UNIT : 6

VEHICLE TO HOME, VEHICLE TO VEHICLE AND VEHICLE TO GRID

ENERGY SYSTEMS
[1] VEHICLE TO HOME [V2H]
Will Swan, professor of building energy performance at the University of Salford, said: "At
any given time, 95 percent of cars are parked and their batteries free, which means stored power
can potentially flow from car to house. V2H may be considered a preliminary step to V2G,
because only the house receives the power and the Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE)
remains isolated from the electrical grid in conformance to IEEE 1547 requirements for
distributed generation (DG) interconnection.
ln buildings, the design and development of home energy management system (HEMS)
have drawn lots of attentions in both academia and industry in recent years. Many simulation
results show that the V2H technology can help to reduce the home energy costs and improved
the demand side energy efficiency.
Demand response, a scheme under which power companies pay aggregators to institute
energy conservation measures, has been an important topic in Japan since the March 2011
earthquake the supply and demand of electricity during peak use hours in Japan has drawn
attention. By using the storage capacity of EVs and Vehicle to Home (V2H) systems, consumers
can reduce their use of power at peak times without turning off lights and appliances. This is
particularly useful in commercial establishments where it is difficult to turn power off to save
electricity.
Nissan has been field testing their new vehicle-to-home (V2H) energy storage system in
Japan as shown in Fig. This is in response to the recent earthquake disaster, which left many
without power. The average daily household consumption in Japan is about 10-12 kWh. So the
Nissan Leaf’s 24 kWh battery can supply emergency power for approximately 2 days.
Field tests are being conducted by ENERES Corporation. Similar tests are underway in the U.S.
where average daily household electricity consumption is approximately 32 kWh.
Fig. 1 shows the converter network for the V2H system. This system consists of the ac link,
the dc link, the bidirectional converter for GEV, unidirectional converters for renewable energies,
the bidirectional converter for the ac link and the dc link, the control circuit, and other relevant
power electronics. It is worthy mentioning that the GEV charger can be designed as the dc/dc
type or the dc/ac type. With the proposed converter network, the dc link and the ac link can
readily take actions for the sources and loads. Thus, this converter network can not only provide
the platform for active power exchange between the GEV and the home, but also offer the
interfaces for power delivery in household and power grids. Moreover, the this network can offer
the reactive power support for the grid using the capacitor of the GEV converter.

Fig.1 V2H converter network for the smart home.

V2H Framework
Framework for V2H When the GEV (Gridable Electric Vehicles) needs charging and/or
discharging, the convenient way for the user is to drive the vehicle home. In this way, the V2H is
formed. Fig. 2 shows the V2H framework, which consists of a GEV, a bidirectional charger, home
loads, small-scale renewable generation [especially one wind turbine and some photovoltaic (PV)
panels], a home-grid [including dc link and alternating current (ac) link], and the corresponding
home controller.
In Fig. 2, the solid lines represent the power flow while the dotted lines are the
information flow; meanwhile, the red dotted line, the pink dotted line, and the blue dotted line
correspond to the transmission line information, V2G line information, and V2V line information,
respectively. The GEV can offer its battery for active power exchange with the home grid. Also,
the onboard or off board bidirectional charger can offer the bidirectional active power
conversion, and provide the reactive power to the grid using its dc link capacitor.

Fig.2 V2H Framework

The V2H framework achieves the following distinct features for the home grid operation.
• Generally, V2H involves a single GEV in a single house. • V2H has a very simple configuration,
hence it is easy to accomplish in reality. • V2H is able to smooth the household daily load profile
(DLP) with active power exchange. • V2H is able to provide the reactive power to the home grid
or even to the community grid. • The reactive power support can be implemented without
involving, or independent of, the GEV battery, because each charger can solely offer its capacitor
for the grid operation. • V2H can further interact with V2V and V2G operations. • V2H has a very
high efficiency during the operation. • V2H is easy to be installed without largely changing the
existing home grid. • V2H can improve the effectiveness of home renewable energies by using
GEV storage. • Smart home becomes more attractive with the V2H operation. • V2H can greatly
improve the development of the smart grid.
RECENT TREND IN V2H
Electrical power no longer has to be something you “purchase to use”; welcome to the new era
of “store-and-use.” In the V2H system, effective use of green energy such as solar-generated
power is conveniently stored in the vehicle’s battery so that it is immediately available if needed.
Known as “Vehicle to Home,” this method of making smart use of power from an electric vehicle
as home electrical power when the situation demands is already beginning to spread around the
world.
Mitsubishi’s SMART V2H simultaneously controls three electricity of electric vehicle (EV), solar
power generation system (PV), power company. Even if the amount of electricity used now
exceeds the electricity supply amount (6 kW) from EV, only the shortage will be replenished
smoothly by electricity from the electric power company.

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[2] PHEV CONTROL STRATEGIES TO V2H APPLICATIONS

Attempts have been made to develop new controllers to better utilize the fuel-saving
potential of PHEVs. The main function of all PHEV and HEV control strategies is the utilization of
input signals to calculate output signals that will enable the vehicle to operate in a manner that
will improve fuel economy, performance, and emissions of the vehicle.
Conventional strategies are fundamentally consistent in the manner that they alter input
signals to produce output signals. This quality of consistency has both advantages and
disadvantages. An advantage is that consistency results in great reliability. The disadvantage of
having this consistency is that it cannot adapt well to parameter changes in the vehicle’s drive
train. These changes are usually brought upon by changes in drive cycle, driving patterns, and
driver behavior. The wear and tear of the vehicle and the simple fact that vehicles are not always
utilized as they were designed add to these changes.
Fixed control strategies cannot accommodate the many changes in driving conditions and
patterns resulting in a non-optimized use of power, which leads to bad fuel economy.
There has been much study done in developing, implementing, and optimizing control strategies
for HEVs. There are many commercially available HEVs today, which have allowed for real-time
testing and detailed analysis of these controllers.
Therefore, it is inevitable that expansions of these controllers are proposed as PHEV controllers,
resulting in some overlap with HEV controllers. The many characteristics of HEV controllers,
including advantages and disadvantages, will also be true for PHEVs. PHEVs demonstrate specific
criteria, such as electric-only drive capability, additional discharge range due to the larger battery
pack, and the option of turning the engine off, which differentiates PHEVs from HEVs. They must
be addressed by the control strategy to take full advantage of all the benefits of a PHEV.
General Control Strategy Classification
Controllers are commonly grouped depending on the mathematical models they are based on in
its description. PHEV controllers are thus divided into two groups:
1) rule-based controllers and 2) optimization-based controllers. These groups are further divided
into two subsections each based on how they are implemented.
Rule-based control strategies are tuned to achieve the best fuel economy, efficiency,
performance, and emissions for a specific drive cycle. They operate based on a set of criteria
defined by the system. For example, PHEVs such as taxi cabs and buses have control strategies
that are tuned to perform best (highest fuel economy) during frequent stop-and-go driving.
Given the inherent rigidity of a rule-based approach, designers have turned their attention to
optimization-based controllers. They are used to develop an optimal control strategy for PHEVs
by minimizing a cost function. This cost function is derived based on the vehicle and component
parameters and the performance expectations of the vehicle.
Some controllers are optimized for specific drive cycles using past and future (expected)
information regarding the trip and components and are therefore termed a causal systems. More
advanced control techniques are based on real-time optimization. Also referred to as causal
systems, they rely on real-time feedback to optimize a cost function that is developed using past
information (see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Classification of PHEV Control Strategies

RULE-BASED CONTROL STRATEGIES

The main goal of any rule-based control strategy is to operate the PHEV at its highest
efficiency point. This is achieved by running the engine and the electric machine at their most
efficient points utilizing the All Electric Range and maximizing the regenerative potential of the
PHEV. Predefined rules are initially set based on desirable outputs and expectations without any
prior knowledge of the trip. Flowcharts and state diagrams are commonly used to represent the
power flow of a given driving schedule. The transition from one mode to another depends on the
predefined criteria, such as the power requirements of the engine and motor, acceleration and
deceleration, vehicle speed, and the batteries’ SOC. Rule-based control strategies are a
combination of Charge Sustaining (CS), Charge Depleting (CD), EV, and conventional modes used
in different combinations and periods of time and are implemented using deterministic rule-
based methods and fuzzy logic rule-based methods.
OPTIMIZATION-BASED CONTROL STRATEGIES
Rule-based control strategies optimize the performance of each component individually.
Local optimization has a major disadvantage in that they are not able to find the global minimum,
thus does not optimize the PHEV as a whole. There are two criteria to global control strategies:
1) optimization based on historical data and 2) optimization based on real-time data.
System optimization takes place as a result of system learning and adapting to the
condition within a framework of rules or constraints. A predefined set of rules will however limit
the validity of the optimization to a specific drive cycle. Optimization also provides the ability to
incorporate two variables, i.e., mileage and emission goals, in a cost function that can be
optimized. Studies on global optimization have shown that the optimal pathway is based on
maximizing the CD condition, i.e., the SOC reaching SOCL value at the end of the drive cycle. In
other words, a system optimized to operate in CD mode instead of in CD–CS mode (or EV–CS
mode) will provide the best fuel efficiency improvement Fig.

A commonly used optimization method is linear programming, where a linear model for the
PHEV is first built and a controller that would find the global optimum for the model is
subsequently constructed. This method is drive train topology dependent. Furthermore, building
a linear model for an advanced topology is significantly more complex. PHEVs are powered by
both an engine and an electric machine, and the torques and speeds of the two components are
directly related in parallel topologies. The control theory approach takes advantage of this
relationship to define a cost function using only two decision variables. While this controller is
easier to implement, it will not adapt to drive train changes as well as numerical- or iterative-
based controllers would.
- - - - -
Plug-in hybrid vehicles promise high efficiency, improved performance, and lower emissions,
which can only be achieved through a suitable power management strategy. It is therefore vital
that one follows a systematic process of optimization when designing a controller for PHEVs.
Many controllers, which are mostly extensions of HEV controllers, have been proposed, as
discussed in earlier sections. They are commonly grouped based on their mathematical approach:
rule and optimization-based controllers. Each is described in detail along with advantages,
disadvantages, and examples. While rule-based control strategies are simpler to implement, it is
clear that they do not provide an optimum solution to maximizing fuel savings and minimizing
emissions. Global optimization methods will improve the performance of the vehicle. They will
allow for integrating multiple variables to the cost function, which is important since minimizing
emissions are just as important as increasing mileage. Adaptive controllers implemented using
fuzzy logic, DP, neural networks, and stochastic dynamic process have been proposed and have
shown promise.
However, since one would require drive-cycle information beforehand, and driving patterns
are very difficult to predict, they too fall short in providing a globally optimum solution for PHEVs.
It is clear that a global control strategy that will be optimized in real time would be the ideal
solution. The controller will strive to minimize a fuel and emission cost function using realtime
data. Real-time controllers that access trip information via Geographic Information System (GIS)
and GPS are very useful. The success of these controllers will depend on the ability to access this
information in real time. It will also be limited since this information is not always available. An
adaptive control strategy that will optimize itself in real time based on easily available vehicle
parameters is seen as the best solution.
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[3] DEMAND RESPONSE BASICS
Demand response (DR) is often considered as an important part of future’s smart grids.
DR is quite a broad concept, and generally different types of “demand flexibility”, excluding
energy saving and other actions which change the amount of electricity consumption, is
typically considered to be “demand response”.
A commonly referred core definition for DR is presented in (DOE 2006): “Changes in
electric usage by end-use customers from their normal consumption patterns in response to
changes in the price of electricity over time, or to incentive payments designed to induce
lower electricity use at times of high wholesale market prices or when system reliability is
jeopardized.”
 Demand response means that electricity consumers change their electricity
consumption in accordance with some input(s) coming from some actor(s) so that the actor(s)
and the consumers benefit from the action.
In other words, demand for electricity responds to some input(s) in a way that benefits
all parties involved. DR can increase the total economical “efficiency” of the electrical energy
system. DR can increase the utilization rate of assets and resources and thus the financial
benefits of them.
DR can also increase the efficiency of the electricity market and lower the price of
electricity in short and long terms. DR might also improve the planning and usage of the
electricity distribution networks and even increase their reliability. However, the incentives
for DR in the future might be smaller as the incentives of DR seen today, because for example
in the wholesale market DR decreases the price fluctuations of the spot market which again
decreases the incentives for DR from customer point-of-view. On the other hand, there are
several issues which increase the incentives for DR in the future on the wholesale market and
power system level.
A very fundamental precondition for success of DR is customer acceptance. People
have to be ready to let the system control their electric loads. In Finland there is a long history
and experience of controlling people’s electric heating loads and also today many people use
time-of-use tariffs (time-of-day or seasonal tariffs) and some of their loads are controlled in
accordance. However, it is uncertain how well people would accept new types of DR. Time-
of-use tariffs govern the use of the loads exactly in a predefined way and consumers know
pre-hand how their loads are controlled. In possible DR of the future there might not be any
pre-hand knowledge of the control actions for example during the next day. Today’s DR
acceptance depends on many things such as the type and amount of DR, the types of
controlled loads, financial incentives etc. From the psychological point-of-view, people have
to trust the DR system and related companies, and the transparency of the companies’
operation can promote the issue.
Different market actors of DR
Around the concept of DR, there are many parties and actors involved. Possible actors are for
example

 Electricity consumers including ones with small scale electricity production

 Electricity retailers/balance responsible parties
 Distribution network operators (DNO)
 Transmission system operators (TSO)
 Aggregator/service provider/DR operator.
In addition to these actors, the regulator involved in DR is indirectly a sort of a DR actor. In
some cases DR might also affect the electricity generator companies although they are not
directly DR market actors.
Technically there are many ways to control electric loads, but the possibilities depend
on the nature of the load. Fig. 4.1 presents four different control methods. Fig. 4.1a presents
the most trivial way to control an electric load: controlling a controllable switch connected in
serial with the load. This can be applied to any type of load and it is simple and robust, but it
has certain drawbacks which can be avoided by using more sophisticated control methods
illustrated in Fig. 4.1b-4.1d. Fig. 4.1b presents a general “softly” controllable load: using a
special electrical appliance and related communication, a load can be switched “off” and “on”
“softly” which means that the process of the load is not interfered with too much. An example
of this can be for example a “smart” washing machine which can be stopped in a soft manner
so that when the washing machine is switched back on after an off-switching, the washing
process continues from an appropriate state to finalize the laundering.
This does not necessarily happen in a case where a conventional washing machine is
stopped by just cutting the power supply from the device. Also, by using soft control the
device can be switched “on” compared to the use of controllable switch which returns the
power supply for the appliance but does not necessarily continue the laundering process from
the state it was before cutting the power supply.

Fig. 4.1. Different ways to control an electric load: a) controllable switch, b) “soft” control, c) control of the setting
value of a thermostat controlled load d) a load fed by certain type of power electronics.

Fig. 4.1c presents in a way a special case of Fig. 4.1b: controlling a thermostat controlled
device by controlling the setting value of the thermostat.
 Fig. 4.1d presents a load control method which can be applied to loads which are fed by a
certain type of power electronics, and the method is also a special case of Fig. 4.1b. In this
control method, the load can be not only switched “on” or “off” but the power and/or the
current taken by the load can be adjusted within some limits. A practical example of this kind
of a load is the charging of electric vehicles.
DR infrastructure In addition to the load or resource itself, the infrastructure needed to
control and verify the operation of the resources is a very important part of DR. In practice
there are many options for the DR control and communication infrastructure for small
electricity consumers. At the moment AMI meters or “smart” electricity consumption meters
have been installed to most of the customers in Finland in accordance with the Finnish
electricity market decree 66/2009. The meters today have some capability to control the
loads of the small customers. There are typically one or two relays in the meter (Honkapuro
et al. 2014) which can be used to control for example electric heating loads in one way or
another. Typically there is at least one relay to realize the day-night tariff or seasonal tariff
related load control.
As electric vehicles (EVs) take a greater share in the personal automobile market, their
penetration may bring higher peak demand at the distribution level. This may cause potential
transformer overloads, feeder congestions, and undue circuit faults. This paper focuses on
the impact of charging EVs on a residential distribution circuit. Different EV penetration
levels, EV types, and charging profiles are considered.
In order to minimize the impact of charging EVs on a distribution circuit, a demand
response strategy is proposed in the context of a smart distribution network. In the proposed
DR strategy, consumers will have their own choices to determine which load to control and
when. Consumer comfort indices are introduced to measure the impact of demand response
on consumers' lifestyle. The proposed indices can provide electric utilities a better estimation
of the customer acceptance of a DR program, and the capability of a distribution circuit to
accommodate EV penetration.
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[4] VEHICLE TO VEHICLE (V2V)
Fig. 5 shows the converter network for the V2V system. The proposed network includes
the V2H converter interfaces, an aggregator, and other auxiliary components. The key of this
network is to add an aggregator for household GEV power aggregation. Also, the converters take
into account the V2V effect. Hence, this converter network can be used for the community grid,
in which the community GEVs can first distribute the energy among themselves and then interact
with the grid for the overall energy request. In addition, the V2V converter network fully utilizes
the V2H hardware, and the reactive power support becomes attractive in this network.
 Fig.5 V2V converter network for the community.

Framework for V2V

When a number of Gridable Electric Vehicles (GEVs) are allotted to a community, this
community will become a suitable power grid for the V2V operation. By using the V2V operation,
the power reserve can be kept within the community of GEVs, which can greatly reduce the
power loss and the trading loss between the local community and the power grid. Also, the V2V
framework can readily be performed in the existing grid.
Fig. 6 shows the V2V framework, which consists of a number of V2H systems, a parking
lot for GEVs, an aggregator, community loads, and other auxiliary equipment.
In the V2V framework, a portion of GEVs are connected to the grid by home grid
interfaces. Meanwhile, another portion of GEVs are located at the parking lot and connected to
the lower layer ac grid via the parking lot dc link. All these GEVs can interact with each other by
the aggregator. Specifically, the aggregator is a control device which is able to collect all
information about GEVs and the grid status, and execute the V2V operation.
Namely, the aggregator is responsible for coordinated control of grouping GEVs for
charging and/or discharging. Thus, the community GEVs can first distribute the energy among
themselves and then interact with the grid for the overall energy request. In short, after GEVs
serve the V2H operation and satisfy the basic requirement of GEV users, they are grouped by the
aggregator for the V2V operation.
 Fig. 6 Framework for V2V.
The V2V framework offers the following distinct features for the community grid operation.
• Generally, V2V involves multiple GEVs.
• V2V uses smart homes and parking lots for power exchange.
• V2H is incorporated into the V2V system. V2H mainly focuses on a domestic house with only
one GEV interaction, whereas V2V aims to interact with a group of GEVs and coordinate them
with the power grid. This kind of dividing the frameworks of V2H and V2V can improve the GEV
coordination with the power grid based on the number of GEVs available.
• The GEV aggregator is employed for coordinated control of the V2V and grid operation.
• Power exchanges among GEVs, and then is requested if necessary from the power grid.
• The framework of V2V is comparatively less simple and less flexible.
• V2V has uncomplicated infrastructure requirements and small transmission losses.
• V2V can be further cooperated with small-scale renewable energies for the community grid
operation.
• V2V can further improve the development of the smart grid.
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[5] STRUCTURE OF EV AGGREGATOR
The synergy between power system and electric vehicles (EV) became an important issue for
several actors, e.g. vehicles industry, electrical utilities, regulators
An aggregator agent for electric vehicles is a commercial middleman between a system operator
and plug-in electrical vehicles (EV). For the system operator perspective, the aggregator is seen
as a large source of generation or load, which could provide ancillary services such as spinning
and regulating reserve. Generally these services will be provided in the day-ahead and intraday
electricity markets. In addition, the aggregator also participates in the electricity market with
supply and demand energy bids.
Fig. 7 is a block diagram illustrating the aggregator and the communication network consisting a
part of the V2G system. As illustrated in Fig.7, the aggregator includes a power amount database,
a setting information database, an analysis unit, a decision unit, a transmission unit and a radio
unit.

*Source: Patent No. US20180186246, Honda Motors Co. Ltd. July 05, 2018

The radio unit wirelessly transmits, to the aggregator, information on participation or non
participation of the electric vehicles in the V2G operation, the degree of activeness in the case of
participating in the V2G, a time period in which participation in the V2G is possible, a discharge
state of the main battery and the like. The participation or non participation in the V2G, the
degree of activeness, time period, in which participation in the V2G is possible, are set in advance
by an owner of the vehicle.
The Transmission Unit transmits an instruction to the electric vehicle via the
communication network and the external power supply, wherein the instruction includes the
time at which the discharge or the charge of the main battery is performed and the time is
decided by the decision unit. The decision unit sets an incentive when performing the
charge/discharge of the main battery of the electric vehicle according to an instruction from the
aggregator to be higher than an incentive when performing the charge discharge in other time
periods. The incentive is a profit of an owner of the electric vehicle when the electric vehicle sells
and buys power, and profit is mainly money.
The Power Amount Database is a database having past and current information on a
power amount supplied from the power supplier including the power station to the power
system and a power amount supplied from the power system to the power consumer. The
Setting Information Database is a database having information on the participation or non
participation of each electric vehicle in the V2G, the degree of activeness in the case of
participating in the V2G, and the time period, in which participation in the V2G is possible, the
degree of contribution for the power system, and the like.
The Analysis Unit performs time-series analysis of power amount by using the
information of the power amount database, thereby performing power demand/supply
prediction in the power system. The Decision Unit decides a time, at which discharge of the main
battery of the electric vehicle to the power system or charge of the main battery by power
supplied from the power system is performed, for each electric vehicle based on the power
demand/supply prediction result obtained by the analysis unit, information of each electric
vehicle stored in the setting information database and the like. Number 16 in fig. represents
communication network constituting a part of V2G system.
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[6] AGGREGATOR FOR DISPATCHING A FLEET OF EV
Given the rapid rise of electric vehicles (EVs) worldwide, and the ambitious targets set for
the near future, the smart charging of an EV fleet must be seen as a priority. Specifically, we study
a scenario where EV charging is managed through self-interested EV aggregators (e.g. car parks
or electricity suppliers) who compete in the day-ahead market in order to purchase the electricity
needed to meet their clients’ requirements.
To date, there exists a world-wide fleet of more than two million electric vehicles (EVs),
combining purely electrical and hybrid. Furthermore, EV sales are growing exponentially in most
countries and there are targets to achieve 50 to 200 million of EVs at a global scale in the next
decade. These high penetration targets aim to reduce the use of fossil fuels and improve
environmental conditions. However, the transition from conventional to electric vehicles is not
without challenges. Specifically, compared to traditional fuel powered vehicles, EVs present a
novel and heavy strain to existing electricity networks, which will need to accommodate a new
type of consumer with high demand. Careless managing of a fleet of EVs can cause great demand
peaks and network congestion, which can compromise the good functioning of the electricity grid
and require the use of expensive and polluting generation methods. On the positive side, in
contrast with conventional electricity consumption such as heating or lighting, EVs offer a high
degree of flexibility: on average, a given EV is idle up to 95% of the time.
 In order to deal with these challenges and to exploit the flexibility inherent to EVs,
the last decade has seen the introduction of the concept of the EV aggregator: an intermediary
between a fleet of EVs and the electricity grid and markets. Potential examples of EV aggregators
are EV charging enabled car parks, micro-grids, etc. The aggregator is able to control the charging
(and potentially discharging) of its fleet, and this way informed collective decisions can be made.
In contrast with individual EV operation, the much higher degree of coordination possible when
a fleet is centrally managed by an aggregator offers great benefits. For example, electricity
consumption to charge the fleet’s batteries can be spread over time, avoiding expensive and
polluting demand peaks. In particular, in this work we focus on EV aggregators participating in
day-ahead markets, in order to purchase the electricity needed to meet their clients’ energy
requirements. In more detail, day-ahead markets match electricity supply and demand on an
hourly basis, and are the main source of whole-sale electricity. Here, increased electricity
demand means increased prices, resulting in the so-called price impact, and hence it is in every
market participant’s interest to avoid unnecessary demand peaks.
These aggregators may vary in nature and size, but it is reasonable to assume that they
are self-interested. Indeed, reduced electricity costs translate in more profit for the aggregator
and/or more benefits for their EV fleet. In this scenario, reduced overall costs can be achieved by
inter-aggregator coordination, producing more informed and optimized bidding. However, this
coordination is challenging, as an aggregator may choose to cheat the system if greater personal
benefit is perceived.

Nissan & Enel installed 40 V2G units in Denmark in January 2016.

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[7] PLANNING OF V2G INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE SMART GRID
The vehicle-to-grid (V2G) concept was introduced in 1997 by Kempton and Letendre.
Under the this concept, the electrical network could receive power from a parked EV, and in this
case the charger is bidirectional (able to deliver power to the grid and also to charge the battery).
This concept enhances the previous paradigm where the vehicles were just additional loads for
charging batteries. Vehicle integration can come in the form of organized unidirectional vehicle
to grid (V1G) charging or bidirectional (V2G) electricity import and export.
Vehicle to Grid (V2G) holds the promise of cheap, flexible, and fast-responding storage
through the use of electric vehicle batteries. Unfortunately, infrastructure, battery degradation
and consumer awareness are only some of the challenges to a faster development of this
technology. There are expectations that electrified vehicles can be an integral part of the smart,
renewable electricity grid of the future.
Policies & roadmap for implementing V2G are very crucial for Energy Security of any Nation.
The National Electric Mobility Mission Plan 2020 is one of the most important and ambitious
initiatives undertaken by the Government of India that has the potential to bring about a
transformational paradigm shift in the automotive and transportation industry in the country.
This is a culmination of a comprehensive collaborative planning for promotion of hybrid and
electric mobility in India through a combination of policies aimed at gradually ensuring a vehicle
population of about 6-7 million electric/hybrid vehicles in India by the year 2020 along with a
certain level of indigenization of technology ensuring India’s global leadership in some vehicle
segments.
Accompanied by the popularization of EVs, the planning of electric vehicle (EV) charging
stations becomes an important concern of distribution network planning. The load density
method is introduced to determine the optimal capacity of the EV charging stations in the areas
to be planned, and the difference between 1 and the weight coefficients obtained by the analytic
hierarchy process (AHP) method is used to calculate the cost coefficients of the charging station.
The objective function of the optimal distribution network planning model should be the minimal
cost of the fixed investments, the operational costs and the maintenance costs including the
substations, charging stations and feeders. In this model, the effect of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) is
considered, i.e., the EV is respectively treated as both the load and the source.
• Planning scheme is optimized by the ordinal optimization approach.
• Optimal distribution network planning scheme is affected by V2G.
• V2G can effectively reduce the operational costs of the distribution network.
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[8] ANCILLARY SERVICES PROVIDED BY V2G
Ancillary services provide the short-term electrical capacity needed to adjust for
temporary changes in overall grid capacity. As the reliance on renewable generation capacity
(wind and solar) increases, the intermittent nature of these resources requires additional
generation to balance the inconsistencies in energy production (changes in wind speed or cloud
coverage). Ancillary services are required to dispatch resources within seconds or minutes to help
balance the system on a short-term basis. This market provides an opportunity for EV and energy
storage owners, and the aggregators that manage these resources, to create an additional
revenue stream. A single EV would have minimal impact on the electric grid, but the combination
of many vehicles would provide the capacity needed to significantly impact grid operation. V2G
participation in the ancillary services market in the current and future transmission system would
require a large number of EVs to be grouped or aggregated to create a single block of electrical
capacity.
Ancillary market services typically requires that 1 MW of capacity be available for
dispatch and control on an hourly basis. The number of EVs required for a 1 MW block of capacity
is estimated at 100-200 vehicles operating at or below 10 kW of available output capacity. Those
EVs not connected to the grid could not participate while others could only participate during the
charging process. Those that opted to actively participate while their vehicles were parked, for
example those that connected to the grid via bi-directional V2G chargers, could reduce electricity
loads on the transmission system, alleviate bottlenecks, and regulate grid frequency.
There are several aspects of utility grid regulation where V2G and energy storage can play
an important role. V2G capable EVs could provide peak power or serve as a demand response
resource in the ancillary services market. While V2G capable vehicles could provide these
services, the economic returns do not generally justify the expense. Two ancillary service areas
where V2G shows promise are frequency regulation and operating reserve.
Frequency regulation, where electricity supply and demand (generation vs load) are
imbalanced and utility generators must adjust to maintain a tight operating frequency (60 Hz in
the U.S.), can benefit from V2G technology given the fast response time inherently available from
batteries and the limited energy required to stabilize that imbalance. Participation occurs as
either regulation up or down events where the battery either provides energy to or accepts
energy from the utility grid. Over time, these events balance to where the amount of energy in
the storage device does not change dramatically. These events are also limited in time duration
and are believed to have very little impact on battery life. Letendra, et al., estimate frequency
regulation revenue per V2G capable EV as $578 and $2,891 per year for 2 kW (AC Level 1) and 10
kW (AC Level 2) capacity, respectively. These are the average costs for PJM Interconnection LLC,
a regional transmission organization in the eastern United States and the Electric Reliability
Council of Texas (ERCOT), an independent transmission system operator representing 85% of the
state’s electric load.
Operating reserve is spare generating capacity. Spinning reserve refers to the generating
equipment that is online and synchronized with the utility grid and available for dispatch within
10 minutes. Non-spinning reserve refers to off-line generating capacity that can be started and
synchronized with the grid within 10 minutes. Mechanical equipment cannot adjust quickly
enough to respond to rapidly changing demand while battery energy storage offers a resource
that can quickly adjust to the changing needs of the utility grid. Letendra, et al., estimate spinning
reserve revenue per V2G capable EV as $204 and $1,019 per year for 2 kW and 10 kW capacity,
respectively.
The regulations for the ancillary services market may also need adjustment to maximize the
available potential of V2G capable vehicles. The Northeast Power Coordination Council requires
a minimum runtime of one hour for resources providing synchronized, 10- or 30-minute reserves.
Actual participation in this market requires dispatch in much less than one hour and this
requirement limits the accessible capacity each vehicle could offer. Under this regulation, a 24
kWh battery could reasonably provide no more than 20 kW of capacity when, for shorter
durations, this battery could easily supply 40 kW or more.
Limiting the available capacity of EVs in the ancillary services market would limit the potential of
V2G in the future. Transmission system components used to ensure reliability and quality of
service were engineered assuming the flow of energy in one direction. As more distributed
resources come online, thereby feeding energy back into the grid, these components would need
to be redesigned to ensure the same high quality of service. If energy storage, including V2G
technology, were connected to the utility grid, and that energy were used locally and efficiently,
the necessity for two-way energy flow through the transmission system might be minimized or
eliminated.

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Useful News
(1) https://electrek.co/guides/vehicle-to-grid/
(2) https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/02/f8/v2g_power_flow_rpt.pdf
(3) https://newatlas.com/honda-smart-home-energy-producing/31380/
(4) https://www.mitsubishi-motors.com/en/newsrelease/2017/detail1082.html
(5) https://newmotion.com/en_GB/about-us/press-room/newmotion-mitsubishi-motors-
tennet-and-enel-implement-vehicle-to-grid-pilot-on-dutch-market
(6) https://www.powerstream.ca/attachments/SmartGrid-EV-V2HPowerSupply.pdf
(7) https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/02/180207102351.htm