J=0
J= J=
2 2
1ccw ∆𝐒 = 𝟐𝐬𝟏+𝐬𝟐
2cw
3ccw
3ccw
3cw
1cw 2ccw
2cw 3cw 1cw
Z u u
̅
2 2 2 2
cw + ccw → cw − ccw
3 3 3 3
s dZ Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
35
𝚺+ n𝟎 + 𝛑+
u u s d u d u d̅
𝟐
0 0 𝟏𝐬𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟏
− 𝟎 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐
0
𝟑
0 0
𝟐
3
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
ccw ccw cw cw ccw cw ccw ccw
I=1 1
I= I=1
2
1 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
1ccw 1ccw
3ccw 2ccw
3ccw
2cw 2cw 1cw
Z d̅ d
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
s Z d Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
36
Analysis of I and J:
• Isobaric isospin: 1
I= |q or q̅ up or down ccw − cw|
2
1
Σ + → I = |2 up ccw| = 1
2
1 1
n0 → I = |1 up ccw − 2 down cw| =
2 2
1
π+ → I = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
|1 up ccw + 1 down ccw| = 1
2
• Angular momentum:
1
J= |q ccw − qcw + q ̅ ccw |
̅ cw − q
2
1 1
Σ + → J = |2 q ccw − 1 q cw| =
2 2
1 1
n0 → J = |1 q ccw − 2 q cw| =
2 2
1
π+ → J = |1 q ccw − 1 q̅ ccw| = 0
2
Conservation of angular momentum can be seen in the arrows:
𝚺+ 𝐧𝟎
First section:
𝚺+ 𝐧𝟎 𝛑+ In the pion the arrow pointing to the left

Second section: cancels the arrow pointing to the right.
In this interaction ΔS=1, there is one unit of HL-symmetry with respect to the plane A between
the first components of the n0 and the + (the down quark of the neutron, spinning clockwise,
and the antiquark d̅ of the pion, spinning counterclockwise). The increase in the number of
hadrons is 1.
37
𝛍− 𝐞− + 𝛍 𝐞
̅̅̅
+
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏
− 𝐜𝐰 − 𝐜𝐰 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
0 0 + 0 + 0
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝐬𝟐
− 𝐜𝐜𝐰 − 𝐜𝐜𝐰 𝒔𝟐 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
ccw cw
∆𝐒 = 𝟐𝐬𝟏+𝐬𝟐
3ccw
4cw
ccw
1cw 4cw
2cw
ccw
ccw
1ccw
2ccw 3ccw
ccw
μ− Z e− Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z νμ 
̅e
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
Z u ν̅e
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
38
𝚺𝟎 Λ𝟎 + 
s u d d u s “” ̅̅̅̅
""
𝟏 𝟏
− 0 0 − 𝟎 0 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝐬𝟏
0
𝟑
0 0
3
0 + 𝟑
−
𝟑
∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
cw ccw ccw cw ccw ccw ccw cw
I=1 I=𝟎
1 1
J= J=
2 2
1ccw
2ccw
3ccw
3cw
2cw 1cw 1ccw 2ccw
sbg̅ dbr̅ sbr̅ dbg̅

1 1 1 1
− cw − ccw + λ9 → − ccw − cw
3 3 3 3
Colour is conserved
39
𝚺− n𝟎 + 𝛑−
d d s u d d d u̅
𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏
− 0 0 𝟎 0 −
𝟑 −
3 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
𝟑
0 + 0 0
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 3
I=1 1
I= I=1
2
1 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
2ccw
3cw
< <
< <
1cw
1cw 1ccw
3cw 2cw
< < 3ccw
< <
< <
< <
< <
< <
<
<
Z u u
̅<
2 2 2 2<
3 3 3 3<
s Z d Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
− ccw + cw − ccw → − ccw + cw − ccw
3 3 3 3 3 3
40
𝛑𝟎
𝚺𝐜+ 𝚲+𝐜 +
c u d u c d u ū d 𝐝ҧ
𝟐 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝒔𝟏
0 0 0 0 0 0
𝟑 𝟑 −
𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 2
0
𝟑
0 0
3
0 + 0 0 0 0
𝟏 𝟏𝒔𝟐
0 0 − 0 0
𝟏 𝟏𝒔𝟐
𝟑 − 0 0 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
I=1 I=0 I=1 I=1
1 1
J= J= J=0 J=0
2 2
∆𝐒 = 𝟐𝒔𝟏+𝒔𝟐
1ccw 2cw 2cw 1cw
3ccw
3ccw
1cw 3cw
2ccw
3cw
c Z u
2 2 2 2
ccw + ccw − cw → ccw
3 3 3 3
Z u u
̅
2 2 2 2
cw + ccw → cw − ccw
3 3 3 3
u Zc
2 2 2 2
cw − ccw + cw → cw
3 3 3 3
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
41
𝚺𝐜++ 𝚲+𝐜 + 𝛑+
u u c d u c u d̅
𝟐 𝟏𝒔𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝒔𝟏
0 0 − 𝟎 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
0
𝟑
0 0
3
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
0 0 0 0 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
I=1 I=0 I=1

1 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
1ccw 1ccw 1cw

2ccw 2ccw 2cw
3ccw
2cw
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
42
𝚺𝐜𝟎 𝚲+𝐜 + 𝛑−
d d c u d c d u̅
𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏
− 0 0 𝟎 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
3
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
0 0 0 0 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
I=1 I=0 I=1

1 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
2ccw 1ccw
2ccw
3cw
1cw
3cw 1cw
2cw
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
43
𝚺𝐛+ 𝚲𝟎𝐛 + 𝛑+
u u b d u b u d̅
𝟐 𝟏𝒔𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝒔𝟏
0 0 − 𝟎 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
0
𝟑
0 0
3
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
I=1 I=0 I=1
1 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
1ccw 1ccw
3ccw 2ccw
3ccw 1cw
2cw 2cw
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
44
𝚺𝐛− 𝚲𝟎𝐛 + 𝛑−
d d b u d b ̅
𝐮 d
𝟏 𝐬𝟏 𝟏
− 0 0 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟐
𝟎 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
3
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
I=1 I=0 I=1

1 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
2ccw
3cw
1cw 1cw 1ccw

3cw 2cw 2ccw
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
The increase in the number of hadrons is the decrease in the number of gauge bosons
45
𝚵𝟎 𝚲𝟎 + 𝛑𝟎
u s s u s d u ū d 𝐝ҧ
𝟐
0 0 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝐬𝟏
𝟎 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 1
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
3
0 + 0 0 0 0
𝟏 𝟏𝐬𝟐 𝟏 𝟏𝐬𝟐
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
1
I= I=0 I=1 I=1
2
1 1
J= I= J=0 J=0
2 2
1ccw
2cw ∆𝐒 = 𝟐𝐬𝟏+𝐬𝟐
3ccw
3ccw
1cw 2ccw 3cw

2cw 3cw 1cw
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
s Z d Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
46
𝚵− 𝚲𝟎 + 𝛑−
s s d u s d d u̅
𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏
− 0 0 𝟎 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
3
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 3
cw ccw cw ccw ccw cw cw cw
1
I= I=0 I=1
2
1 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
2ccw
3cw
1ccw 1cw
3cw 1cw 2ccw 2cw
s Z d Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
47
𝚵𝐜′+ 𝚵𝐜+ + 𝛄
u s c c s u “” ̅̅̅̅
""
𝟐 𝟐 0 0
0 0 𝟎 0
𝟑 𝟑 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝒔𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝒔𝟏 𝟏 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
3
0 + 𝟑
−
𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
0 0 0 0 0 0
𝟑 3
ccw cw ccw ccw cw ccw cw ccw
1 1
I= I=
2 2
1 1
J= J=
2 2
1ccw 1ccw’
2ccw' 2ccw
1cw’ 3ccw
2cw’
3cw
ubg̅ crb̅ urb̅ cbg̅
2 2 2 2
ccw + ccw + λ9 → ccw + ccw
3 3 3 3
Even though λ9 does not carry any net colour charge and therefore is not properly a
gluon it is necessary for the QCD process and for the production of the photon
48
𝚵𝐜′𝟎 𝚵𝐜𝟎 + 𝛄
d c s s c d “” ̅̅̅̅
""
𝟏 𝟏
− 0 0 − 𝟎 0 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝒔𝟏
0
𝟑
0 0
3
0 + 𝟑
−
𝟑
∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
cw ccw cw cw ccw cw ccw cw
1 1
I= I=
2 2
1 1
J= J=
2 2
1ccw’
2ccw’
3ccw
3cw
1cw 1cw’
2cw’ 2cw
dbg̅ srb̅ sbg̅ drb̅

1 1 1 1
− cw − cw + λ9 → − cw − cw
3 3 3 3
49
+
𝚵𝐜𝐜 𝚲+𝐜
+ 𝐊− + 𝛑+
c c d d c u s u̅ u d̅
𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 0 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
0
𝟑
0 0
3
0 + 0 0 + 0 0
𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟐 𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟐
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
ccw ccw cw cw ccw ccw cw cw ccw ccw
1 1
I= I=0 I= I=1
2 2
1 1
J= J= J=0 J=0
2 2
4ccw 2ccw
1ccw 2ccw ∆𝑺 = 𝟐𝒔𝟏+𝒔𝟐
1ccw
3cw
4ccw
2cw 1cw 3cw
c Zu Z
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z
d d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
d Z s Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z u u
̅
2 2 2 2
ccw + cw → ccw − cw
3 3 3 3
50
+
𝚵𝐜𝐜 𝐩+ + 𝐃+ + 𝐊−
d c c u u d c d̅ ̅
𝐮 s
𝟏
0 0 𝟐𝐬𝟏 0 0 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟏
− 𝟎 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐
0
𝟑
0 0
𝟐
3
0 + 0 0 + 0 0
𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟐 𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟐
0 0 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 3 𝟑 𝟑
cw ccw ccw ccw ccw cw ccw ccw cw cw
1 1 1 1
I= I= I= I=
2 2 2 2
1 1
J= J= J=0 J=0
2 2
1ccw ∆𝐒 = 𝟐𝒔𝟏+𝒔𝟐
2ccw 1ccw
2ccw 3ccw
4cw
3ccw
1cw 4cw 2cw
d Z s Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z u u
̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
c Z u Z
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
51
3
J = 2 BARIONS
𝚫++ p+ + 𝛑+
u u u u u d u d̅
𝟐 𝟐
0 0 0 0 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟑
0
3
0 + 0 0
𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0 0 0 0
𝟑 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
ccw ccw ccw ccw ccw cw ccw ccw
3 1
I= I= I=1
2 2
3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
1ccw 1ccw 1ccw

2ccw 2ccw 3ccw
3ccw
2cw
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
52
𝚫+ n𝟎 𝛑+
+
u u d u d d u d̅
𝟐 𝟐
0 0 𝟎 0 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟏𝒔𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0
𝟑
0 0 −
3
0 + 𝟑 𝟑
∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
ccw ccw ccw ccw cw ccw ccw ccw
3 1
I= I= I=1
2 2
3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
1ccw 1ccw
2ccw 3ccw
3ccw 1ccw
2cw 2ccw
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
53
𝚫𝟎 𝐧𝟎 + 𝛑𝟎
u d d u d d u ̅
𝐮 d 𝐝ҧ
𝟐 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝒔𝟏
0 0 0 0 0 0
𝟑 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 1
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
3
0 + 0 0 0 0
𝟏 𝟏𝒔𝟐 𝟏 𝟏𝒔𝟐
0 0 − 0 0 0 0 −
𝟑 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
cw cw cw ccw cw ccw cw cw cw cw
3 1
I= I= I=1 I=1
2 2
3 1
J= J= J=0 J=0
2 2
∆𝐒 = 𝟐𝐬𝟏+𝐬𝟐
1cw
2ccw
3cw
3cw
1cw 3cw
1cw
2cw 2ccw
3cw
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
54
𝚫𝟎 𝐩+ 𝛑−
+
d u d u u d d u̅
𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏
− 0 0 0 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
0
𝟑
0 0
3
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
cw cw cw ccw cw cw cw cw
3 1
I= I= I=1
2 2
3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
1cw
2ccw 2cw
3cw
1cw 1cw
3cw 2cw
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
55
𝚫− 𝐧𝟎 + 𝛑−
d d d u d d d u̅
𝟏
0 0 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏
− 0 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
3
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
3 1
I= I= I=1
2 2
3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
2ccw
3cw
1cw 1cw 1cw

3cw 2cw 2cw
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
56
𝚺 ∗+ 𝚺𝟎 + 𝛑+
u u s s u d u d̅
𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
0
𝟑
0 0
3
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
ccw ccw ccw cw ccw ccw ccw ccw
I=1 I=1 I=1

3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
1ccw 1ccw
3ccw 2ccw
3ccw
2cw 2ccw 1ccw
Z s d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
s Z d Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
− ccw + cw − ccw → − ccw + cw − ccw
3 3 3 3 3 3
57
𝚺 ∗+ 𝚲𝟎 + 𝛑+
u u s d u s u d̅
2 𝟏𝒔𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝒔𝟏
0 0 − 0 0
3 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
0
𝟑
0 0
𝟑
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
I=1 I=0 I=1

3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
1ccw 1ccw
3ccw 2ccw
3ccw
1ccw
2cw 2ccw
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
58
𝚺 ∗𝟎 𝚲𝟎 + 𝛑𝟎
u d s u d s u ū d 𝐝ҧ
2 2s1 𝟐 𝟐𝒔𝟏
0 0 0 0 0 0
3 −
3 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 1
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
3
0 + 0 0 0 0
𝟏 1𝐬𝟐 𝟏 1𝐬𝟐
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0 −
𝟑 3 𝟑 3
cw cw cw ccw cw ccw cw cw cw cw
I=1 I=0 I=1 I=1

3 1
J= J= J=0 J=0
2 2
1cw ∆𝐒 = 𝟐𝐬𝟏+𝐬𝟐
2ccw
3cw
3cw
1cw 3cw
3cw 1cw
2cw
2ccw
Z u u
̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
s Z d Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z s d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
59
𝚺 ∗𝟎 𝚺𝟎 + 𝛑𝟎
u s d u s d u ū d 𝐝ҧ
𝟐 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝐬𝟏
0 0 0 0 0 0
𝟑 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 1
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
3
0 + 0 0 0 0
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏𝐬𝟐
0 0 − 𝟏𝐬𝟐 0 0 −
𝟑 0 0 − 𝟑
𝟑 𝟑
cw cw cw cw cw cw cw
ccw cw ccw
I=1 I=1 I=1
I=1
3 1
J= J= J=0 J=0
2 2
∆𝐒 = 𝟐𝐬𝟏+𝐬𝟐
1cw
2ccw
3cw
3cw
1cw 3cw
2cw 1cw
2ccw
3cw
Z u u
̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
Z d̅ d
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
60
𝚺 ∗− 𝚲𝟎 + 𝛑−
d d s u d s d u̅
𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏
− 0 0 0 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
𝟑
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
I=1 I=0 I=1

3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
2ccw
3cw
1cw 1cw 1cw’

3cw 2cw 2cw’
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
61
𝚺𝐜∗++ 𝚲+𝐜 𝛑+
+
u u c d u c u d̅
𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0
𝟐
𝟑
0 0
𝟐
𝟑
0 + 0 0
𝟐 𝟐
0 0 0 0 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
I=1 I=0 I=1

3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
1ccw 1ccw 1ccw’

3ccw 2ccw 2ccw’
3ccw
2cw
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
62
𝚺𝐜∗𝟎 𝚲+𝐜 + 𝛑−
d d c u d c d ̅
𝐮
𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏
− 0 0 0 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
0 −
𝟏
0 0 −
𝟏
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
0 0 0 0 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
I=1 I=0 I=1

3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
2ccw 1cw’
2cw’
3cw
1cw 1cw
3cw 2cw
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
63
𝚺𝐛∗+ 𝚲𝟎𝐛 + 𝛑+
u u b d u b u 𝐝ҧ
𝟐 𝟏𝒔𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝒔𝟏
0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
0
𝟑
0 0
𝟑
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
ccw ccw ccw cw ccw cw ccw ccw
I=1 I=0 I=1

3 1 J=0
J= J=
2 2
1ccw 1ccw
3ccw 2ccw
3ccw 1ccw’’
2cw 2ccw’’
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
64
𝚺𝐛∗− 𝚲𝟎𝐛 + 𝛑−
d d b u d b d ̅
𝐮
𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏
− 0 0 𝟎 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
0 −
𝟏
𝟑
0 0 −
𝟏
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
I=1 I=0 I=1

3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
2ccw
3cw
1cw 1cw 1ccw’’

3cw 2cw 2ccw’’
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
65
𝚵 ∗𝟎 𝚵− 𝛑+
+
u s s d s s u 𝐝ҧ
𝟐 𝟏𝒔𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝒔𝟏
0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
𝟏
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
1 1
I= I= I=1
2 2
3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
1ccw
3ccw
3ccw 1ccw’ 1ccw’

2cw 2ccw’ 2ccw’
Z d̅ d
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
66
𝚵 ∗− 𝚵𝟎 + 𝛑−
d s s u s s d ̅
𝐮
𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏
− 0 0 𝟎 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
𝟑
0 + 0 0
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
1
I= 1
2 I= I=1
2
3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
2ccw
3cw
1cw 1cw’ 1cw’

3cw 2cw’ 2cw’
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
67
𝚵𝐜∗𝟎 𝚵𝐜+ + 𝛑−
d s c u s c d ̅
𝐮
𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏
− 0 0 𝟎 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
𝟑
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
0 0 0 0 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
1 1
I= I= I=1
2 2
3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
2ccw 1cw’
2cw’
3cw
1cw 1cw’
3cw 2cw’
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
68
𝚵𝐛∗𝟎 𝚵𝐛− + 𝛑+
u s b d s b u 𝐝ҧ
𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟏 𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0 0 − 𝟎 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
𝟑
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
1 1
I= I= I=1
2 2
3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
1cw
3cw
3cw
2ccw 1cw’ 1cw’’
2cw’ 2cw’’
Z d d̅
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
69
𝛀− 𝚲𝟎 + 𝐊−
s s s u s d s ̅
𝐮
𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏
− 0 0 𝟎 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
𝟑
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
I=0 I=0 1
I=
2
3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
2ccw
3cw
1cw’ 1cw’ 1cw’

3cw’ 2cw’ 2cw
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
s Z d Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
70
𝛀− 𝚵𝟎 + 𝛑−
s s s u s s d ̅
𝐮
𝟏
0 0 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏
− 𝟎 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 −
𝟑
0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
I=0 1
I= I=1
2
3 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
2ccw
3cw
1cw’ 1cw’ 1cw’

3cw 2cw’ 2cw’
Z u u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
71
𝛑− 𝛍− + 𝛎̅𝛍
d ̅
𝐮
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
− − − 𝐜𝐰 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
0 0 0 + 0 ∆𝑺 = 𝟏𝒔𝟏
0 0 𝟐 𝟐𝐬𝟏
− 𝐜𝐜𝐰 𝐬𝟏
𝟑 𝟑
cw cw cw
I=1
J=0
1cw
3cw
1cw 2cw 3cw
2ccw
ccw
d Z μ− Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
u
̅ Z ̅ μ Z
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z μ− ̅ μ
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
72
𝛑+ 𝛍+ + 𝛍
u 𝐝ҧ
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝐜𝐜𝐰
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
0 0 0 + 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏
0 0 𝐜𝐰 −
𝟑 𝟑
ccw ccw ccw
I=1
J=0
3ccw 1ccw
1ccw
2ccw 2cw
ccw
3ccw
u Z νμ Z
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3
d̅ Z μ+ Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
ccw − cw − ccw → ccw − cw + ccw
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z μ+ νμ
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
73
𝛑− 𝐞− + ̅ 𝐞
d ̅
𝐮
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
− − − 𝐜𝐰 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
0 0 0 + 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟐 𝟐𝒔𝟏
0 0 − 𝐜𝐜𝐰 𝒔𝟏
𝟑 𝟑
cw cw cw
I=1
J=0
1cw
3cw
1cw 3cw
2cw
2ccw
ccw
Z e− e
̅̅̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
74
𝐊+ 𝛍+ 𝛍
+
u 𝐬ҧ
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝐜𝐜𝐰
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0 0 0 + 0
𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏
0 0 𝐜𝐰 −
𝟑 𝟑
ccw ccw ccw
1
I=
2
J=0
3ccw’ 1ccw
1ccw’
2ccw’
2cw’
ccw
1ccw’
u Z μ
2 2 2 2
ccw − cw + ccw → ccw + Z
3 3 3 3
Z μ+ μ
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
75
𝐊+ 𝐞+ + 𝐞 + 𝛑𝟎
u 𝐬ҧ u ū d 𝐝ҧ
𝒔𝟐
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏𝒔𝟏
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝐬𝟐 𝟏𝒔𝟏 𝟏
ccw − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
0 0 0 + 0 + 0 0 0 0
0 0 𝟐𝒔𝟑 𝟐𝒔𝟑 0 0 0 0
cw −
𝟑 𝟑
cw cw ccw cw cw cw cw
1
I= I=1 I=1
2
J=0 J=0 J=0
1cw ∆𝐒 = 𝟑𝐬𝟏+𝐬𝟐+𝐬𝟑
3ccw
4cw
4cw
1cw’
2ccw
4cw 4cw 2cw
3ccw
sҧ Z d̅ Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
cw + ccw − cw → cw + ccw − cw
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z d e+
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3
Z νe u̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
Z e+ νe
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
76
𝐊 ∗𝟎 𝐊+ + 𝛑−
d 𝒔̅ u sҧ d ̅
𝐮
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏
− − − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
0 0 0 0 0 0
+ ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0 0 0 0 0 0
ccw cw cw cw ccw ccw
1 1
I= I= I=1
2 2
J=1 J=0 J=0
2cw
3ccw
1cw’
1ccw 2cw’
3ccw
Z u u
̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
77
𝐊 𝟎𝐬 𝛑+ + 𝛑−
d 𝐬ҧ s 𝐝ҧ u 𝐝ҧ d ̅
𝐮
𝐬𝟏
𝟏 𝟏𝐬𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟑 𝟏𝐬𝟒 𝟏 𝐬𝟒
𝟐𝐬𝟑
− − − − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
0 0 + 0 0 0 0 + 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
cw cw ccw ccw ccw ccw cw cw
1 1
I= I= I=1 I=1
2 2
J=0 J=0 J=0 J=0
2ccw ∆𝐒 = 𝟎𝐬𝟑+𝐬𝟒−𝐬𝟏−𝐬𝟐
3cw
1ccw’ 1ccw
1cw 1cw’
3cw 2ccw
sҧ s Z Z u u
̅ Z Z
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
cw − ccw − ccw + cw + ccw − cw → ccw − cw + cw − ccw − ccw + cw
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
78
𝐃∗+ 𝐃𝟎 + +
c 𝐝ҧ c ̅
𝐮 u 𝐝ҧ
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝟏
𝟑 𝟑 − 𝟑
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
0 0 0 0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0 0 0 0 0 0
ccw cw ccw ccw cw cw
1 1
I= I= I=1
2 2
J=1 J=0 J=0
1ccw 3cw
2ccw
2ccw
1cw
3cw
Z u
̅ u
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
79
𝛗 𝐊− + 𝐊+
s 𝐬ҧ s ̅
𝐮 u 𝐬ҧ
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟏
− − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
0 0 0 0 + 0 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
0 0 0 0 0 0
cw ccw cw cw ccw ccw
1 1
I=0 I= I=
2 2
J=1 J=0 J=0
3ccw
3cw
1ccw’
1cw’ 3ccw’
2cw’
Z u u
̅
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
80
𝛍− 𝛍+
𝐁𝐬∗ +
s 𝐛ҧ
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− − 𝐜𝐰 𝐬𝟏 𝐜𝐜𝐰 𝐬𝟏
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
0 0 0 + 0 ∆𝐒 = 𝟏𝐬𝟏
𝟐 𝟐 𝒔𝟐
0 0 − 𝐜𝐜𝐰 𝒔𝟐 𝐜𝐰
𝟑 𝟑
cw ccw
I=0
J=1
According to this model, J has to
be 1 for this decay, so it is the
vector Bs∗ meson, instead of the
pseudoscalar Bs0 meson, with
J=0, predicted by the standard
model. It needs confirmation
1ccw’’
[19, 50] 1cw’ 3ccw’ 3cw’
2cw’
There is no other possibility 2ccw’
according to the equation for
angular momentum in this
structure:
1
J= |q ccw − q cw + q̅cw − q̅ ccw |
2
s Z μ− Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
̅
b Z μ+ Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z μ− μ+
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
81
𝛍− 𝛍+
𝐁𝐬∗ 𝐊 ∗𝟎 + +
s 𝐛ҧ d 𝐬ҧ
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝐜𝐜𝐰 𝒔𝟏
−
𝟑 𝟑 −
𝟑 𝟑
+ − 𝐜𝐰 𝒔𝟏
𝟑 + 𝟑
0 0 0 0
0 0
𝟐 𝟐 𝒔𝟐
0 0 0 0 + − 𝐜𝐜𝐰 𝒔𝟐
𝟑
+ 𝟑
𝐜𝐰
cw ccw cw ccw
I=0 𝟏
𝐈= ∆𝐒 = 𝟐𝐬𝟏+𝐬𝟐
𝟐
J=1 J=1
According to this model, J has to be 1 for this decay, so it is the Bs∗ vector meson, instead of the Bs0
pseudoscalar meson, with J=0, predicted by the standard model. It needs confirmation [19, 50]. There is
no other possibility according to the equation for angular momentum in this structure.
The two muons cannot be

represented here, their
angular momenta forbid it.
They are represented in
another unit, in depth.
1ccw’’
1cw’ 4ccw’
3cw
s Z d Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
cw − ccw + cw → cw − ccw + cw
3 3 3 3 3 3
̅
b Z sҧ Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z μ− μ+
1 1 1 1
− cw + ccw → − cw + ccw In this model Pauli´s exclusion principle
3 3 3 3
forces the two muons to be formed in
Z μ− μ+
another unit, in depth. That might be
2 2 2 2 related to the anomalies found in the
− ccw + cw → − ccw + cw decay of the Bs0 meson [20, 21]
3 3 3 3
82
Let the theory speak
DeWitt
Pauli´s exclusion principle forces the two muons to be

formed in another unit. These are two basic units from a
side perspective. Same time, same place but different
units, in depth. It is as if the two left components of the
muons were in a parallel unit, in a parallel world.
Second unit First unit Second unit First unit
4ccw’ 3cw’ 1ccw’’ 1cw’

4ccw’ 3cw
4cw’ 3ccw’
Symmetry between the two left

components of the muons Symmetry between the two
right components of the muons
83
𝚲𝟎𝐛 𝚲𝟎 + 𝛍+
𝛍− +
b u d s u d
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝐜𝐜𝐰 𝒔𝟏
− 𝟎 0 − 𝟎 0 − 𝐜𝐰 𝒔𝟏 𝟑
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
0 0 0 0 + 0 + 0
3 3
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝒔𝟐
0 0 − 0 0 − − 𝐜𝐜𝐰 𝒔𝟐 𝐜𝐰
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
cw ccw cw cw ccw cw
I=0 I=0
1 1
J= J=
2 2
The two muons cannot be

represented here. Their
angular momenta forbid it.
They are represented in
1ccw’’
1cw 4ccw’ another unit, in depth.
3cw
These are the x axes, the left axes, in another unit, in depth. On the next page the left components
of the muon and antimuon are drawn on those axes.
b Z s Z
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
Z μ− μ+
1 1 1 1
− cw + ccw → − cw + ccw In this model, Pauli´s exclusion principle
3 3 3 3
forces the two muons to be formed in
Z μ− μ+ another unit, in depth
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
84
Again, there is an anomaly. Pauli´s exclusion principle forces the two muons to
be formed in another unit. These are two basic units from a side perspective. Same time,
same place but different units, in depth.
With the previous decay of the Bs0 meson and with this decay of the 𝚲𝟎𝐛 happens
that there are two symmetries between the same two particles, the two muons
Second unit First unit Second unit First unit
4ccw’ 3cw’ 1ccw’’ 1cw’

4ccw’ 3cw 4cw’ 3ccw’
Symmetry between the left

Symmetry between the right
components of the muons
components of the muons
85
− 𝐩+ 𝐊𝟎 𝚲𝟎
+ +
d ̅
𝐮 u u d 𝐬ҧ d s u d
𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟏𝐬𝟐 𝟏 𝟏𝐬𝟐
− − 𝟎 0 − − 𝟎 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐
0 0 + 0
𝟑
0 0 0 + 0
𝟑
0
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 −
𝟑 𝟑
cw cw ccw ccw cw cw cw ccw ccw cw
1 1
I=1 I= I= I=0
2 2
1 1
J=0 J= J=0 J=
2 2
∆𝐒 = 0𝑠𝟐−𝐬𝟏
2ccw 2ccw
4ccw
1cw
1cw 3cw’
2cw
3cw 4cw
4ccw’
u
̅ u Z Z sҧ s Z Z
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
− cw + ccw + ccw − cw + cw − ccw → cw − ccw − cw + ccw + ccw − cw
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
86
𝐞− + 𝐩+ 𝐞 + 𝚲𝟎
u d u s d u
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
− 𝐜𝐰 𝟎 0 − 𝟎 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏
0 + 0 −
𝟏
𝟑
0 0 + 0 −
𝟑
0
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
− 𝐜𝐜𝐰 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
ccw cw ccw ccw cw cw ccw
1
I= I=0
2
1 1
J= J=
2 2
∆𝐒 = 𝟎
2ccw 2ccw
3ccw 4ccw
1cw 2cw
4cw’ 4cw
1ccw
3ccw
Z Z
e− s
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
87
− + 𝐩+ 𝐊+ + 𝚺−
d ̅
𝐮 u d u 𝐬ҧ u d d s
𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟐𝐬𝟏 𝟏
𝟎 0
− − 𝟎 0 0 0 −
𝟑 𝟑 + 𝟑 + 𝟑
𝟏
𝟏
0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 − 0
𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟐 𝟐 𝟏𝐬𝟐
0 0 0 0 0 0 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
cw cw ccw cw cw cw cw cw cw ccw
1 1
I=1 I= I= I=1
2 2
1 1
J=0 J= J=
2 J=0 2
2ccw 2cw ∆𝐒 = 𝟎𝐬𝟐−𝐬𝟏

3cw
1cw
3cw’
1cw 2cw
4cw 4cw 4ccw’
u
̅ u s Z Z sҧ
2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2
− cw + ccw + cw − ccw → cw − ccw − cw + ccw
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
sҧ bg̅ sgb̅ sҧ rb̅ sbr̅

1 1 1 1
cw − ccw + λ5 + λ7 → cw − ccw + λ7 + λ5
3 3 3 3
88
𝐞− + 𝐞+  
+
“” ̅̅̅̅
"" “” ̅̅̅̅
""
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏𝐬𝟑 𝟏𝐬𝟑
− 𝐜𝐰 𝐬𝟏 𝐜𝐜𝐰 𝐬𝟏 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
0 + 0 0 0 + 0 0
𝟐 𝟐 𝐬𝟐 𝟐𝐬𝟒 𝟐𝐬𝟒
− 𝐜𝐜𝐰 𝐬𝟐 𝐜𝐰 0 0 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
cw ccw ccw cw
∆𝐒 = 𝟎𝐬𝟑+𝐬𝟒−𝐬𝟏−𝐬𝟐
2ccw
1cw 3ccw 2cw
3cw 4cw
1ccw
4ccw
89
Electron capture
𝐩+ + 𝐞− 𝐧𝟎 + 𝛎𝐞
u d u d d u
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝟎 0 − 𝐜𝐰 − 𝟎 0
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 + 0 0 −
𝟑
0 + 0
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
0 0 − 𝐜𝐜𝐰 0 0 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
ccw cw ccw cw cw ccw ccw
1 1
I= I=
2 2
1 1
J= J=
2 2 ∆𝐒 = 𝟎
1ccw 2ccw
4ccw 3ccw
2cw 1cw
3cw 3cw
2ccw
4ccw
90
A possible Higgs boson [14]:
Charge =0
ccw
Spin= 0
ccw Parity = +
cw
cw
H0
2 2 1 1
− −
3 3 3 3
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
ccw ccw cw cw
Some observed decays [17]:
H0 W−
W+
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
ccw + cw − ccw − cw → ccw + cw − ccw − cw
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
H0
W− γ γ W−
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1
ccw + cw − ccw − cw − cw − ccw → ccw − cw + cw − ccw − ccw − cw
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
H0 𝜏− 𝜏+
2 2 1 1 1 2 1 2
ccw − ccw + cw − cw → − cw − ccw + ccw + cw
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
91
Two possible configurations of the graviton:
Charge =0
Spin= 2
Parity = +
ccw
cw 2 2 1 1
− −
3 3 3 3
0 0 0 0
cw
ccw
0 0 0 0
ccw cw ccw cw
cw
2 2 1 1
ccw − −
3 3 3 3
0 0 0 0
ccw
cw 0 0 0 0
cw ccw cw ccw
92
Penta quark Σ − (1750)
1−
I (J P ) = 1 ( )
2
𝚺− 𝚲𝟎 𝛑−
+
u d s d ̅
𝐮 u d s d ̅
𝐮
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝟎 0 − − 𝟎 0 − −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
0 −
𝟑
0 0 0 0 −
𝟑
0 + 0 0
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
ccw cw ccw cw cw ccw cw ccw cw cw
I=1 I=0 I=1

1 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
1ccw
2ccw
1cw
3cw
1cw 1cw 1ccw’

3cw 2cw 2ccw’
d u
̅ Z Z d u
̅ Z Z
1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2
− cw + cw + ccw − cw + ccw + cw → − cw + ccw + ccw − cw + ccw + cw
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
It is formed by two particles
93
Pentaquark2 Σ − (1775)
5−
I (J P ) = 1 ( )
2
𝚺− 𝚺𝟎 𝛑+
+
u u s d 𝐝ҧ u d s u 𝐝ҧ
𝟐 𝟐
𝟎 0 0 0 𝟎 0 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
0
𝟑
0 −
𝟑 𝟑
0 −
𝟑
0 + 𝟑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏
0 0 − 0 0 0 0 − 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
ccw ccw ccw ccw cw ccw cw ccw ccw ccw
I=1 I=0 I=1

5 1
J= J= J=0
2 2
1ccw 1ccw
2ccw 3ccw
1cw
1ccw 3ccw 1ccw’
2cw 2ccw’
d d̅ Z Z d d̅ Z Z
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
− ccw + cw + cw − ccw − cw + ccw → − cw + ccw − ccw + cw + cw − ccw
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
94
9. The Weinberg angle, 𝛉𝐰
Trigonometry gives the following values for these angles:
u quark
33,69…0
0
2𝛉𝐖 =56,3...
s quark
𝛉𝐖 =28,154… 0 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐𝛉𝐖 = 𝟏, 𝟓
From a side perspective those two angles also appear:
33,69…0
0
2𝛉𝐖 = 56,3...
95
10. The Cabibbo angle, 𝛉𝐜
up
𝛉𝐜
down strange
5 1 4
θc = arc tan 6 − arc tan 2 = arc tan 17 = 13, 2405 …0
The 2x2 Cabibbo matrix:
17 4
Vud Vus cos θc sin θc
ξ305 ξ305
= =
Vcd Vcs −sin θc cos θc 4 17
−
ξ305 ξ305
This is the relation of the Weinberg angle with the Cabibbo angle:
6
tan θc tan 2θw = 17
96
11. The CKM matrix
The CKM matrix is a 3 x 3 matrix:
Vud Vus Vub
VCKM = Vcd Vcs Vcb
Vtd Vts Vtb
It can be parametrized by three angles, θ12 (the Cabibbo angle), θ13 , θ23 and a CP-violating phase 𝛿
c12 c13 s12 c13 s13 e−iδ
VCKM = −s12 c23 −c12 s23 s13 eiδ c12 c23 −s12 s23 s13 eiδ s23 c13
s12 s23 −c12 c23 s13 eiδ −c12 s23 −s12 c23 s13 eiδ c23 c13
Since the CKM matrix is unitary, the sum of the squares of the elements in the first row is:
2 2 2 2 2 −i2δ
c12 c13 + s12 c13 + s13 e = 1
2
(c12 2 ) 2 2 −i2δ 2 2
+ s12 c13 + s13 e = c13 + s13
2 2 −i2δ 2 2
c13 + s13 e − s13 = c13
2
s13 (e−i2δ − 1)= 0
2
δ = CP violating phase = 2. tan−1 3 = 67,380 …
2
𝛿 𝛿 = 2 tan−1 3
−1 2
2
s13 (e−i4 tan 3 − 1) = 0, so θ13 = 0
97
c13 = 1
θ13 = 0
s13 = 0
Another parameter of the CKM matrix is already known, θ12 (the Cabibbo angle):
17
c12 =
ξ305
4
θ12 = θc = tan−1 17
4
s12 =
ξ305
Now just one parameter, θ23 , remains unknown in the CKM matrix:
17 4
0
ξ305 ξ305
4 17
− c c s23
VCKM = ξ305 23 ξ305 23
4 17
s − s c23
ξ305 23 ξ305 23
θ23 can be calculated from the most commonly used unitary triangle:
∗ ∗ ∗
Vud . Vub + Vcd . Vcb + Vtd . Vtb =0
s23 = 0, θ23 = 0, c23 = 1

17 4 4 17 4
. s + c . s + s c =0
ξ305 ξ305 23 ξ305 23 ξ305 23 ξ305 23 23
−17
The other solution, c23 =
17 + ξ305
does not agree with the experimental
results
0,9734171683 0,2290393337 0
17 4
0
ξ305 ξ305
VCKM = 4 17 = −0,2290393337 0,9734171683 0

− 0
ξ305 ξ305
0 0 1
0 0 1
98
• Why the element Vcb is zero in the CKM matrix, in spite of the decay B → D∗+ l ν̅l taking
place:
𝛎̅𝛕
𝐁𝟎 𝐃∗+ + 𝛕− +
d 𝐛ҧ c 𝐝ҧ
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒔 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒔 𝟏
− − 𝐜𝐰 −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
0 0 0 0 + 0 + 0
0 0 0 0 𝟐 𝟐𝐬𝟐
− 𝐜𝐜𝐰 𝐬𝟐
𝟑 𝟑
cw cw ccw cw
cw
1 1
I= I=
2 2
J=0 J=1
2ccw´
4cw´´
1cw´´
1cw 2cw 4cw´´
3cw´´
3ccw´´
Z 𝛎̅𝛕 c
2 2 2 2
ccw − cw → − ccw − cw
3 3 3 3
Z 𝛎̅𝛕 𝛕−
2 2 2 2
cw − ccw → − ccw + cw
3 3 3 3
This is what really happens. Vdb does not
𝐛ҧ → 𝐝ҧ appear in the CKM matrix. The element Vcb
is zero
99
A problem in the KM parameterization:
In the original parameterization of the matrix by M. Kobayashi y T. Maskawa [49], the

parameters used are three angles (θ2 , θ2 y θ3 ) and δ, a CP- violating phase. ci y si are the sines and
the cosines of the angles:
c1 −s1 c3 −s1 𝑠3
VCKM = s1 c2 c1 c2 c3 −s2 s3 eiδ c1 c2 s3 + s2 c3 eiδ
c1 s2 𝑐3 + c2 s3 eiδ c1 s2 s3 − c2 c3 eiδ
s1 s2
Since the matrix is unitary, its rows form an orthonormal basis.That means that
the sum of the squares of the elements of the second row equals 1:
s12 c22 + c12 c22 c32 + s22 s32 ei2δ − 2c1 c2 c3 s2 s3 eiδ + c12 c22 s32 + s22 c32 ei2δ + 2c1 c2 c3 s2 s3 eiδ = 1
s12 c22 + c12 c22 (c32 + 𝑠32 ) + s22 ei2δ (c32 + 𝑠32 ) − 2c1 c2 c3 s2 s3 eiδ + 2c1 c2 c3 s2 s3 eiδ = 1
s12 c22 + c12 c22 + s22 ei2δ = 1
c22 (s12 + c12 ) + s22 ei2δ = 1
c22 + s22 ei2δ = 1
s22 ei2δ = 1 − c22 = s22
ei2δ = 1
δ= 0
This parameterisation gives a zero CP violation as a result, in spite of the fact that a non-zero
CP violation phase has been experimentally measured. Therefore, although the parameterisation was
initially proposed to give account of the CP violation, it is wrong.
100
11. The angles of the three generations
PLANE A
14,036…0
18,43…0
26,565…0
28,154 0… (Weinberg angle), 33,690… (from a side perspective, the angle formed by the axes with plane A)
and the angles between the generations will determine the values of the constants G, h, and 0 (the
gravitational constant, Planck´s constant and the vacuum permittivity, respectively)
1 3 1
18,43…0= arcsin = arccos = arctan
ξ10 ξ10 3
1 2 1
26,565…0= arcsin = arccos = arctan 2
ξ5 ξ5
2 3 2
33,69... 0= arcsin = arccos = arctan
ξ13 ξ13 3
2 3
1- ξ13-2
θW =28,154... 0= arcsin √
ξ13 ξ13
= arccos = arctan
2 1-
2 3
2√ ξ13
2
101
12. Mass of hadrons and leptons (in MeV)
The three quarks survive the decay (p.52). That is why the mass of
++ (
Δ 1232) the hadron can be used to calculate the mass of uccw
uccw uccw uccw
1232
uccw = = 410,66
3
p+ (938,27) θw
2 . 410,66 + .410,66 = 936,94
uccw uccw dcw 100
θw = 28,1540 … is the angle that accounts for the fact that the
quark spins in the opposite direction to the other two
The three quarks survive the decay (p.57). That is why the hadron
can be used to calculate sccw
Σ ∗+ (1382,80)
uccw uccw sccw 2 . 410,66 + sccw = 936,94
sccw = 561,48
Ξ ∗0 (1531,80)
410,66 + 2 . 561,48 = 1533,62 (p. 66)
uccw sccw sccw
φ(1019,445) The two quarks survive the decay (p.80). That is why
sccw sҧ cw
the mass of the boson can be used to calculate scw:
561,48 + scw . 2 . 0,3369 = 1019,445
scw = 710,069
33,69…0 is the angle formed by the space axes with plane H
102
.0with plane A
Λ0 (1115,63) dcw uccw dcw u
̅ 𝐜𝐰
uccw dcw scw
410,66 + 410,66 . 0,28155 + 710,069 (0,2657 + 2 . 0,28155) = 1114,79
In the mass of each particle is written what it will decay to (p. 30)
26,570 is the angle between the first and the second generation
K + (493,667) 410,66 . 0,28155 + 710,069 . 0,2657 .2 = 492,95 (p. 76)

ucw sҧ cw
Σ− (1197,449)
410,66 . 2 + 710,069 . 0,2657 .2 = 1198,6 (p. 40)
dccw dccw scw
Ξ0 (1314,86) 410,66 + 710,069 + 710,069 . 0,2657 = 1309,39 (p. 46)

uccw scw scw
Σc∗++ (2518,4) 410,66 + 410,66 + cccw = 2518,4

uccw uccw cccw
The three quarks survive the decay (p. 62). That is why the mass of the
hadron can be used to calculate the mass of cccw
cccw = 1697,08
Σc++ (2454,02) 410,66 + 410,66 + ccw = 2454,02 (p. 42)

uccw uccw ccw
The three quarks survive the decay. This particle is
used to calculate ccw

ccw = 1632,7
+(
Ξcc 3518,9)
1697,08 + 1697,08 + 410,66 . 0,28155 = 3509,78 (p. 50)
cccw cccw dcw
103
Λ+c (2286,46)
410,66 . 2 . 0,3369 + 410,66 + 1697,08 (0,2657 + 2 . 0,3369) = 2281,76
dcw uccw cccw
(p. 31)
When a particle decays into particles of matter and particles of antimatter the plus sign in the
calculation of the mass is replaced by a minus sign. Here are two examples, the charged pion:
π+ (134,97) 410,66 − 410,66 . 2 . 0,3369 = 133,95 (p.73)

uccw d̅ccw
And the muon:
μ− (105,7) 710,069 (0,26565 + 2. 0,28155) − 1697,08 . 0,28155 = 110,69 (p. 38)

1 2
− cw and − ccw of
3 3
the second generation
Pentaquark1 Σ− (1770)
uccw dcw sccw dcw u
̅ cw
410,66 + 410,66 . 0,28155 + 561,48 + 410,66 . 2 . 0,26565 . 2 = 1775,45 (p. 93)
K ∗0 (895,81)
dccw sҧ cw
410,66 + 710,069 . 2. 0,3369 = 889,104 (p.77)
104
II. Geometry of relativity and of some other
questions in physics [23-36]
1. CPT. Duality of the structure
Beside electric charge, time and the three dimensions of space can be represented in
π
this geometric structure. In order to do this the angles separating the space axes have to
2
be viewed as lengths and not in the usual way.
-
P----
π π
2 2
T----- π π
2 2
C----
-
x y z
---
---
---
--- c =+1
--- c =-1
π π
ti --- 2 2 --- tf
π π
2 2
ti - initial time in the unit
c=+1---
tf - final time in the unit
c=-1 ---
105
To make visualization easier only two of the four lines for time are represented.
The three conjugations with the operators C, P, and T:
C(A) = PT(A) = B:
-
P----
A
T----
C----
B
-
- C----
P(A) = CT(A) = B:
-
P----
T-----
B
C----
-
106
T(A) = CP(A) = B:
-
P----
A
B
T-----
C----
-
The strong CP problem: as can be seen in the figure above, the CP symmetry conjugation
operation takes place in a line (green) perpendicular to the axis of the gluons (blue line). That is why
there is no violation of the CP symmetry in strong interactions. Orthonormality is the reason.
Finally, CPT(A) = CTP(A) = TPC(A) = TCP(A) = PCT(A) = PTC(A) = A
107
The duality of the structure:
𝜋
2
, the separation between the space axes, acts as an angle when it is the time but it is the value
of the sinus function, 1, when it is used for the calculation of the angles of the three generations.
Likewise, the duality appears inside-outside. This is the structure as seen from above. The electric
charge is the cosine of the angle:
3π
2
( angle)⟶ 0 (cosine=electr.charge)
π ( angle)⟶ −1 (cosine= electric charge) z x
π
( angle)⟶ 0 (cosine= electr.charge) y
2 And, as will be seen on p.157 the dual length of each
square, 1, is also the value of the reduced Planck constant
0 (angle)⟶ +1 (cosine= electr.charge) z

x π y
⟵ ⟶
2
These values of
the angles The electric
mark the charges
separation
between the x,
y, z axes, to
describe the
structure
inside-out
when the
duality
commutes the
usual space
axes with
electric charge
108
2. Intrinsic parity
Given the existing convention of assigning positive intrinsic parity to quarks and electron
and negative to antiquarks and positron, to calculate the parity of a particle just multiply the signs
of all the axes where it has components, considering the yellow axes as positive and the pink axes
as negative:
Electron +. + . +
Positron −.−.−
Photon + .−
W boson + .−
3. The arrow of time
A1, CAUSE1
B, EFFECT: Effect implies the existence of one or more causes
A2, CAUSE2 Translated into particle physics, a particle has its origin in one or
more particles.
M
A Arrow of time
Past: Less HL, more GB Future: More HL, less GB
T
T
∆HL = ∇GB
E ∆HL= increase in (hadrons + leptons)
R
=
Increase of symmetry in HL ∇GB= decrease in gauge bosons
A Causality preserved: Causes precede effect. Effect

N A1, CAUSE1 implies the existence of one or more causes. But in this
T B, EFFECT case, the link between causal relation and symmetry is
I A2, CAUSE2 reversed: the event with lower HL symmetry takes place
M later.
A
T Future: More GB, less HL Arrow of time Past: Less GB, more HL
T
E ∇HL = ∆GB
R
=
Increase of symmetry in GB
Causally related ⇒ difference of symmetry
HL + GB is a conserved quantity GB symmetry + HL symmetry is a conserved quantity always

alwaysJ=0
109
“If you really wanted to, you could reinvent the entire superstructure of physics in a way that
completely eliminated the concept of ´time´ by replacing it with elaborate specifications of how
certain things happen in coincidence with certain other things” [32]
Certain things = Increase in the number of (Hadrons + Leptons)
Certain other things = Increase of symmetry in HL
Therefore, the arrow of time can be translated into a function that increases the number of
(hadrons+leptons) as HL symmetry increases.
If we consider time as a function, it is not invertible, since it is not injective,

because a particle has its origin in more than one particle.
A1, CAUSE1
B, EFFECT
A2, CAUSE2
Arrow of time
MATTER:
Causal relation: for two events to be causally related it is necessary that there be a
difference of HL symmetry between them. If they are causally related the one with higher HL
symmetry takes place later (in our matter-bound world. With antimatter, the opposite happens).
EFFECT CAUSE: Time is not an invertible function because it is not injective
110
4. Linking basic units. Velocity
Here are some basic units drawn together:
The visualization of different time units linked is difficult, since the time axis (green) goes not only
up→down and left→right but also outside→inside:
The green line represents the elapsed

Space displacement axes time in these units. v=0, there is no
space displacement
x y z x y z
Spacelike displacements (red arrow) are not allowed and antimatter is in a spacelike relation with
matter [see CPT symmetry, C (A) = B]. That is why we do not see any antimatter around. What we
consider as antimatter (the positron, the antineutrino and the antiquarks) are really CP conjugates of
matter, i.e., time-conjugates of matter, they have negative parity.
The existence of this lattice might also explain entanglement [37]. It is not spooky action at a distance.
111
The speed of light: Relativity can be fit in this geometric structure if the speed of light is
taken to be the following fixed relation between the space and the time of this basic unit.
Ax Ay Az A2x + A2y + A2z

c2 = =1
T2
T
1
v= two units of time for one unit of space displacement:
2
It can be simplified
drawing just the blue line:
θ 1
v = tan θ = 2
The same place plane and the same time plane intersect in the lines of the photons:
SAME PLACE
𝟏 𝟏
𝐯=𝟏=𝐜 𝐯= 𝐯=
𝟐 𝟑
112
The 3 + 1 dimensions of the background independent theory of relativity can be represented in this
geometric structure because any observer can put three spatial coordinate axes and a clock
anywhere in the structure.
113
5. Frame time and proper time in different inertial frames
Event 2, invariant hyperbola

Space
𝟏
𝐯 = 𝟐 Frame 4
𝟏
𝐯 = 𝟑 Frame 3
𝟏
𝐯= Frame 2
𝟒
Event 1
𝐯 = 𝟎 Frame 1
t1 = 
Time
Frame 1 v=0 s1 = 0 t1 = 6 τ=6

1
Frame 2 v= s2 = 1,5491 … t 2 = 6,1967 … τ=6
4
1
Frame 3 v= s3 = 2,1213 … t 3 = 6,3639 … τ=6
3
1
Frame 4 v= s4 = 3,4641 … t 4 = 6,9282 … τ=6
2
Event 1 (the zero hyperbola, represented by the yellow point) is taken as the zero of space and time
in the four inertial frames. Event 2, represented by another yellow invariant hyperbola, happens in
different places at different times in the four frames. Nevertheless, proper time (τ) between both
events is the same in all the inertial frames.
As we shall see, in each of these frames γ is a constant, the inverse of a sinus in the basic structure:
t E 1
γ= = =
τ m sin β
114
6. The relativity of simultaneity
𝟏
Each observer carries its own coordinate axes. For inertial observer 2, moving with 𝐯𝟐 = 𝟐 , at
spacetime location 2 and with the red dashed coordinate axes, the three events (A, B and C) are
simultaneous but happen in different places. However, for observer 1, with 𝐯𝟏 = 𝟎 at spacetime
location 1, they happen in the same place but at different moments.
Space axis for observer 2

Space
Time axis for observer 2 2
1
𝐯𝟏 = 𝟎 Frame 1
tA t B tC
Time
115
7. Energy, momentum and mass [38-41]
t E 1 p π
γ= = = v= = cos β 0 ≤ β≤
τ m sin β E 2
Energy is the projection of the string (represented by the green

E segment in the figure) on the side brane, the mass is the vertical
m
component of this projection and the momentum is the inside-outside
β
component of the projection on the side brane. The momentum is also
p the inside-outside component of the projection on the upper brane.
The proposal of Kaluza that momentum in the fifth dimension is electric charge fits in this model [53]
E m
β
p
Energy is the projection of the space time 4-vector on the side brane. This graphic
representation of energy exactly portrays conservation of energy in all the interactions.
Mass is the vertical component of the projection of the space time 4-vector on the
side brane.
Momentum is the horizontal component of the projection of the space time 4-vector
either on the side brane or on the upper brane. They are the same.
116
But the value of this angle β is no other than twice the value of the Weinberg angle. The
Weinberg angle is not a constant, its value changes with the energy level and it determines the
different components of the stress energy tensor as will be seen later on.
117
The calculation of the mass
For the Higgs boson, the graviton, the photon, the gluons and the neutrinos, the following
factors have to be included in the calculation of the mass. They depend on whether the component
spins clockwise or counterclockwise and on whether the components are above or below the
equator.
cw or ccw Factor The calculations are easier if the vertical projection on the side brane
2 2
of a component with electric charge 3
is 3
and the vertical
ccw +1 projection of a component with charge
1
is taken to be
1
3 3
cw -1
Above-below Factor
Above the equator +1
Below the equator -1
2 2 1 1
Higgs mass = ( 3) (+1) (+ 1) + ( 3 ) (+1) (+ 1) + ( 3) (-1) (- 1) + ( 3) (-1) (- 1) = 2 (p.91)
2 2 1 1
Graviton mass = ( 3) (+ 1) (+ 1) + ( 3) (- 1) (+ 1) + ( 3) (+1) (- 1) + ( 3) (-1) (- 1) = 0 (p.92)
Photon mass = 0, since the masses of its two components cancel out.
The representation of mass as the vertical projection reflects the fact that gluons have no mass.
2 2
Mass of the neutrinos = Mν= ( ) (+1) (+ 1) + ( ) (+1) (- 1) = 0 Mass of the neutrinos would be
3 3
zero, if it were not for the oscillations (p.165)
118
The mass of the W boson and the mass of the Z boson:
Relation among the masses of the Higgs boson, the W boson and the Z boson:
MH − MW 1
= 1+
MH − MZ ξ10
3
MW Since we already know the cosine of the Weinberg angle
cosθW = ξ13 = (p.101) and the quantized mass of the Higgs boson (p.118),
2 MZ
1- this system can be solved for the two unknowns, Mz and Mw
2 √ ξ13
2
The quantized mass of the Higgs boson= 2
The quantized masses of

2
Mz = = 1,455415769 …
1
ξ10 (1 − cos θw + )
ξ10
2 cos θw
Mw = = 1,283203114 …
1
ξ10 (1 − cos θw + )
ξ10
119
Mass of a system:
Mass is additive if all the momenta of the particles integrating the system have the same
direction:
p1
E1 m1
p2 Msystem = m1 + m2
Msystem
m2
E2 The mass of the system reaches a minimum when all
the momenta of its particles have the same direction
The mass of the system reaches a maximum when all the momenta of its particles cancel out:
p1
In general, Msystem = √(∑ Ei )2 − (∑|⃗⃗⃗

pi |)2
m1
E1
Msystem
E2
m2
p2
1 1
In general, Msystem = ∑ mi γi = ∑ mi sin γi
= ∑ mi
√1−v2i
120
8. The mass of the fermions
The mass of five of the six quarks seems to be linked to the natural numbers. The different
pattern in the mass of the top might be linked to the asymmetries found in the top quark pair
production [22]
The quantized mass of the bottom quark:
1 1
mb = π =
π (2+ cos )
4 14,81966086 …
(2 + cos )
4
The quantized mass of the charm quark:
1 1
mc = π =
π (3+ cos( +θw ))
4 50,27697353 …
(3 + cos ( + θw ))
4
The quantized mass of the strange quark:
1 1
ms = 2 =
(4+ cos 2arctan ) 652,5634506 …
2 3
(4 + cos 2arctan )
3
The quantized mass of the down quark:
1 1
md = (5+cos 2θ )
=
(5 + cos 2θw ) w 13688,83575 …
The quantized mass of the up quark:
1 1
mu = 2 =
(6+ cos 3 arctan ) 27381,20959 …
2 3
(6 + cos 3 arctan )
3
121
The natural numbers linked to the calculation of the mass of the quarks:
¿? t 3c 6u
PLANE A
5d 4s 2b
Number 2 is linked to the calculation of mass in the third generation.
Numbers 3 and 4 are linked to the calculation of the mass of the fermions in the second
generation, the quarks charm and strange, and the muon as well (next page)
Numbers 5 and 6 are used for the masses of the first generation: quarks down and up,
and also the electron (next page)
122
The mass of the electron
1
me = = 8,021193673. 10−6
(6 + cos α)(6+cos α)
9 π+4
Where α = arctan = 69,604237760 …, the angle
12
determined by the right component of the electron with
the vertical
1
β = arctan 3 = 18,430 …, the
angle determined by the space
axes with the vertical (p. 101)
π
2
2
3 β
α
The mass of the muon:
1
mμ = = 1,675629029. 10−3
123
9. Dark matter and dark energy
A possible representation of dark matter:
This way dark matter has a vertical ccw

projection (mass), but it neither
interacts with the photons (it has
no electric charge) nor with the
gluons (no horizontal component).
It can only interact through gravity
and the weak force
cw
A possible representation of dark energy:
Dark energy, repulsive, is the projection of the time axis on the

side brane. It is vacuum energy, responsible for the expansion of
the space. See next page
The sign of energy:

Energy as a projection from the yellow space axes has a positive sign, whereas energy as a projection
from the pink space axes has a negative sign.
124
10. The cosmological constant [42]
Negative vacuum energy

Negative curvature
Positive pressure
Hyperbolic geometry
Anti-de Sitter space
Negative A, attractive
Positive vacuum energy

Positive curvature
Negative pressure
Elliptical geometry
De Sitter space
Positive M, slightly
repulsive, observed [42]
Positive vacuum energy: empty space without any matter or energy has a small
fundamental energy in it, the turquoise projection of the yellow time axis on the side
brane.
Negative vacuum energy: green projection of the pink time axis for antimatter on the side
brane
11. The flatness problem [43]
c = 1 is a very strong constraint for this structure. Even that  = 1 (that space is flat) is imposed by the
fact that c =1:
Proof that c =1 ⇒  = 1 by contradiction:

ρvac > ρc
Closed universe
Let us suppose  > 1. That means ⇒ ρvac > |ΛM |, a shorter time axis
Anti-de Sitter space for matter, i.e., c >1
Negative curvature
ρvac < ρc
Open universe
Let us now suppose  < 1. Then ⇒ ρvac > |ΛA |, a shorter time axis
De Sitter space
for antimatter, i.e., c >1
Positive curvature
125
The value of the cosmological constant (or dark energy or vacuum energy):
ξ5
Λ = √0,52 + 12 =
2
It is known that dark energy is 69% of the energy-matter content of the

universe. The quantity for dark energy that has been found in the unit of structure of
ξ5+1
the Higgs field is 69% of the golden ratio, Φ = 2
ξ5
Λ= = 0,6909830055. Φ
2
The golden ratio then is:
Φ = 0,6909830055. Φ + 0,3090169945. Φ
It can be written
5 − ξ5 ξ5 − 1
Φ= .Φ + .Φ
4 4
The first term is the dark energy content of the structure. The second term
represents the sum of the standard model matter and the dark matter in the
structure. It is experimentally known that there is five times as much dark matter as
standard model matter:
5 − ξ5 5(ξ5 − 1) ξ5 − 1
Φ= .Φ+ Φ+ Φ
4 24 24
69, 098 % is 25,751 % is 5,1502 % = Standard

dark energy dark matter model matter
126
12. The wave function
The wave function of a red up quark in momentum space and in position space:
Wave function in momentum space. It is the inside-outside projection of the red quark
The proposal of Kaluza that momentum in the fifth dimension is electric charge fits in this model
Wave function in position space
The wave function as the probability amplitude:
The transitions 𝑢 → 𝑑, 𝑒 → 𝜈𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇 → 𝜈𝜇 have

the same amplitudes if the space wave function is
this.
127
13. Energy levels and the primes
Piling basic units: without taking into account the sign of energy, the sum of the levels of energy
of the components for each fermion and gauge boson are the natural numbers, as can be seen in
the table below:
1 1
2 2
First basic unit 3 3 First equator line = QCD
4 4 axis
5 5
6 6
7 7
8
Levels of energy
8
Increasing downwards
Second basic unit 9 9
10 10
11 11
12 12
2
u, c, t d, s, b W+, W-
Electron Neutrino Photon Gluon
quarks quarks bosons
9 1 4 6 2 5 3
15 7 10 12 4 11
21 13 16 18 8 17
27 19 22 24 10 23
33 25 28 30 14 29
39 31 34 36 16 35
45 37 40 42 20 41
The primes [44] (in red) are (except for 2 and 3) the energy levels
either of the up-type quarks or the W bosons.
Twin primes: the first twin is the level of energy of a W boson and the
second the level of energy of an up-type quark.
128
14. Lorentz transformations [23]
β is the angle between the line that represents the velocity of the observer and the tangent to the
hyperbola that represents event 2 (in yellow):
Space v4 = c, 𝛃𝟒 = 𝟎, asymptote for the hyperbola
1
𝛃𝟑 v3 = 2 Frame 3
1
v2 = 4 Frame 2
𝛃𝟐
θ3
𝛃𝟏
Event 1 θ2
v1 = 0 Frame 1
Time
π
0≤θ≤
4
The speed can never be greater than the
tan θ = cos β = v π
0≤β≤ speed of light (c = 1) because it is a cosine
2
l0
Length contraction: l = l=l0 sin arccos v
γ
β = arccos v
to
Time dilation: t = t0. γ t=
sin arc cos v
129
15. Momenergy [23]
Space v4 = c, 𝛃𝟒 = 𝟎 , asymptote

1
v3 = 2 Frame 3
𝛃𝟑 𝛃𝟑
1
v2 = 4 Frame 2
𝛃𝟐
𝛃𝟐
𝛃𝟏
Event 1
v1 = 0 Frame 1
ME
Time
The momenergy 4-vector (ME) of a particle is always timelike because it has the same direction as
the worldline of the particle. The dashed lines represent the energy for each velocity.
Light cones:
Space
Past light cone Future light cone

Time
130
16. Parametric equations
X Y Z
𝛟 𝛗
𝛑 𝛑 𝛑 𝛑
𝟎 → → 𝟎 → →
𝟒 𝟐 𝟒 𝟐
𝛑 𝛑 𝟑𝛑 𝛑
𝟎 → → → →
𝟖 𝟒 𝟖 𝟐
x = r cos ϕ
ccw
y=r sin ϕ
ϕ=angle between x and y
x=-r cos ϕ
cw
y=-r sin ϕ
y = r cos φ
ccw
z=r sin φ
φ=angle between y and z
y=-r cos φ
cw
z=-r sin φ
x=r sin θ
ccw
z = r cos θ
θ=angle between x and z
x=-r sin θ
cw
z=-r cos θ
131
For example, the point A (ccw):
X Y Z
r
π
θ=
8
π
x = r sin
8
π
z = r cos
8
132
17. Tidal forces
“The tidal accelerations experienced by the test particles in free fall near the Earth double when
the separations between the particles are doubled. The true measure of the tide-producing effect
has therefore the character of acceleration per unit of separation, it has units 1/meter 2” [23]
Earth Earth
m1 and m2 are the vertical

components of the
projections on the side
brane
m2
m1
1
The tide producing effect is proportional to
Area
133
18. The stress-energy tensor
In 4-dimensional space the symmetric stress-energy tensor has 10 independent components
Energy density
Momentum density = energy flux
T0t T0x T0y T0z
T1t T1x T1y T1z
Momentum density = energy flux

T2t T2x T2y T2z
T3t T3x T3y T3z
Momentum flux Pressure
The components of the stress energy tensor for one particle, i.e., for one basic unit, with a convened c=1:
𝛄𝐦 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐱 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐲 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐳
𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐱 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐱𝟐 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐱 𝐯𝐲 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐱 𝐯𝐳
𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐲 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐲 𝐯𝐱 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐲𝟐 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐲 𝐯𝐳
𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐳 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐳 𝐯𝐱 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐳 𝐯𝐲 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐳𝟐
134
As functions of the Weinberg angle, the values of the three space components of the
velocity and γ are:
vx = cos 2θwx , with θwx = the value of the Weinberg angle in the x axis, i.e., half the angle between the
x component of the energy and the x component of the momentum:
x axis
Ex
2𝛉𝐖𝐱
px
vy = cos 2θwy
vz = cos 2θwz
1 1
γ= =
√1−(v2x +v2y +v2z ) √1−(cos2 2θwx +cos22θwy +cos2 2θwz )
To connect the Einstein field equations (EFE) with the Higgs field a previous problem has to be
solved:
What appears in the left part of the EFE are functions of x, y, z and t, whereas what appears in the
right part of the EFE are functions of m, x, y, z and t.
To make the connection mass has to be expressed as a function of x, y, z and t. But that has
already been made, since in this proposed structure mass has a geometrical interpretation.
In the following pages are some of the forms that the right side of the EFE, the stress-energy
tensor Tμν , takes when fed with the mass, the gamma factor and the velocity for different particles.
135
The stress-energy tensor for the Higgs boson:
The mass of the Higgs boson = m = 2 (p.118)
𝐦𝟏 𝟑 𝟑
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝛉𝐖𝐱 = = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 =
𝐄𝟏 𝟐 ξ𝟏𝟑
x axis
ccw ccw
2 E1
m1 = m2
3
2𝛉𝐖𝐱
1
m3 = m4
3
cw cw
The energy of the Higgs boson is the sum of the energy of its four components:
2ξ13 2ξ13 ξ13 ξ13 2ξ13

E = E1 + E2 + E3 +E4 = 9
+ 9
+ 9
+ 9 = 3
1 ξ13 E
γ= = =
sin 2θw 3 m
136
With these values for m, γ and vx :
ξ13
γ=
3
m=2
vx = cos 2 θwx
𝛄𝐦 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐱 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐲 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐳 ξ𝟏𝟑 ξ𝟏𝟑 𝟐

𝟐. 𝟐. . 0 0
𝟑 𝟑 ξ𝟏𝟑
𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐱 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐱𝟐 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐱 𝐯𝐲 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐱 𝐯𝐳 ξ𝟏𝟑 𝟐 ξ𝟏𝟑 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐. . 𝟐. .( ) 0 0
𝟑 ξ𝟏𝟑 𝟑 ξ𝟏𝟑
Tμν = =
𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐲 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐲 𝐯𝐱 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐲𝟐 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐲 𝐯𝐳
0 0 0 0
𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐳 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐳 𝐯𝐱 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐳 𝐯𝐲 𝛄𝐦𝐯𝐳𝟐 0 0 0 0
ξ𝟏𝟑 𝟒
𝟐. 0 0
𝟑 𝟑
𝟒 𝟖
0 0
Tμν = 𝟑 𝟑. ξ𝟏𝟑
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
137
The stress-energy tensor for the electron:
1
The mass of the electron me = (6+cos α)(6+cos α)
(p.123)
9π+4
α = arctan
12
1 1 13
γ= = = √5
√1−(cos22θwx +cos2 2θwy +cos2 2θwz ) √1−(cos22θwx + cos22θwz )
𝟑 𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝛉𝐖 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚𝐧 =
𝟐 ξ𝟏𝟑
x axis z axis
2𝛉𝐖𝐱 2𝛉𝐖𝐱
cw
ccw
138
13
γ=√
5
1
me =
𝟐
v𝑥 = cos 2 θw = ξ𝟏𝟑
13 13 𝟐 13 𝟐
√ . 𝐦𝐞 √ . 𝐦𝐞 . 0 √ . 𝐦𝐞 .
5 5 √𝟏𝟑 5 ξ𝟏𝟑
13 𝟐 13 4 13 4
√ . 𝐦𝐞 . √ . 𝐦𝐞 . 0 √ . 𝐦𝐞 .
5 ξ𝟏𝟑 5 𝟏𝟑 5 𝟏𝟑
Tμν =
0 0 0 0
13 𝟐 13 4 13 4
√ . 𝐦𝐞 . √ . 𝐦𝐞 . 0 √ . 𝐦𝐞 .
5 ξ𝟏𝟑 5 𝟏𝟑 5 𝟏𝟑
13 𝟐 𝟐
√ . 𝐦𝐞 𝐦𝐞 0 𝐦𝐞
5 ξ𝟓 ξ𝟓
𝟐 𝟒. 𝐦𝐞 𝟒. 𝐦𝐞
𝐦𝐞 0
Tμν = ξ𝟓 ξ𝟓. ξ𝟏𝟑 ξ𝟓. ξ𝟏𝟑
0 0 0 0
𝟐 𝟒. 𝐦𝐞 𝟒. 𝐦𝐞
𝐦𝐞 0
ξ𝟓 ξ𝟓. ξ𝟏𝟑 ξ𝟓. ξ𝟏𝟑
139
The stress-energy tensor for a red up quark:
The mass of the up quark:
1
mu = 2
2 (6+ cos 3 arctan3)
(6 + cos 3 arctan )
3
1 ξ13
γ= =
√1 − cos2 2θwx 3
x axis
ccw
140
ξ13
γ=
3
1
mu = 2
2 (6+ cos 3 arctan3)
(6 + cos 3 arctan )
3
𝟐
v𝑥 = cos 2 θw = ξ𝟏𝟑
ξ13 ξ13 𝟐
. 𝐦𝐮 . 𝐦𝐮 . 0 0
3 3 ξ𝟏𝟑
ξ13 𝟐 ξ13 4
. 𝐦𝐮 . . 𝐦𝐮 . 0 0
3 ξ𝟏𝟑 3 𝟏𝟑
Tμν =
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
ξ13 2
. 𝐦𝐮 . 𝐦𝐮 0 0
3 3
2 4
. 𝐦𝐮 . 𝐦𝐮 0 0
Tμν = 3 3. ξ13
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
141
19. The Weyl tensor
“A cluster of ball bearings over the surface of an imaginary sphere in free fall near the Earth will
very soon become an ellipsoid. An external mass in the x-direction means an stretch in that
direction and a reduction in the y and z radios (an increase in the curvature in these two
directions)” [23]
A sphere becomes an ellipsoid. Stretch in the x dimension compensates with the shrinkages in the
y and z dimensions:
r In red, an sphere with radius = r
x y z
Mass in the x dimension
(outside) turns the sphere
into an ellipsoid. Stretch
in the x axis and shrinkage
in the y and z axes so as to
keep c constant
Outside mass ⇒ Non-contractile curvature
142
The Weyl curvature hypothesis
Penrose [45] proposed that there is a constraint at initial space-time singularities but not
at final singularities:
WEYL = 0
If in this geometric structure entropy is represented by the blue area then Weyl = 0 is
linked to the initial lowest entropy content:
“Entropy is an observer dependent concept” [55]
“Different observers can assign different values to the entropy of a system” [47]:
The tourquoise area is

S
entropy for the observer
represented by the
tourquoise arrow (unknown
information, invisible from
her point of view), not for
the other observers.
143
20. Gravity and entropy gradients
Gravity S=ENTROPY Gravity is linked to an entropy gradient

(the grey area in the image)
s=entropy
The equivalence, at a quantum level, of mass and absence of space agrees, in the proposed space time
structure, with Verlinde´s idea that gravity is an entropic force caused by changes in the information
associated with the positions of material bodies [52]
The idea that not only gravity but all the gauge fields are a gradient of entropy [56] finds its geometric
translation in this structure.
144
21. The Ricci tensor
Inside the Earth, however, spacetime curvature has a contractile character: the presence
of mass means a reduction in the corresponding space coordinate. That reduction of the radius is
translated in an increase of curvature caused by the mass. The shrinkage of the space dimension
in the basic unit implies a proportional shrinkage of the time dimension, so as to preserve c
constant. The shrinkage accounts for the time delay in a gravitational field and for the redshift of
light.
Where there is space there is no mass.

Mass is the absence of space. It implies
an increase of curvature.
145
22. Neighbouring units: Gravity in action
That the speed of light c is a constant in each unit has its origin in a fact about the differential
geometry for this structure:
The stress energy tensor is divergence free (as the Einstein tensor)
The mass in a yellow neighbouring unit is represented in green. Mass is a “space eater” in the x
axis of this upper unit. That reduction in the x axis means an increase of the curvature in that direction.
And it is translated into a space expansion in the x axis of the blue unit, an acceleration, gravity in
action. The space of the y and the z axis in the blue unit are contracted to keep c constant
x y z x y z
Mass ( in green) in the x dimension (outside of the blue unit ) turns the sphere (red on the left
hand side) into an ellipsoid (red on the right hand side). There is a stretch in the x axis and shrinkages in
the y and z axes so as to keep c constant. This is the geometric representation of the tidal forces. They
are just a consequence of the geometric structure of spacetime.
Only the x, y and z axes have been considered but time, of course, is also affected by the presence of a
mass.
146
In this theory, mass is interpreted as the absence of space, that is the way it originates curvature.
Now the mystery Misner, Thorne and Wheeler refer to in Gravitation [26] has an explanation:
“If one wishes to pursue a mystery do not follow track of the falling stone. Look instead at the
impact and ask what was the force that pushed the stone away from its natural `world line,´(i.e.,
its natural track through space-time)”
The impact when it meets the mass of the Earth has a translation in this structure: there is no
space available. Mass as the absence of space.
147
23. What happens behind the scenes
There must be a hidden mechanism within the structure of the Higgs field to explain
gravity. Therefore, we need to go a little bit further in our theory.
In the next page a sort of waterwheel attached to the structure of the Higgs field is
proposed as a vehicle for the transmission of gravity and as a form to visualize the calculation of
mass
Mass: The waterwheel accounts for the clockwise-counterclockwise factors in the calculation of
the mass, and also for the above-below the equator factors, explained on page 118.
Gravity: All the trade-off between the curvature in one unit and the acceleration in the adjacent
unit might have its cause in this hidden thing. Gravity -locally equivalent to an acceleration- has its
origin in the increase of curvature of the neighbouring unit , caused by the “presence” of a mass.
Really translated into this theory, by the space-eating device called mass.
CAVEAT: an assumption has been made, the equivalence, at a quantum level, of mass and absence of space.
The waterwheel on the next page is drawn as seen from a side perspective.
148
149
24. The 8G factor. Spherical objects
1-dimensional measurement of a 1-dimensional object:
21
π R1 = 2πR1
1
21
π R2 = πR2
2
23
π R2 = 4πR2
2
22 4
π R3 = πR3
3 3
4-dimensional measurement of a 5-dimensional object (x, y, z, time and electric charge):
25
π R4 = 8πR4 → The 8π factor in Einstein field equations,
4
without the need to resort to the Newtonian limit
The Einstein field equations are a commandment to keep c constant (it is written in the
structure) and to keep each unit as spherical as possible, given the presence of matter.
150
Area and information
Information is conserved in all the interactions and decays if it is identified with the area.
The area (2-dimensional measurement) of this 1- dimensional object = (2q)2 . π
X Y Z
Electric charge (q)

in an up quark Time
2 2 2 2 1 2
Area of the proton = (2. 3) . π + (2. 3) . π + (2. 3) . π = 4π
2 2 1 2 1 2 24
Area of the neutron = (2. 3) . π + (2. 3) . π + (2. 3) . π = 9
π
2 2 1 2 20
Area of the electron = (2. 3) . π + (2. 3) . π = 9
π
2 2 2 2 32
Area of the neutrino = (2. 3) . π + (2. 3) . π = π
9
32
Area of the antineutrino = - π
9
Areas in beta decay:
24 20 32
Area of the neutron = 9
π = 4π + 9
π − 9
π
151
There are three more conserved quantities in all the interactions and decays. The first one
corresponds to Coulomb law:
q2i q2f
∑ = ∑
R2i R2f
An example:
μ− → e− + μ + e
̅̅̅
1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
− 3 2− 3 2 → − 3 2− 3 2+ 3 − 3 + 3 − 3
2 4 2 4 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
The second one corresponds to Newton´s law of gravitation:

m2i m2f
∑ = ∑
R2i R2f
Ξ− → Λ0 + π−
s s d u s d d u̅
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
− 3 2− 3 2− 3 2 → − 3 − 3 − 3
2 2 −
3 − 3
2 2 2 4 2 2
2 2 2 4 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
152
The third quantity that is conserved in all the decays:
∑ mi qi ci
Ξ− Λ0 + π−
s s d u s d d
cw ccw cw ccw ccw cw cw cw
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
m . −1. −1 . +1. −1 . −1. −1 . +1. +1 . +1. −1 . −1. −1 . −1. −1 . −1. +1
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
q − − − − − − −
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
π π π π π π π π
c − − −
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3π 2π 5π
∑ mi qi ci − −
18 18 18
153
25. Spherical object collapsing to form a black hole [46]
Mass of the
black hole
radius
r=0
Radius of the
black hole
radius
GM
The Schwarzschild radius rs = 2
c2
For a black hole with the mass of Planck, 2mP = lp = rs
So G=1 The gravitational constant
154
How space turns into time and time turns into space inside a black hole
𝛑
𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐧 cw, toward the future
𝛑 𝟐
𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐧 𝛉
𝟐
BLACK HOLE
Inside a black hole space turns into time and time turns into space at a cost: the structure inside a
black hole is right-handed. The right-handed structure lies in the future, inside the black hole.
155
26. Geometric interpretation of the uncertainty principle and Planck´s
constant
Let us suppose that the position of a

particle is determined.
Which is the momentum in this given

instant? Nonsense! Momentum means
dt ≠ 0
Position in a certain
instant is determined
Now let us reverse the situation. The

momentum is determined.
We have no way to know the position of

the particle.
Momentum determined.
Is the particle here?

Here?
Or here?
156
h = entropy, the unknown information in one unit of the Higgs field = ∑ Si in the figure below
ℏ 𝐒𝟏 𝐒𝟐
π
2
𝐒𝟑 𝐒𝟒
ℏ= 1
h = 2π
157
ℏ 1
𝜎𝑝 𝜎𝑥 ≥ = ℏ The uncertainty principle and its geometric interpretation in the structure:
2 2
1
2
= uncertainty in the position, projection of space on the side brane
158
27. Geometry of the measurement problem and Planck´s constant
In the proposed geometric representation of the Standard Model and relativity the measurement
problem can be seen as just a simple consequence of that graphic expression.
Higher energy, higher

frequency, lower wavelength
Wavelength () and Planck´s constant (h):
The upper brane from above:
Projection of the space axis on p = momentum

the upper brane
λ = wavelength
h=pλ
The maximum momentum in the unit:

ℏ=1
p ℏ= 1
h = 2π
p
159
Space
Time
In the graphic above the act of measurement is depicted by the green line, which is equivalent
to adopt the same time and the same space location of the photon (in black)
From the same-time-and- same-space point of view –that is what a measurement implies- the
wavelength of the photon cannot be perceived, i.e., its wave aspect disappears and only its
corpuscular aspect remains. Nothing collapses, there is just an out of sight aspect caused by the
perspective, an apparent collapse.
The photon has been used as an example but it is just the same with any other particle, its
wavelength cannot be perceived with any measurement (i.e. from the point of view represented by
any line parallel to the green line)
Entropy = unknown information
Space S
That point of view also

explains why entropy is
unknown information
Time
160
28. Temperature and Boltzmann constant
High temperature
Low temperature
High temperature
From a side perspective:

The equipartition theorem:
1
E= K T
2 B
kB E 1 ξ13
= = =
2 T cos 33,69…° 3
T E
2ξ13
kB =
3
33,69…0
161
29. The infrared cut-off and the ultraviolet cut-off
From a side perspective:
CFT AdS
UIltraviolet cut-off, maximal energy
Infrared cut-off, minimal value of energy
The bulk divergence is regularized by an infrared cutoff, which renders the string
length finite, with energy proportional to 𝛿 −1 . In the dual Conformal Field Theory
(CFT), the same finite result for the self-energy is achieved by an ultraviolet cutoff at
the short distance 𝛿 [36]
162
Confinement and asymptotic freedom in QCD:
Confinement is the result of the fact that gluons are part of the horizontal segment of the
quarks. Gluons are an unavoidable part of the quarks. That is why quarks cannot be isolated. This
is a representation in the structure of the three quarks of a proton. The gluon is the horizontal
part of the quarks:
2ccw 2ccw
̅ + 2bg̅
Gluon= 2rb
2cw
Asymptotic freedom finds an explanation in this structure because it is precisely at the infrared
cut-off where the gluons are located:
Far from the gluons, in the ultraviolet domain, with

high energies and short wavelengths, there is freedom
Confinement= infrared slavery, gluons are in the long

wavelength zone. The interaction is stronger there
163
30. The second law of thermodynamics [32, 47]
The flow of energy as heat from a hot body (violet) to a cold body (red), makes the
entropy S to increase, as can be seen below. Why? Because the opposite flow of heat (from a cold
body to a hot body) would mean to go against time.
Heat = volume. The same volume

Ss for both temperatures
High temperature
Ss
Low temperature
Time
164
31. Neutrino oscillation and the PMNS matrix
What follows could be a geometric representation of the mechanism that generates the
detection of a small mass for the neutrinos during the oscillations. The transition νμ νe
will be used as an example. In this neutrino oscillation the two electrically charged components of
the νμ do not simultaneously turn into the two electrically charged components of the νe . The
left component begins the transformation first. The non-zero mass measured during the
oscillation process is the result of the time elapsed between the transformation of the two non-
zero components of the neutrino, for during the oscillation the two components do not cancel
according to the rules explained on page 118.
νμ νe
Time
These two processes are
not simultaneous
νe νμ
𝛎𝛍 Z 𝛎𝐞 Z
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝐜𝐜𝐰 − 𝐜𝐰 + 𝐜𝐜𝐰 → 𝐜𝐜𝐰 − 𝐜𝐰 + 𝐜𝐜𝐰
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
𝛎𝛍 Z 𝛎𝐞 Z
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
− 𝐜𝐜𝐰 + 𝐜𝐰 − 𝐜𝐜𝐰 → − 𝐜𝐜𝐰 + 𝐜𝐰 − 𝐜𝐜𝐰
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
165
The PMNS matrix:
at = arctangent
c = cosine
s = sine
3
c12 =
ξ13
2
This is, once again, the angle formed by the axes of the
θ12 = at 3 neutrinos with the symmetry plane A, θ12 = 33, 69…o
2
s12 =
ξ13
3
c23 = 5
Sum of the angle formed between the left components
1
θ23 = at
4 of an electron neutrino and a muon neutrino ( at 2
)
3 4
s23 = 1
5 and the angle between their right components ( at ),
2
θ23 = 53,13 …0
5
c13 = The angle between the left components of a muon
ξ26
1 neutrino and a tau neutrino, the angle between the
θ13 = at 5 1
s13 = second and the third generation, θ13 = 11,3 …0
ξ26
This is the standard parameterization of the PMNS matrix:
c12 c13 s12 c13 s13 e−iδ
VCKM = −s12 c23 −c12 s23 s13 eiδ c12 c23 −s12 s23 s13 eiδ s23 c13
s12 s23 −c12 c23 s13 eiδ −c12 s23 −s12 c23 s13 eiδ c23 c13
166
δCP = 0 , the CP violating phase is zero or very close to zero, since there is almost no
difference in time between the left process and the right process.
In this model neutrinos are Dirac particles, they are different from their antiparticles,
so the former parametrization with these values for the three angles gives the
perfectly unitary PMNS matrix:
3 5 2 5 1
. .
ξ13 ξ26 ξ13 ξ26 ξ26
2 3 3 4 1 3 3 2 4 1 4 5
− . − . . . − . . .
ξ13 5 ξ13 5 ξ26 ξ13 5 ξ13 5 ξ26 5 ξ26
2 4 3 3 1 3 4 2 3 1 3 5
. − . . − . − . . .
ξ13 5 ξ13 5 ξ26 5 ξ26
ξ13 5 ξ13 5 ξ26
Therefore, the PMNS matrix is:
0,8158924398 0,5439282932 0,1961161351
−0,4633629081 0,4122016497 0,7844645406
0,3458530642 −0,7309116307 0,5883484054
167
In the proposed structure, the following relations hold among the three angles of the
PMNS matrix:
1
tan(θ23 − θ12 − θ13 ) =
7
θ13 + θ12 = 450
tan θ12 + tan θ23 = 2
11
tan θ12 + tan θ23 + tan θ13 =
5
tan(θ12 + θ23 + θ13 ) = −7
And these are the links of the angles of the PMNS matrix with the main angle of the
4
CKM matrix, the Cabibbo angle, θc = arctan
17
22
tan(θ12 − θc ) =
59
θ23 5
tan ( + θc ) =
2 6
37
tan(θ13 + θc ) =
81
And the four angles join the golden ratio, ϕ :
5
tan (1800 − θ12 − θ23 − θ13 − θc ) = − tan (2 arctan Φ)
9
168
32. The vacuum expectation value, the coupling constants, the mass of
the top
The vacuum expectation value of the Higgs field, v:
A possible geometric interpretation in the structure:
The 12 segments that form the Higgs field are numbered in the unit of the structure:
2 6 10
1 5 9
4 8 12
3 7 11
tan 18,430 = The value of the Higgs field for each of the twelve segments. The Higgs field are the
segments that are numbered there, rotated the arctangent of one third with respect to the vertical
4 = 12 tan 18,430 = the value of the Higgs field when the potential is zero.
v=4
The sign of the energy:

Energy as a projection from the yellow space axes has a positive sign, whereas energy as a projection
from the pink space axes has a negative sign.
The net result for the potential is zero when v = 4
169
The two parameters μ and λ in the complex scalar Higgs potential [48]:
MH = 2
MH = √−2 μ2
μ2 = -2
MH = ξ2λ v
1
λ=
8
170
The potential of the Higgs field
λ 4
|V(ϕ0 )| = v = 8
4
V
ϕ
4
Geometric interpretation of the potential:

8 = 12 tan 33,690 , the potential is 8 when the Higgs field is zero, i.e., from a side perspective,
because the Higgs field are the numbered segments, rotated arctangent of one third with respect
to the vertical. That rotation is inappreciable from a side perspective, hence the zero value for the
Higgs field
2 6
10
𝛿
1 5 9
4 8 12
3 7
11
2
𝛿 = tan−1 3 From a side perspective the Higgs
field is zero
171
Some more parameters of the standard model find their values in this structure:
The gauge coupling g:
3
ξ13 g
g = the gauge coupling of SU (2) cos θw = =
1−
2 √g2+ g′2
2√ ξ13
2
2 Mw
g=
v
2 cos θw 1−
2
g′
Mw =
1
= 1,283203114 … sin θw = √ ξ13
=
2 √g2 + g′2
ξ10 (1 − cos θw + )
ξ10
cos θw
g= = 0,641601557 …
1
ξ10 (1 − cos θw + )
ξ10
The gauge coupling g’:
g’ = the gauge coupling of U(1)
sin θw
g ′ = g tan θw = = 0,3433747327 …
1
ξ10 (1 − cos θw + )
ξ10
172
The fine structure constant α:
g 2 sin2 θw
α= = 7.293625538. 10−3
4π
1
= 137, 1060243 …
α
The Fermi constant, GF :
g2
4ξ2 GF = 2
Mw
1
GF = = 0,04419417382 …
16ξ2
The vacuum permittivity, ε0 :
e2 1
ε0 = 2α h c
= 4 πα
ε0 = 10, 91055074 …
173
How the coupling constants are linked
αs - the strong coupling constant
3
ξ13 g
αs = 0,1183254012 … = 1 − cos θw = 1 − = 1−
2 √g2 + g′2
1−
√ ξ13
2
2
The relation of the coupling constants with the angle of Cabibbo
g′ 24
sin2 θc tan 2 arctan =
g 305
The mass of the top quark, mt
Since it is the only quark whose Yukawa coupling to the Higgs boson is of order unity [47]
mt
ξ2 ≈ 1
v
And in the structure the vacuum expectation value is 4,
mt ≈ 2ξ2
174
33. The interactions and the golden ratio
Gravity, up- Electric Strong interaction, Weak

down, like mass, interaction, horizontal interaction,
aligned with front-background direction, like leaned with the
gravitons direction, like colour charge, space axes, like
electric charge, aligned with gluons W bosons
aligned with
photons
ℏ=1
G=1 The values found for some of the fundamental
constants are related by the golden ratio:
2ξ13
kB = 3
1+ξ5 G ℏ ξ13
ξ5 ϕ= = +Λ = +Λ = + Λ
2 2 2 3kB
Λ=
2
175
34. The hidden transactions within the golden ratio
1
Φ= +Λ for any value of the Weinberg angle
mH
Whenever in a unit the mass of the Higgs boson increases -because the Weinberg
angle is greater- the vacuum energy (Λ) increases accordingly, in order to make the two terms
that appear above add to the golden ratio.
Likewise, the other fundamental “constants” that are connected by the golden ratio -G, ℏ and
k B , - vary with the angles in such a way that the following pairs of terms add up to ϕ:
G
ϕ= +Λ
2
ℏ
ϕ= +Λ
2
ξ13
ϕ= +Λ
3kB
176
35. Range of the interactions
Gravity and electromagnetism have no time component. That might be linked to the fact
that they have an infinite range.
The weak interaction has a time component and therefore a short range. The strong interaction
has an even bigger time component and that is possibly related to the fact that it has the
shortest range.
Out of time: Infinite range

Projection on time axis:
Short range
Those interactions whose gauge bosons do not have any projection on the time axis have infinite range.
177
Strength Range Degrees with
upper brane
Strong 1 10-5 0
Gravitation 6.10-39 ∞ 900 Both are stronger
Electromagnetism 7.10-3 ∞ 0
𝟏
Weak 10-5 10-17 900-arctan
𝟑
The strength of the interaction seems to depend on the angle with the yellow plane and on whether it
has a time component
178
36. Table with the main values obtained from the structure
QUANTITY QUANTIZED VALUE VALUE
Reduced Planck constant, ℏ 1
Gravitational constant, G 1
1
Vacuum permittivity, 𝜀0 10,91055074
4πα
Weinberg angle, θW ξ13 − 2 28,154966240

arctan
3
3
ξ13
cos θw 2 0,8816745988
√1- ξ13
2 2
2
1−
sin2 θW ξ13 0,2226499019
2
Inverse of the fine structure 4π
1 137,101060243
constant, α g sin2 θw
2
Coupling constant of SU (2), g cos θw

1 0,641601557
ξ10 (1 − cos θw + )
ξ10
Coupling constant of U(1), g’ sin θw
1
ξ10 (1 − cos θw + ) 0,3433747327
ξ10
αs, strong coupling constant 1 − cos θw 0,1183254012
CP violating phase (quark sector) 2 67, 380135050
2 arctan
3
θ12 angle, the Cabibbo angle,CKM 4 13,240519920
arctan
matrix 17
θ12 angle, PMNS matrix 2 33,690067530
arctan
3
θ23 angle, PMNS matrix 4 53,130102350
arctan
3
θ13 , PMNS matrix 1 11,309932470
arctan
5
Charge of the electron g sin θw 0,3027447797
1
Fermi constant, GF 0,04419417382
16ξ2
Vacuum expectation value, v 4
μ2 Parameter potential Higgs field -2
1
λ Parameter potential Higgs field
8
Electron anomalous magnetic α 0,001160816558
moment 2π
179
MASS
QUANTITY QUANTIZED VALUE VALUE PROPORTIONAL*
1
Electron me = 1
−1 9 π+4) 0,5017256644
mass 9 π + 4 (6+cos tan 12 124669,7238
(6 + cos tan−1 )
12
Muon 1 1
mμ = 9 π+4 104,8105958
mass 9 π+4 (4+cos tan −1
12
) 596,7908066
(4 + cos tan−1 12
)
1
mτ = 1 1
Tau mass (3+cos(tan−1 +2θw )) 1781,078599
−1 1 2
35,11636155
(3 + cos (tan
2 + 2θw ))
1
Quark up mu = 1
−1 2 ) 2,284413323
mass 2 (6+ cos 3 tan 3 27381,20959
(6 + cos 3 tan−1 )
3
Quark 1
md = 1
down (5 + cos 2θw )(5+cos 2θw ) 4,569417089
13688,83575
mass
Quark 1
ms = 1
strange −1 2) 95,85274802
2 (4+ cos 2 tan 3 652,5634506
mass (4 + cos 2 tan−1 )
3
Quark 1
mc = π 1
charm π (3+ cos( +θw ))
4
1244,108299
mass (3 + cos ( + θw )) 50,27697353
4
Quark 1
mb = π 1
bottom π (2+ cos 4 ) 4220,744361
mass (2 + cos ) 14,81966086
4
Quark top
2ξ2 2,828427125 176918,1167
mass
Higgs
boson 2 2 125100
mass
2 cos θw
W boson Mw =
1 1,283203114 80264,35478
mass ξ10 (1 − cos θw + )
ξ10
2
Z boson Mz =
1 1,455415769 91036,25635
mass ξ10 (1 − cos θw + )
ξ10
*The values given in the last column are proportional to the Higgs boson mass (125,10 ±0,14 Gev
[50], its quantum mass is 2)
180
37. The naturalness problem
As can be seen in the previous table all the free parameters of the standard model find
their values in this structure in such a way that the naturalness problem is solved. The need to
resort to fine-tuning has disappeared.
181
182
183
184
Second part: The symmetry of the primes
185
186
Second part: The symmetry of the prime numbers
1. The program of the primes
Prime numbers [44] are arranged according to symmetries [15, 16] that can be observed if
they are displayed in columns and marked with a different colour from the rest of the natural
numbers. The symmetries have been called colour palindromes because the same distribution of
colour can be read from top to bottom than from bottom to top in each unit of symmetry. A
program determines if a unit of symmetry is formed by just one colour palindrome or if it must
continue until a second bigger palindrome is formed. The program can be run beginning in any
natural number and in both directions.
All the units of symmetry, delimited by braces, have either zero, one or two primes. The
program described in the following page determines if a unit of symmetry is formed by a unique
colour palindrome, like
4
5
6
or it must continue until a second bigger colour palindrome is formed, like
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
15
In this case 16 already form a palindrome but the program, as will be seen, orders to continue
until a second bigger palindrome, delimited by a brace, is completed.
187
For the implementation of the program three columns of numbers are needed. The first
one is formed by the natural numbers repeated, the second one by the natural numbers with the
primes marked in red and the third column –also with the primes in red- is just the sum of the
two first columns.
The program has two variables:
• The colour of the number in the second column, i.e., its primality. It will be the colour of
the message in the fourth column.
• The message of the fourth column:
If in each row the colours of the numbers in the second column and the third column are
the same, the message is “go on”
If their colours are different, the message is “stop”

1 2 3 go on
1 3 4 stop
2 4 6 go on
2 5 7 go on
3 6 9 go on
3 7 10 stop
The program
The program forms the units of symmetry in the second column, the column of the
natural numbers. The program to form each unit of symmetry, delimited by a brace, is
determined by the messages of its two first rows:
If both messages are black, the program says go on, do not stop once the first palindrome has
formed, go on until a second bigger palindrome is completed.
If both messages are red, the program says stop once the first palindrome has formed.
Same message and different colour of the messages, the program says stop, i.e. the unit is
completed once the first palindrome is formed, even if both messages are “go on”.
Different message and different colour of the messages: the message given in the first row is
followed.
THE PROGRAM:
SM- same message Both black- go on
DM- different message Both red- stop
DC- different colour SM, DC- stop
DM, DC-line 1
The program can be run beginning in any row and it works just as well, generating units of
symmetry. It can also be run in reversed way from any number and it generates perfect
symmetries.
188
What follows is an example of the first symmetries generated beginning with number 3.
The program can be implemented just by looking at the fourth column of coloured messages:
1 2 3 go on
1 3 4 stop
DM, DC 1
2 4 6 go on
2 5 7 go on
3 6 9 go on
DM, DC 1
3 7 10 stop THE PROGRAM:
4 8 12 go on
4 9 13 stop
DC- different colour Both red- stop
5 10 15 go on
DM- different message SM, DC- stop
5 11 16 stop
DM, DC-line 1
6 12 18 go on
6 13 19 go on
SM, DC stop
7 14 21 go on
7 15 22 go on
8 16 24 go on
8 17 25 stop
9 18 27 go on
DM, DC 1
9 19 28 stop
10 20 30 go on
10 21 31 stop
11 22 33 go on
11 23 34 stop
12 24 36 go on
12 25 37 stop
Both black go on
13 26 39 go on
13 27 40 go on
189
14 28 42 go on
14 29 43 go on
15 30 45 go on
15 31 46 stop
16 32 48 go on
16 33 49 go on
17 34 51 go on
17 35 52 go on
18 36 54 go on
18 37 55 stop
19 38 57 go on
19 39 58 go on
20 40 60 go on
20 41 61 go on
21 42 63 go on
21 43 64 stop
22 44 66 go on
22 45 67 stop
23 46 69 go on
23 47 70 stop
24 48 72 go on
24 49 73 stop
25 50 75 go on
25 51 76 go on
26 52 78 go on
26 53 79 go on
190
The distribution of the primes among the natural numbers is such that the
program can be run without failure starting in any natural number and in both directions.
Conversely, if the distribution of the primes among the natural numbers was
different from what it is, i.e., if the primality or non-primality of any natural number was
changed, the program would fail.
The distribution of the primes is that because the program exists and the reason
for the existence of the program is the precise distribution of the prime numbers.
191
These are the units of symmetry we have just seen, generated from number 3, but
now displayed in rows:
3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27
28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37
38 39 40
41 42 43
44 45 46
47 48 49 50 51 52 53
54 55 56
57 58 59 60 61 62 63
64 65 66
67 68 69 70 71
72 73 74
75 76 77
78 79 80 81 82 83 84
85 86 87
88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
99 100 101 102 103 104 105
106 107 108 109 110
111 112 113 114 115
116 117 118
119 120 121
122 123 124
125 126 127 128 129
130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138
192
These are the first units of symmetry generated with the program of the primes beginning in
number one, displayed in rows:
1 2 3 4
5 6 7
8 9 10
11 12 13
14 15 16
17 18 19
20 21 22
23 24 25 26 27 28 29
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
39 40 41 42 43 44 45
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57
58 59 60 61 62
63 64 65
66 67 68 69 70 71 72
73 74 75 76 77 78 79
80 81 82
83 84 85 86 87 88 89
90 91 92
93 94 95
96 97 98 99 100 101 102
103 104 105 106 107
108 109 110
111 112 113 114 115
116 117 118
119 120 121
122 123 124
125 126 127 128 129
130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138
193
The first units of symmetry generated beginning with number 2:
2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11
12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37
38 39 40
41 42 43
44 45 46
47 48 49 50 51 52 53
54 55 56
57 58 59 60 61 62 63
64 65 66
67 68 69 70 71
72 73 74
75 76 77
78 79 80 81 82 83 84
85 86 87
88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
99 100 101 102 103 104 105
106 107 108 109 110
111 112 113 114 115
116 117 118
119 120 121
122 123 124
125 126 127 128 129
130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138
139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149
194
Empezando en el número 3:
3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27
28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37
38 39 40
41 42 43
44 45 46
47 48 49 50 51 52 53
54 55 56
57 58 59 60 61 62 63
64 65 66
67 68 69 70 71
72 73 74
75 76 77
78 79 80 81 82 83 84
85 86 87
88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
99 100 101 102 103 104 105
106 107 108 109 110
111 112 113 114 115
116 117 118
195
The first units of symmetry beginning in number 9:
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25
26 27 28
29 30 31
32 33 34
35 36 37 38 39
40 41 42
43 44 45 46 47
48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55
56 57 58
59 60 61
62 63 64
65 66 67 68 69
70 71 72 73 74
75 76 77
78 79 80 81 82 83 84
85 86 87
88 89 90
91 92 93
94 95 96
97 98 99 100 101
102 103 104 105 106 107 108
109 110 111 112 113
114 115 116
117 118 119
120 121 122
196
Beginning in number 10:
10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37
38 39 40
41 42 43
44 45 46
47 48 49 50 51 52 53
54 55 56
57 58 59 60 61 62 63
64 65 66
67 68 69 70 71
72 73 74
75 76 77
78 79 80 81 82 83 84
85 86 87
88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
99 100 101 102 103 104 105
106 107 108 109 110
111 112 113 114 115
116 117 118
119 120 121
122 123 124
125 126 127 128 129
130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138
The perfectly symmetric distribution of the primes is generated beginning in any natural
number.
197
2. The twin primes
All the odd composite numbers (pink background) can be linked with the implementation
of the same program in a chained way, i.e., with the condition that the last row of a unit of
symmetry is also the first row of the following unit, the row of the odd composite number. Each
unit of symmetry, as before, has either zero, one or two primes, with a colour palindrome
distribution. Beginning in the row of 9, the first odd composite number:
4 9 13 stop
5 10 15 go on THE PROGRAM:
5 11 16 stop SM- same message Both black- go on
6 12 18 go on DC- different colour Both red- stop
6 13 19 go on DM- different message SM, DC- stop

7 14 21 go on DM, DC-line 1
7 15 22 go on
8 16 24 go on
8 17 25 stop The twin primes:
9 18 27 go on Whenever there are two primes in a

unit of symmetry they are twin primes
9 19 28 stop
Beside that, all the twin primes can be
10 20 30 go on
found in the third column, represented
10 21 31 stop by the greater member of each pair. All
the greater twin primes are there, and
11 22 33 go on
none of the smaller twin primes of each
11 23 34 stop pair.
12 24 36 go on
12 25 37 stop
13 26 39 go on
13 27 40 go on
198
All the primes are linked by the program in that same chained way:
0 0 0 go on
0 1 1 go on
THE PROGRAM:
1 2 3 go on
1 3 4 stop
2 4 6 go on
2 5 7 go on
DM, DC-line 1
3 6 9 go on
3 7 10 stop
4 8 12 go on
4 9 13 stop
5 10 15 go on
5 11 16 stop
6 12 18 go on
6 13 19 go on
7 14 21 go on
7 15 22 go on
8 16 24 go on
8 17 25 stop
9 18 27 go on
9 19 28 stop
10 20 30 go on
10 21 31 stop
11 22 33 go on
11 23 34 stop
199
3. Chained symmetries for the even numbers
If we mark the even numbers with blue, symmetric patterns are generated in the chained
way starting from four, the first non-prime even number. It must be remarked that the program is
still the program of the primes. Two slightly different programs will be seen in the next pages.
0 1 1 go on
THE PROGRAM:
1 2 3 go on
1 3 4 stop
2 4 6 go on
2 5 7 go on
DM, DC-line 1
3 6 9 go on
3 7 10 stop
4 8 12 go on
4 9 13 stop
5 10 15 go on
5 11 16 stop
6 12 18 go on
6 13 19 go on
7 14 21 go on
7 15 22 go on
8 16 24 go on
8 17 25 stop
9 18 27 go on
9 19 28 stop
10 20 30 go on
10 21 31 stop
11 22 33 go on
200
4. Program of the odd composite numbers
If we mark the odd composite numbers in the second and the third columns with a
different colour (pink) a program generating symmetries can be found, with either zero, one or
two odd composite numbers in each unit. The program happens to respect also the symmetric
distribution of the primes in each unit.
Both messages are black- go on
Same message and different colour- stop
Different message and different colour- stop
0 1 1 go on
1 2 3 go on A DIFFERENT PROGRAM FOR THE ODD

1 3 4 go on COMPOSITE NUMBERS
2 4 6 go on
2 5 7 go on DC- different colour Both pink- impossible
3 6 9 stop DM- different message SM, DC- stop
3 7 10 go on DM, DC-stop
4 8 12 go on
4 9 13 stop
5 10 15 stop
5 11 16 stop
6 12 18 go on
6 13 19 go on
7 14 21 stop
7 15 22 stop
8 16 24 go on
8 17 25 stop
9 18 27 stop
9 19 28 go on
10 20 30 go on
10 21 31 stop
201
Finally, the program for the even numbers is the same as for the primes and it generates
repetitive patterns:
If there are different messages with different colours, the message of the first line is
followed.
The same message in both lines, with different colour- stop
0 1 1 go on
DM, DC- the first line
1 2 3 stop
1 3 4 stop SM, DC- stop
2 4 6 go on
2 5 7 go on
3 6 9 stop
3 7 10 stop
4 8 12 go on
4 9 13 go on
5 10 15 stop
5 11 16 stop
6 12 18 go on
6 13 19 go on
7 14 21 stop
7 15 22 stop
8 16 24 go on
8 17 25 go on
9 18 27 stop
9 19 28 stop
10 20 30 go on
10 21 31 go on
11 22 33 stop
11 23 34 stop
12 24 36 go on
202
Third part: The prime numbers in the structure
203
204
Third part: The prime numbers in the structure
This last part of the book aims at bringing together the physics (the particles) and the
mathematics (the primes) that have been presented in the two previous parts of the book. To
establish a connection between those two parts, i.e., to see how the prime numbers appear in
the geometric structure presented as the Higgs field (and as the quantum of spacetime) we have
to look at the energy levels of the different particles.
In the next pages the following links between them will be seen, in this order:
1. We will see how the natural numbers are the energy of the particles. Each natural
number corresponds to the level of energy of a particle in the structure. The primes are
classified in two groups: either up-type quark primes (yellow) or W boson primes (beige)
2. The second step is to make a central object of general relativity -the Riemann curvature
tensor, with its 256 components in 4D spacetime- reveal how the primes have a close
relation with it.
3. Every natural number has two equidistant prime numbers. A brief digression to prove the
Goldbach´s conjecture is needed. The natural numbers with their equidistant primes display a
perfect pattern in the distribution of color (with the up-type quark primes marked in yellow
and the W boson primes in beige) Finally, we just have to label the energy levels (i.e., the
natural numbers) with their names as particles: Number 7 is an up-type quark, number 9 an
electron, number 18 a neutrino… It works like a function: To every natural number
corresponds one particle, and only one particle.
205
1. The natural numbers and the energy levels. The primes
This has already been seen in the first part: Piling basic units: without taking into
account the sign of energy, the sum of the levels of energy of the components for each fermion
and gauge boson are the natural numbers, as can be seen in the table below:
1 1
First basic unit 2 2
3 First equator line = QCD
3
4 axis
4
5 5
6
Levels of energy
6
Increasing downwards
7 7
Second basic unit 8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
12 12
u, c, t d, s, b W+, W-
Electron Neutrino Photon Gluon
quarks quarks bosons
9 1 4 6 2 5 3
15 7 10 12 8 11
21 13 16 18 14 17
27 19 22 24 20 23
33 25 28 30 26 29
39 31 34 36 32 35
45 37 40 42 38 41
51 43 46 48 44 47
57 49 52 54 50 53
The primes [44] (in red) are (except for 2 and 3) the energy levels
either of the up-type quarks or the W bosons.
Twin primes: the first twin is the level of energy of a W boson (in
beige) and the second the level of energy of an up-type quark (in
yellow) 206
The energy levels of the elementary particles are the natural numbers. The prime numbers
appear as the energy levels of either
• An up-type quark: yellow
or
• An W boson: beige
207
Now we have to switch to something that seems completely unrelated to the energy
levels, a long-standing problem in number theory, the Goldbach´s conjecture.
2. The Goldbach´s conjecture and particle physics
The Goldbach conjecture states that every integer greater than 2 can be written as the sum of
two primes.
That what it says is true follows from three steps:
1. Every even number can be divided by two. Let us call the result m.
2. There are always two distinct prime numbers that are equidistant to any natural
number greater than 3. Therefore, there are always two equidistant primes to the
result of the previous division: 𝑝1 y 𝑝2 are the two equidistant primes to m:
p1 + p2
m=
2
3. The addition of those two equidistant primes is the even number:
2m = p1 + p2
To see that there are always at least two distinct equidistant primes to any natural
number, a classification of the natural numbers is needed:
Beige and Yellow
The natural numbers can be classified in three groups:
The smaller prime number in each twin pair: 11, 17, 29, 41…
Beige The natural numbers that are half of the sum of two equidistant beige primes: 14, 20, 23,
26, … Once a natural number is half of the sum of two beige primes, it remains beige
onward. See the tables on the next page.
The greater prime number in each twin pair: 13, 19, 31, 43…
Yellow The natural numbers that are half of the sum of two equidistant yellow twin
primes: 10, 16, 22… Once a prime number is half of the sum of two yellow
primes, it remains yellow onward.
Beige and Yellow

Those natural numbers with equidistant primes of different colours.
or
Yellow and Beige
208
The natural numbers are in the row of the middle and in the first and the third row are their
equidistant primes:
Greater equidistant prime numbers 7 11 5 7 7 11 11 11
Row of the natural numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Smaller equidistant prime numbers (or minus prime) -3 -5 3 3 5 3 5 7
13 17 13 19 17 17 19 23 19 31 23 23 31 29 29 31 29 31 37 41 31 43 41
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
z
7 5 11 7 11 13 13 11 17 7 17 19 13 17 19 19 23 23 19 17 30
29 19 23
37 37 41 41 43 47 41 43 53 43 67 47 47 61 53 53 61 53 59 61 59 61 67
33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55
29 31 29 31 31 29 37 37 29 41 19 41 43 31 41 43 37 47 43 43 47 47 43
53 61 43 47 59 43 53 67 61 59 61 61 53 79 67 59 71 67 59 71 73 71 83
56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78
59 53 73 71 61 79 71 59 67 71 71 73 83 59 73 83 73 79 89 79 79 83 73
209
Every three columns, beige.
Every three columns, yellow.
Every three columns, bicolour, in the following way:
To see if the order of the two colours is kept between two bicolour natural numbers whose distance
is three, two natural numbers have to be added: the smaller equidistant prime of the smaller natural
number and the greater prime number of the greater natural number. Then the result is divided by
two. If that number is of a single colour in the row of the natural numbers, the order of the two
colours is switched. Else -if the result is bicoloured -the order of the colours in the natural number
that is three places beyond, is kept.
An example:
12 y 15 are bicolour. The smaller equidistant prime of 12 (number 11) is added to the greater prime
of 15 (number 17). The result, 28, is divided by 2. Since 14 is single coloured, the order of the colours
is changed from 12 to 15, lower beige becomes upper beige.
Another one:
21 and 24 are bicolour, it happens every three natural numbers. The smaller prime of 21 (number 19)
is added to the greater prime of 24 (number 29). The result, 48, is divided by 2. Now, 24 is bicolour.
That is why the order of the two colours is not switched from 21 to 24.
The in between numbers: The sum of each prime number of the second row (the row of the natural
numbers) with one of its equidistant primes, divided by two, is a revealing number (in blue); it tells us that
when it becomes or has become a natural number, the equidistant prime here will be or has been one of its
equidistant primes there. That is how the problem of finding the equidistant primes to single colour natural
numbers is solved. A few examples in blue:
13 17 13 19 17 17 19 23 19 31 23 23 31 29 29 31 29 31 37 41 31 43 41
14 25
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
8 z
7 5 11 7 11 13 13 11 17 7 17 19 13 17 19 19 23 23 19 17 29 19 23
And if the equidistant primes to the single colour natural number are known, the equidistant prime
numbers to the bicolour natural numbers are known.
The bicolour natural number is the result of dividing by 2 the sum minus 1:
17
17 + 14 − 1
= 15
14 2
Bicolour natural number, one of its equidistant primes is 17
11
210
We have already seen the perfect distribution of the equidistant primes to the natural numbers.
The truth of the statement of the Goldbach´s conjecture follows from it.
In the next page the table that appeared in the Goldbach´s structure, the table of the first 50
natural numbers (it is that number just because that is the available space for the column) with
the colours assigned by their two equidistant primes is displayed vertically and paired with the
different particles that have already been associated with the natural numbers when looking at
their energy levels. Natural numbers and particles are thus identified:
Up and down type quarks: yellow
Photons and W bosons (gauge bosons): beige
And bicolour goes to….
211
N Particle Axes
1
Yellow corresponds to the fermions that have only one
2
non-zero component, the up-type and the down-type
3
4 quarks.
5 W x, x
Beige: Photons and W bosons, the gauge bosons. They
6 ν x, z
have two non-zero components in the same pair of
7 u x
8 γ x, x axes (color-anticolor, I mean)
9 e− x, z
Bicoloured particles: Neutrinos and electrons, those
10 d x
11 W x, x fermions with two non-zero components in different
12 ν x, z axes, written in blue in the central column.
13 up x
.
14 γ x, x
15 e− x, z
16 d x
17 W x, x
18 ν x, z
19 up x
20 γ x, x
21 e− x, z
22 d x
23 W x, x
24 ν x, z
25 u x
26 γ x, x
27 e− x, z
28 d x
29 W x, x
30 ν x, z
31 u x
32 γ x, x
33 e− x, z
34 d x
35 W x, x
36 ν x, z
37 u x
38 γ x, x
39 e− x, z
40 d x
39
41 W x, x
42 ν x, z
43 u x
44 γ x, x
45 e− x, z
46 d x
47 W x, x
48 ν x, z
49 u x
50 γ x, x 212
3. The primes and the Riemann curvature tensor
There is something that came as a surprise when I tried to find closer links between the
mathematics and the physics in the proposed structure:
The Riemann curvature tensor with its 256 components in 4-dimensional spacetime is of
fundamental importance in general relativity. Therefore, it must appear in the structure, it must
determine what happens in the structure, its 256 components had to be somehow related to
what has been seen up till now. I looked at the 256 first natural numbers and found that
In the 44 = 256 first natural numbers there are 2. 33 = 54 primes, 27 yellow + 27 beige
In the 43 = 64 first natural numbers there are 2. 32 =18 primes, 9 yellow + 9 beige
In the 42= 16 first natural numbers there are 2. 31 = 6 primes, 4 yellow+ 2 beige
In the 41 = 4 first natural numbers there are 2. 30 = 2 primes
Up till 64 there are 9 yellow and 9 beige primes.
Up till 156 there are 18 yellow and 18 beige primes.
Up till 256 there are 27 and 27 beige primes:
2 3 7 13 19 31 37 43 61 5 11 17 23 29 41 47 53 59
67 73 79 97 103 109 127 139 151 71 83 89 101 107 113 131 137 149
157 163 181 193 199 211 223 229 241 167 173 179 191 197 227 233 239 251
213
Here they are, the primes up to 256, in red, with their equidistant primes (or minus primes),
distributed in six blocks:
7 11 11 19 19 43 43 67 79 7 17 23 29 41 53 53 59 71
2 3 7 13 19 31 37 43 61 5 11 17 23 29 41 47 53 59
-3 -5 3 7 7 19 31 19 43 3 5 11 17 17 29 41 47 47
73 79 97 127 109 139 151 151 167 83 107 107 113 113 137 149 167 167
67 73 79 97 103 109 127 139 151 71 83 89 101 107 113 131 137 149
61 67 61 67 97 79 103 127 139 59 59 71 89 101 89 113 107 131
163 199 199 223 241 223 283 277 271 197 179 191 233 227 257 239 251 269
157 163 181 193 199 211 223 229 241 167 173 179 191 197 227 233 239 251
151 127 163 163 157 199 163 181 211 137 167 167 149 167 197 227 227 233
214
Fourth part: The process of thought
215
216
Fourth part: The process of thought
1. Thought as the CP conjugate of reality
David Bohm says in [57] that “a new kind of theory is needed that drops, among other things,
the cartesian rectilinear grid, unsuitable for the unbroken wholeness of the universe implied by
both relativity and quantum theory. “The Cartesian order is suitable for analysis of the world
into separately existent parts. Bohm rejects the prevailing fragmentation and the idea that it is
necessary a global vision of the universe pervades the book. He even applies the idea to mind
and reality:
“When I look back, I see that even as a child I was fascinated by the puzzle, indeed the mystery,
of what is the nature of movement…”
“…As careful attention shows, thought itself is in an actual process of movement. That is to say,
one can feel a sense of flow in the `stream of consciousness´ not dissimilar to the sense of flow in
the movement of matter in general. May not thought itself thus be a part of reality as a whole?
But then, what could it mean for one part of reality to `know´ another, and to what extent would
this be possible?”
To embed this idea of Bohm in the proposed structure it is important to realize something that
cannot be a coincidence:
In our mind we know the past, we have recorded memories. The future is unknown to us. Only
travel to the past is allowed. Any projection of our thoughts towards the future remains in the
realm of speculation, imagination, unknown territory. It is as if the arrow of time was reversed in
our minds.
However, in our lives, in the world, what happens is just the opposite. Only travel to the future is
allowed. The arrow of time points in the “right” direction, towards the future.
That should immediately remind us of how time reversal is very naturally incorporated in
particle physics: in a Feynman diagram an electron pointing towards the future is just as a
positron pointing to the past. Antiparticles, in the Feyman-Stuckelberg interpretation, are
mathematically equivalent to the corresponding particle traveling backwards in time.
Could it be that in this sense thought is the CP conjugate of reality? Could it be that a CP
conjugation operation is what is meant when we say that a part of reality knows another part of
reality?
This way, mind and reality would be united in a single structure.
217
p. 14: …in this flow, mind and
matter are not separate
p. 7: …experience and
substances. Rather they are
knowledge are one process,
different aspects of one whole
rather than to think that our
and unbroken movement
knowledge is about some sort of
separate experience
p. 61: Not only everything is changing, but all is flux. That is to say, what is is the
process of becoming itself, while all objects, events, entities, conditions,
structures, etc, are forms that can be abstracted from this process.
p. 62: Process = flowing stream, whose substance is never the same. On this
stream, one may see an ever-changing pattern of vortices, ripples, waves,
splashes, etc, which evidently have no independent existence as such. Rather,
they are abstracted from the flowing movement, arising and vanishing in the
total process of flow.
Knowledge, too, is a process, an abstraction from the one total flux, which latter
is therefore the ground both of reality and of knowledge of this reality.
218
But there is something that might be objected to this proposal: our minds are tuned to the
yellow axes, our brains are basically made up of up and down quarks and electrons, all in the
yellow realm. No pink there.
But we have to realize that there is a very generous source of pink: the gauge bosons, easily
accessible, plentiful.
How are the gauge bosons to provide knowledge? Let us analyse the four type of gauge bosons
and the type of information they convey:
• The photon. The information it gives is the position.
• The graviton tells us the momentum and the mass.
219
• The W and Z bosons allow us to know the energy.
• The gluons indicate the passage of time.
Time
220
The four types of gauge bosons correspond to the four fundamental types of interactions, they
put in contact the yellow and the pink axes, thus allowing knowledge of reality.
All form of knowledge might be a combination of those simple elements: position, momentum,
energy and time. All the complexity can arise from basic elements, as Wolfram explained in [51]
The process of knowledge
The knowledge we have, which is what we have learnt from the past, what we remember, what
is recorded in our minds, allows us to project our lives towards the future, to navigate into the
unknown.
The past in our minds projects into the future of life, there is a correspondence between them.
Our mind: towards the past is The world always moves forward
what we have learnt, our in time. No way to travel
knowledge backwards in time.
Time
221
222
References
[1] L. Penrose and R. Penrose, «Impossible objects: A special type of visual illusion», British
Journal of Psychology, vol. 49, nº 1, pp. 31-33 (1958)
[2] M. Escher, Waterfall. Lithograph. 1961.
[3] A. Einstein, Concerning the Aether, 1924, http://www.oe.eclipse.co.uk/nom/aether.htm
[4] A. Einstein, Ether and the Theory of Relativity, an address delivered on 5 May 1920 in the
University of Leyden, http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ether_and_the_Theory_of_Relativity
[5] G. Pólya, How to solve it, London: Penguin books, 1990.
[6] D. Griffiths, Introduction to Elementary Particles, Portland: Wiley-Vch, 2008.
[7] B.A. Schumm, Deep Down Things. The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics, Baltimore: The
John Hopkins University Press, 2004.
[8] T. M. Apostol, Calculus I, Barcelona: Editorial Reverté, 1984.
[9] J. Stewart, Cálculo diferencial e integral, México: International Thomson Editores, 1998.
[10] J. Stewart, Cálculo de una variable. Trascendentes tempranas, México: Thomson, 2007.
[11] J. Stewart, Cálculo multivariable, México: Thomson, 2002.
[12] F. Close, Antimatter, New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.
[13] R. Penrose, The Road to Reality. A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe, London:
Vintage books, 2005, p.628.
[14] S. Carroll, The Particle at the End of the Universe. The Hunt for the Higgs and the Discovery
of a New World, Croydon: Oneworld Publications, 2012.
[15] M. du Sautoy, Finding Moonshine. A Mathematician´s Journey through Symmetry, London:

Fourth Estate, 2008.
[16] A. Zee, Fearful Symmetry. The Search for Beauty in Modern Physics, Princeton and Oxford:
Princeton University Press, 1986.
[17] J. Beringer et al. (Particle Data Group), Phys. Rev. D86, 01001 (2012)
[18] K. A. Olive et al. (Particle Data Group), Chin. Phys. C, 38, 090001 (2014)
[19] C. Patrignani et al. (Particle Data Group), Chin. Phys. C, 40, 100001 (2016) and 2017 update.
[20] Descotes-Genon, J. Matias and J. Virto, Understanding the 𝐵 → 𝐾 ∗ 𝜇+ 𝜇 − Anomaly, Phys.

Rev. D 88 (7), 074002 (2013) [arXiv. 1307.5683 [hep-ph]]
223
[21] The LHCb collaboration, Aaij, R., Abellán Beteta, C. et al. J. High Energ. Phys. (2016)
2016: 104. https://doi.org/10.1007/JHEP02 (2016)104
[22] J.A. Aguilar-Saavedra, A. Amidei, A. Juste, and M. Pérez-Victoria, “Asymmetries in top quark
pair production at hadron colliders” Rev. Mod. Phys. 87, 421 (2015)
[23]E.F. Taylor and J.A. Wheeler, Spacetime Physics, Princeton and Oxford: W.H. Freeman and
Company, 1992.
[24] R. Penrose, Singularities and Time-Asymmetry, in S.W. Hawking and W. Israel, ed., General
Relativity: An Einstein Centenary Survey, Cambridge University Press, 1979.
[25] E.F. Taylor and J.A. Wheeler, Black Holes. Introduction to General Relativity, San Francisco:
Addison Wesley Longman, 2000.
[26] C.W. Misner, K.S. Thorne and J.A. Wheeler, Gravitation, W.H. Freeman and Company, 1973.
[27] L. Randall, Warped Passages, HarperCollins e-books, 2009.
[28] K.S. Thorne, Black Holes & Time Warps, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1994.
[29] R. Bousso and J. Polchinski, The String Theory Landscape, Scientific American, September
2004.
[30] R. Penrose, Cycles of Time, London: The Bodley Head, 2010.
[31] L. Smolin, Time Reborn, London: Allen Lane, Penguin Group, 2013.
[32] S. Carroll, From Eternity to Here, London: Oneworld Publications, 2011.
[33] L. Smolin, The Trouble with Physics, London: Penguin Books, 2006.
[34] L. Smolin, Three Roads to Quantum Gravity, New York: Basic Books, 2001.
[35] L. Susskind, The Black Hole War, New York: Back Bay Books, 2008.
[36] J. Maldacena, The Illusion of Gravity, American Scientist, November 2006.
[37] A. D. Aczel, Entrelazamiento, Barcelona: Drakontos, 2002.
[38] G. ´t Hooft, Dimensional Reduction in Quantum Gravity, arXiv: 9310026[gr-qc]
[39] L. Susskind, The World as a Hologram, arXiv: 9409089v2[hep-th]
[40] R. Bousso, The Holographic Principle, arXiv: 0203101v2[hep-th]
[41] B. Greene, El universo elegante, Barcelona: Crítica, 2003.
[42] R. Bousso, The Cosmological Constant Problem, Dark Energy and the Landscape of String
Theory, arXiv: 1203.0307v2 [astro-ph.CO]
[43] R. Bousso, Precision Cosmology and the Landscape, arXiv: 0610211 [hep-th]
224
[44] M. du Sautoy, The Music of the Primes. Why an Unsolved Problem in Mathematics Matters,
London: Harper Perennial, 2004.
[45] R. Penrose, The Emperor´s New Mind, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1989.
[46] R. Bousso, A Covariant Entropy Conjecture, arXiv: 9905177v3 [hep-th], p.15.
[47] S. Lloyd, Programming the Universe. A Quantum Computer Scientist Takes on the Cosmos,
London: Vintage Books, 2007.
[48] M. Carena, C. Grojean, M. Kado, and V. Sharma, Status of Higgs boson physics, in Review of
Particle Physics, Chin. Phys. C38 (2014) 090001
[49] M. Kobayashi, C. Maskawa, CP-Violation in the Renormalizable Theory of the Weak

Interaction, Progress of Theoretical Physics, 49, 652, 1973.
[50] M. Tanabashi et al. (Particle Data Group), Phys. Rev. D 98, 030001 (2018) and 2019 update.
[51] S. Wolfram, A New of Science, Wolfram Media, 2002.
[52] E. Verlinde, On the Origin of Gravity and the Laws of Newton, arXiv: 1001.0785v1 [hep-th]
[53] L. Susskind, The Cosmic Landscape, New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2006
[54] S. Hawking, “Particle creation by black holes”, Communications in Mathematical Physics. 43

(3): 199-220
[55] T. Padmanabhan, Thermodynamical Aspects of Gravity: New insights, arXiv: 0911.5004v2

[gr-qc]
[56] P.G.O. Freund, Emergent Gauge Fields, arXiv: 1008.4147v1 [hep-th]
[57] D. Bohm, Wholeness and the implicate order, New York: Routledge & Kegan, 1980.
225
226
227
228
229
230

Gracia Arredondo - Symmetry-Gracia Arredondo (2019)

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Gracia Arredondo - Symmetry-Gracia Arredondo (2019)

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Symmetry

The Higgs field

Copyright @ Gracia Arredondo Fernández, agosto 2019

Intellectual property registration:

In the following decades, whenever I found a lattice -a honeycomb, the structure of

Geometry beyond the standard model and relativity:

I. The geometry of the elementary particles

q cw = number of quarks that spin cw 1

q̅ ccw = number of antiquarks that spin ccw

• A red up quark spinning ccw:

It can be shortened to:

It is represented that it is spinning ccw also by an arrow in the horizontal line.

And its matrix:

Its matrix representation:

A green charm quark ccw:

Its matrix representation:

Yellow → First generation

Blue → Second generation

Green→ Third generation

• An electron can be represented as having the three following components [13]:

It is drawn as a chargeless fermion, with a positive component that has an electric

In yellow, the basic unit structure of

Left-handed part of an electron

For the pion, according to equations (1.1) and (1.2):

• An electron antineutrino (right handed):

Its third component, T3, is conserved in all the interactions.

Left handed fermions

• Right handed structure:

Left handed antifermions T3 = 0

6. Symmetry [15, 16]

Decrease in gauge bosons = increase in (hadrons + leptons) = increase in symmetry

Symmetry between an up quark and an up antiquark:

𝜆4= = 2brҧ + 2bg̅

𝜆6= ̅ + brҧ + 2bg̅

• Bosons have zero or an even

In each of the three pairs of axes (red-antired, blue –antiblue

2ccw 1ccw 1ccw 4ccw

Increase in symmetry HL = Increase in hadrons = Decrease in gauge bosons= 2

Z u ν̅e The geometric representation in this model ensures

Conservation of angular momentum can be seen in the arrows:

𝚺+ 𝐧𝟎 𝛑+ In the pion the arrow pointing to the left

2cw 1cw 1ccw 2ccw

sbg̅ dbr̅ sbr̅ dbg̅

I=1 I=0 I=1

1ccw 1ccw 1cw

I=1 I=0 I=1

I=1 I=0 I=1

1cw 1cw 1ccw

1cw 2ccw 3cw

ubg̅ crb̅ urb̅ cbg̅

dbg̅ srb̅ sbg̅ drb̅

1ccw 1ccw 1ccw

1cw 1cw 1cw

I=1 I=1 I=1

I=1 I=0 I=1

I=1 I=0 I=1 I=1

I=1 I=0 I=1

1cw 1cw 1cw’

I=1 I=0 I=1

1ccw 1ccw 1ccw’

I=1 I=0 I=1

I=1 I=0 I=1

I=1 I=0 I=1

1cw 1cw 1ccw’’