414 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 10, NO.

1, JANUARY 2019

Voltage and Frequency Regulation of Microgrid

With Battery Energy Storage Systems
Huiying Zhao, Student Member, IEEE, Mingguo Hong, Member, IEEE, Wei Lin, Fellow, IEEE,
and Kenneth A. Loparo, Life Fellow, IEEE

Abstract—This paper presents a novel primary control strategy Cfi LC filter capacitance of converter in MGi
based on output regulation theory for voltage and frequency reg- D Generator damping coefficient
ulations in microgrid systems with fast-response battery energy
Efi Excitation voltage of generator in MGi
storage systems (BESS). The proposed control strategy can
accurately track voltage and frequency set points while miti- Edqi Transient EMF of generator in MGi
gating system transients in the presence of disturbance events. idqLDi Load current of microgrid MGi
Therefore, it overcomes the key weaknesses of droop-based con- idqLDk Load current at network bus k
trol methods such as large steady-state voltage and frequency
deviations and poor transient performance. Throughout this idqLNl Current of network line l
paper, four control schemes are derived with tradeoffs between idqXFi Current of transformer for MGi
communication requirement and system dynamic performance. ildqCNVi Output current of pulse-width modulation
Their effectiveness is validated through MATLAB Simulink
in MGi
simulation studies involving a medium-voltage microgrid with
both synchronous generation resources and BESS. Although the i∗ldqCNVi Output current set points of pulse-width mod-
proposed control schemes are centralized, practical implementa- ulation in MGi
tion is possible with available communication links in microgrids iodqCNVi Output current of converter in MGi
and embedded hardware technologies. kd Droop constant of generator turbine governor
Index Terms—Microgrids, voltage and frequency regulation, Kpc , Kic PI parameters of converter current controller
output regulation theory, droop control, battery energy storage KP , KI PI parameters of generator excitation system
systems, power electronic converters.
Kp , Ki PI parameters of converter phase lock loop
Lci Inductance of converter coupling inductor
in MGi
N OMENCLATURE
Lfi LC filter inductance of converter in MGi
δDGi Synchronous generator internal voltage angle M Generator moment of inertia
of microgrid MGi (radian) MGi The ith microgrid, i=1, 2 and 3
δCNVi Phase angle of converter in MGi (radian) Pei Electrical power output of generator in MGi
γdqi Integration of the current difference at the Pmi Prime mover mechanical power of generator
current controller in MGi
λi Actual eigenvalues of the closed loop system Prefi Active power set point of generator in MGi
in control scheme II rdi Ground resistance of converter in MGi
λ∗i Desired eigenvalues of the closed loop system RLDi , LLDi Resistance and inductance of the load in MGi
in control scheme II RLDk , LLDk Resistance and inductance of the RL load at
ωcom Rotor speed of common reference frame network bus k
(radian/s) RLNl , LLNl Resistance and inductance of the network line l
ωDGi Synchronous generator rotor speed of MGi RXFi , LXFi Resistance and inductance of transformer
(radian/s) for MGi
i Integration of the q-axis voltage of the phase T  dq0 Generator transient time constant(s)
lock loop
TR , Ts Time constants of the excitation system(s)
τt , τg Time constants of generator turbine
VAi , VBi Excitation system states of generator in MGi
governor(s)
vcdqCNVi LC filter voltage of converter in MGi
Manuscript received October 17, 2016; revised March 7, 2017 and vdqn Voltage of bus i in reference frame of the
June 14, 2017; accepted July 26, 2017. Date of publication August 18, 2017;
date of current version December 19, 2018. Paper no. TSG-01428-2016.
system
(Corresponding author: Mingguo Hong.) vdqPCCi PCC voltage in reference frame of the system
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering and vidqCNVi Actual voltage of the pulse-width modulation
Computer Science, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106
USA (e-mail: mxh543@case.edu). v∗idqCNVi Demand voltage of the pulse-width modulation
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available Vrefi Terminal voltage set point of generator in MGi
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TSG.2017.2741668 X  dqi Transient reactance of generator in MGi
1949-3053 c 2017 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
ZHAO et al.: VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY REGULATION OF MICROGRID WITH BESSs
p.u. Per unit
PCC Point of common coupling
PWM pulse-width modulation.
I. I NTRODUCTION
ICROGRIDS as small-scale power systems capable
M of operating in both the grid-connected and islanded
modes, can provide important operational benefits with
enhanced energy security and grid resiliency [1], [2]. They
will play an important role in the development of the next
generation electric power grid [3]. Some important challenges
exist for microgrid operation, however, especially in the area
of power quality management when microgrids are operating
in the islanded mode. The challenges are primarily associ-
ated with the relative low system inertia to absorb network
disturbances, high resistance to reactance ratios (R/X) of dis-
tribution lines, and the coupling between active and reactive
power of voltage dependent loads in distribution systems.
Consequently, significant challenges arise in maintaining volt-
age and frequency stability and regulation during network
events. In fact, microgrid voltage and frequency deviations
after the loss of generation or load can go far outside the
prescribed security margins [4].
These control challenges are well known to the power and
energy research community. In general, microgrid voltage and
frequency regulations are performed along with power gener-
ation dispatch in a 3-tier hierarchical control structure [5], [6].
In this control structure, the tertiary controls schedule genera-
tion set points on long-term time horizons to ensure resource
availability; the secondary controls compute and implement
generation set points for the short-term time horizon to ensure
imminent power balance, and frequency and voltage regula-
tions; and the primary controls are implemented at the local
device level to ensure real-time frequency and voltage stability
upon disturbance. Among the 3-tier hierarchical controls, pri-
mary controls are considered to be the most challenging [6].
So far, most common primary control schemes proposed have
been based on the droop principle where generation active
and reactive power outputs are adjusted in proportion to the
local frequency and voltage deviations. The main benefit of
droop-based control methods is that they are decentralized and
can enable power sharing among generators without requiring
site-to-site communication.
Traditionally, the conventional droop control method
(P-f/Q-V) separately adjusts active and reactive powers based
on frequency and voltage deviations, and has been successfully
applied in the operation of bulk power systems where the trans-
mission lines are mostly inductive [7]. The conventional droop
control method, however, encounters significant difficulty in
microgrid applications where active power sharing and reac-
tive power sharing are coupled in the resistive system networks
with voltage dependent loads. To overcome the difficulty, the
conventional droop method has been modified with virtual
frame transformation [8], virtual output impedance [9] and vir-
tual droop curve [10] that consider system network model and
operational parameters. The other proposed droop-based meth-
ods include the voltage-active power and frequency-reactive
415
power boost droop control [9], power angle droop control [11],
and hybrid voltage-frequency and active-reactive power droop
control [12]. It is noted that some proposed primary con-
trol strategies use battery energy storage systems (BESS) for
frequency and voltage regulations [13]–[16]. Most of these
control strategies embed the droop principle while exploiting
the fast response capability of BESS to stabilize microgrid
operation.
Nonetheless, there have been two fundamental performance
issues with droop-based control methods: 1) large steady-
state frequency and voltage deviations, and 2) poor tran-
sient performance and potential system instability [5], [17].
While the voltage and frequency deviations are often cor-
rected through making set point adjustments by the secondary
controls [18]–[20], the microgrid dynamic stability issues
are mitigated through modified droop gains to create vir-
tual inertia [21], adaptive transient droop functions [22] or
coordination of the hierarchical controls across multiple time
scales [23]. Although these methods provide some remedial
solutions, the fundamental performance issues of droop-based
control methods remain to be tackled.
This work presents a primary control strategy based on
the output regulation theory [24] by taking advantage of the
fast-response capabilities of BESS with coupling power elec-
tronic converters and the high-bandwidth communication links
available within microgrids. The proposed primary control
strategy can accurately track voltage and frequency set points
while mitigating microgrid system transients, and hence over-
comes the key shortcomings of droop-based control methods.
With the help of the output regulation theory, four individ-
ual control schemes are developed with various requirements
on sensing and communication. Each of the four control
schemes has been validated through simulation case stud-
ies involving a medium voltage (MV) microgrid system with
both synchronous resources and BESS. Although the proposed
control strategy is centralized, the communication require-
ments can be largely reduced in some of the derived control
schemes (control schemes II, III and IV) with moderate com-
promises on the system dynamic performance. With advances
of hardware technology in both embedded control systems and
high-bandwidth communication, practical implementations of
the proposed control schemes can be pursued.
Among its main contributions, this work has developed a
dynamic model for MV microgrid systems to facilitate control
system studies, with integrated distribution system network,
facility-scale microgrids, conventional generation resources
and the BESS. This effort is important in light of the urgent
need to address issues of dynamic interactions among dis-
tributed energy generation and the mitigation. Furthermore,
this work has identified a primary control strategy that both
tracks microgrid steady-state operating set points and miti-
gates dynamic transients following disturbances. Considering
the special requirements for system model and real-time com-
munication, a potential area of practical application is the
special protection system in a microgrid against the loss of
a major generation resource or load.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follow: Section II
discusses the development of the microgrid dynamic model;
416
Fig. 1. MV microgrid system with 3 interconnected microgrids.
Section III derives the primary control strategies based on out-
put regulation theory; Section IV presents the simulation case
studies; and the conclusions are given in Section V.
II. D EVELOPMENT OF THE M ICROGRID
DYNAMIC M ODEL
The microgrid system under consideration consists of
multiple facility-scale microgrids interconnected through the
MV distribution system network. As shown in Fig. 1, three
microgrids MG1 , MG2 and MG3 are connected to the IEEE
13 bus test feeder where some lateral sections have been sim-
ply represented as loads. The distributed generation in each of
the microgrids MG1 and MG2 consists of a synchronous gen-
eration unit and a battery-converter unit, while the distributed
generation in microgrid MG3 includes only a battery-converter
unit.
The development of a dynamic model for the microgrid
system involves deriving mathematical models for each
microgrid in its own dq reference frame, and then integrat-
ing all the subsystems under a common dq reference frame
through coordinate transformation. Details about the trans-
formation are provided in Appendix A. When the microgrid
system is connected to the upstream transmission system, the
PCC voltage at the interconnecting substation can provide
the common dq reference frame. In this paper, the microgrid
system is assumed to be operating in the standalone mode and
the dq-axis of the rotor of the largest synchronous generator,
i.e., the synchronous generator in microgrid MG1 , defines the
common reference frame.
In the next three subsections, the dynamic models will be
developed for each of the three microgrids as well as the
interconnected microgrid system. The nonlinear models will
be first derived. Then, the corresponding linearized models at
the system operating equilibrium will be derived.
A. Dynamic Models of Microgrids MG1 and MG2
As shown in Fig. 2, microgrids MG1 and MG2 each include
a synchronous generation unit, a battery-converter module and
a voltage dependent load, all connected to a common bus. The
common bus is then connected to the upstream distribution
system through a step-up transformer. The dynamic models
for the microgrid components are presented as the following.
1) Synchronous Generator: Taking into account both tran-
sient voltages Ed and Eq , the classic fourth-order synchronous
generator model is used in this study [25]. Incorporating
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 10, NO. 1, JANUARY 2019
Fig. 2. Configuration of microgrid 1 and microgrid 2.
Fig. 3. Converter block diagram.
both the turbine governor droop control and excitation
system control for terminal voltage, the synchronous generator
dynamic model is represented by 9 differential equations, i.e.,
eqs. (24) - (32) in Appendix B. It is noted that for microgrid
MG1 , the rotor of the synchronous generator provides the dq
reference frame, i.e., ωDG1 = ωcom . Therefore, the rotor angle
dynamic equation is removed from the system of equations
for microgrid MG1 .
After linearizing the nonlinear system at the equilibrium, the
synchronous generator dynamic model can be described by:
ẋDGi = ADGi xDGi + BDGi uDGi + CDGi xPCCi (1)
where microgrid states xDGi = [δDGi ωDGi Eqi 

Edi Pei Pmi VAi VBi Efi ] , xPCCi T =
[vdPCCi vqPCCi ]T ; microgrid control uDGi =
[Prefi Vrefi ]T ; and ADGi , BDGi and CDGi are the Jacobian
matrices obtained from the linearization.
2) Converter: The converter controls the output current of
the pulse-width modulation (PWM) to help improve dynamic
performance and maintain steady-state power balance for the
microgrid system. To create greater freedom for the con-
troller design, the classic converter model [26], [27] has been
modified in this study by removing the voltage and power con-
trol loops and retaining only the current controller (Fig. 3).
The control modules and power module of the converter are
individually described in the following.
i) Phase lock loop (PLL): In this study, it is assumed that
there is no path for the zero sequence components. The PLL
tracks the phase angle of the PCC bus voltage through a PI
controller. The dynamic model is represented by the eq. (33)
in Appendix B.
ii) Current controller: As shown in Fig. 4, the current con-
troller tracks the PWM output current set points i∗ldCNVi and
i∗lqCNVi via PI controllers. The dynamic model of the current
controller consists of eqs. (34) and (35) of Appendix B.
ZHAO et al.: VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY REGULATION OF MICROGRID WITH BESSs 417

Eq. (5) can be substituted in the nonlinear model equa-

tions even before linearization, so that the state xPCCi =
[vdPCCi vqPCCi ]T can be eliminated from the linearized
models, i.e., eq. (1), (2), (3) and (4).
Finally, the linearized model for microgrid MGi (i = 1, 2)
is obtained by combining eqs. (1), (2), (3) and (4) with state
xPCCi eliminated:
ẋMGi = AMGi xMGi + BMGi uMGi + CMGi xSYSi (6)
Fig. 4. Current controller diagram.
where xMGi = [xDGi xCNVi xLDi xXFi xSYSi =
]T ,
[vdn vqn ]T , uMGi = [uDGi uCNVi ]T are the microgrid
iii) Output LC filter and coupling inductance: The dynamic states and control, and bus n is the system network bus
model of the output LC filter and coupling inductance are upstream to the microgrid transformer.
represented by eqs. (36) to (38) in Appendix B.
Assuming that PWM produces the required voltage B. Dynamic Model of Microgrid MG3
v∗idCNVi = vidCNVi and v∗iqCNVi = viqCNVi , the converter dynamic The dynamic model for microgrid MG3 can be similarly
model is built by combining the dynamic models of the indi- derived as for MG1 and MG2 , with the absence of the
vidual modules. The nonlinear converter model is then further synchronous generator:
linearized at the system equilibrium as:
ẋMG3 = AMG3 xMG3 + BMG3 uMG3 + CMG xSYS3 (7)
ẋCNVi = ACNVi xCNVi + BCNVi uCNVi + CCNVi xPCCi (2)
where states xMG3 = [xCNV3 xLD3 xXF3 ]T and
where xCNVi = [i δCNVi γdi γqi ildCNVi xSYS3 = [vdn vqn ]T , control uMG3 = uCNV3 , and bus
ilqCNVi vcdCNVi vcqCNVi iodCNVi ioqCNVi ]T and n is the network bus upstream to the microgrid transformer.
uCNVi = [i∗ldCNVi i∗lqCNVi ]T are each microgrid state and
control vectors, respectively; and ACNVi , BCNVi and CCNVi are C. Integrated Model of the Microgrid System
the Jacobian matrices obtained from the linearization.
3) Load Model: General RL loads are assumed for the While all system loads are considered as RL loads, the
microgrids, and the dynamic model is described by eq. (39) linearized model for the load connected to network bus k is
in Appendix B. The nonlinear model is then linearized at the similar to the microgrid load model represented by eq. (3):
system equilibrium as: ẋLDk = ALDk xLDk + CLDk xSYSk (8)
ẋLDi = ALDi xLDi + CLDi xPCCi (3) where states xLDk = [idLDk iqLDk ]T and xSYSk =
[vdk vqk ]T .
where microgrid state xLDi = [idLDi iqLDi ]T .
Meanwhile, the dynamic model of the line l connected
4) Transformer Model: The transformer between the
between buses m and n is described by eq. (41) in Appendix B.
microgrid PCC bus and the system network bus is modeled as
The nonlinear model is further linearized at the system
an ideal transformer in series with an equivalent impedance.
equilibrium as:
The dynamic model of the transformer is described by eq. (40)
in Appendix B. The nonlinear system is further linearized at ẋLNl = ALNl xLNl + CLNl xSYSl (9)
the system equilibrium as:
where states xLNl = [idLNl iqLNl ]T and xSYSl =
ẋXFi = AXFi xXFi + CXF xPCCi + CXF xSYSi (4) [vdm vqm vdn vqn ]T .
Assuming that each system network bus serves an RL load
where microgrid states xXFi = [idXFi iqXFi ]T , xSYSi =
(Fig. 1), the system states corresponding to the network bus
[vdn vqn ]T , and bus n is the system network bus upstream
voltages xSYSi , xSYSk and xSYSl can be expressed in terms
to the microgrid transformer.
of other system states that correspond to the network branch
5) The Microgrid Model: By applying Kirchoff’s current
and load currents, and eliminated from the set of system states.
law, all PCC voltages can be expressed in terms of other
The linearized dynamic model for the microgrid system can
system states. In fact,
⎧ now be obtained, by combining eq. (6), (7), (8) and (9) and

⎪
⎪ Xd √ Eqi  √ E applying the Kirchoff’s current law at each bus:
⎪ dPCCi
⎪ v = √ 3 X  cos δDGi + 3 X di sin δDGi
⎪
⎪ 3 d d

⎪
⎪ ẋ = Asys x + Bsys u (10)
⎪
⎪
⎨ − sin δ i
CNVi odCNVi − cos δ i
CNVi oqCNVi + i qLDi + i qXFi
 where state x = [xMG1 xMG2 xMG3 xLD xLN ]T and
⎪  √ E  √ 
control u = [uMG1 uMG2 uMG3 ]T . The vectors xLD
⎪
⎪
X
vqPCCi = √d
E
3 X qi sin δDGi − 3 X di cos δDGi
⎪
⎪ 3 and xLN consist of the system network load and line state
⎪
⎪
d d

⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ + cos δCNVi iodCNVi − sin δCNVi ioqCNVi − idLDi − idXFi variables.
Eq. (10) is the linearized dynamic model for the microgrid
(5) system in standalone operation. In the next section, we shall
418
use the so-called output regulation theory to develop control
schemes that achieve asymptotic regulation of the voltage and
frequency of the microgrid system, based on the linearized
system (10).
III. C ONTROLLER D ESIGN FOR VOLTAGE
AND F REQUENCY R EGULATION
Modern regulator theory is an effective approach for regu-
lating the voltage and frequency of the linearized system (10)
to reference set points. In what follows, we first review output
regulation theory for linear dynamic systems [24], [32].
A. The Output Regulation Problem
The output regulation problem has been investigated for
linear systems of the form:
⎧ for any initial condition (x0 , w0 ).
⎨ ẋ = Asys x + Bsys u + Pw
ẇ = Sw (11)
⎩
e = Cx + Qw
where the state vector x, control vector u and matrices Asys and
Bsys are defined in eq. (10). The input vector w consists of the
disturbance signals to be rejected and the reference trajecto-
ries to be tracked, and both are generated by the exosystem
ẇ = Sw.
In this study, the disturbance represents an abrupt change
in generation or demand at some bus k, and is modeled as a
and
step change in the bus current injection, i.e., Idk and Iqk .
The reference signals to be followed are the frequency ωDG1
+ Bsys  + P =
S
and voltage magnitude at some selected bus b, i.e., ω∗ and Vb∗ .
+ Q = 0.
That is, w = [Idk Iqk ω∗ Vb∗ ]T . The matrix P in eq. (11) is
obtained through linearization to reflect the impact of distur-
bances Idk and Iqk on the system state dynamics. Because
the current injection at bus k, i.e., idk and iqk are states of
)w (17)
system (11), the first two columns of the matrix P are identical
to the columns in the Jacobian matrix Asys that correspond to
the states idk and iqk . On the other hand, the references ω∗ and
Vb∗ do not directly affect the system dynamics ẋ. Therefore, the
3rd and 4th columns of P are zero. Without losing generality,
voltage regulation at only one bus is considered for now.
The second equation in (11) is known as an Exosystem.
Since in this study, the disturbance signals and tracking ref-
erence take fixed values, elements of w are constants and the
matrix S = 0. In other scenario events where the disturbance
signals or tracking reference vary with time, elements of w
will be time-variant functions and S = 0.
The last equation in (11) represents the error signal between
the system output y = Cx and the desired reference signal
yr (t) = −Qw. The matrices C and Q are obtained through
linearizing the nonlinear error equation:

ωDG1 − ω∗
e = g(x, w) = , (12)
|Vb | − Vb∗
where the frequency ωDG1 is a system state and the voltage
magnitude |Vb | at bus b is a function of the system states.
Then, C = (∂/∂x)g(x, w)|x0 and Q = [0 −I].
The control objective is to design a feedback control law
u = Kx + Gw (13)
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 10, NO. 1, JANUARY 2019
such that the error signal e asymptotically decays to zero
while maintaining asymptotic stability of the closed-loop
system (11). More specifically, the output regulation problem
is to find, if possible, the matrices K and G and thus the
controller (13), such that
S1) When w = 0, the closed-loop system ẋ = (Asys +
Bsys K)x is asymptotically stable, i.e., the matrix Asys + Bsys K
has all eigenvalues on the open left-half plane;
S2) In the presence of w, the solution (x(t), w(t)) of the
closed-loop system:
ẋ = (Asys + Bsys K)x + (P + Bsys G)w
(14)
ẇ = Sw
has the property that
lim e(t) = lim (Cx(t) + Qw(t)) = 0 (15)
t→∞ t→∞
It has been shown in [24] that the output regulation problem
is solvable under two conditions: (C1) all eigenvalues of the
matrix S are on the closed right-half plane; (C2) the pair (A, B)
is stabilizable.
Under these conditions, a necessary and sufficient condi-
tion for the solvability of the output regulation problem is as
follows.
Proposition 1: Suppose C1 and C2 hold. The problem of
output regulation can be solved by the full-information feed-
back controller (13), if and only if there exist matrices
 satisfying the linear matrix equations:
Asys
(16)
C
Moreover, the controller (13) that achieves S1) and S2) is
given by:
u = Kx + ( − K
where K is determined in such a way that all the eigenvalues
of Asys + Bsys K are located on the open left-half plane.
Because equation (16) has multiple solutions, four dif-
ferent control schemes can be derived depending on how
trade-offs between the complexity/practical feasibility of the
implementation and transient performance of the system are
handled.
B. Control Scheme I—Full State Information Feedback
As shown by both modal analysis and the simulations
in Section IV, system (10) is already asymptotically stable
because all the eigenvalues of matrix Asys are located on the
open left-half plane. For given disturbances Idk Iqk and
tracking references ω∗ Vb∗ , a full state information feedback
controller u can be designed based on Proposition 1 in the
following steps [24].
Step i): Verify the stabilizability of the pair (Asys , Bsys ) by
the PBH test, i.e., by checking the rank condition of the matrix
[λk I −Asys Bsys ] where λk is any eigenvalue of Asys . If it is full
rank, then the pair (Asys , Bsys ) is stabilizable. Go to Step ii).
Step ii): Find a gain matrix K such that all of the eigen-
values of the matrix Asys + Bsys K are assigned to the open
left-half plane, using the pole assignment algorithm. The algo-
rithm identifies the matrix K so that the eigenvalues are placed
ZHAO et al.: VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY REGULATION OF MICROGRID WITH BESSs
at the desirable locations. For improved system dynamic
performance, the poles should be assigned carefully. A general
rule of thumb is to place a pair of conjugate poles nearby the
imaginary axis, while setting the rest poles far away from the
 
imaginary axis.
Step iii): Solve equation (16) to find the matrices
and i
. When there are multiple solutions, one can select the most
suitable solution by taking into account the control signal con-
straints and the transient performance. In other words, the
control signals of (17) should respect the normal operation
ranges of the synchronous generator terminal voltage and con-
verter output current. Furthermore, the suitable matrices
and left-half plane;
 should be chosen to achieve the desirable overshoot and set-
tling time requirements for the regulated signals Vb and ωDG1 .
In general, it is a challenging task to establish numerical guid-
ances on choosing matrices
and . In our study, we tried a didate solutions, and iterative update of candidate solutions
number of matrices before finding the suitable ones that lead
to desirable performance outcome.
Step iv): Design the controller according to equation (17).
Control Scheme I can achieve disturbance rejection and
reference tracking simultaneously, while mitigating system
transients. The practical application is, however, limited for
the reason that not all the state measurements are available
in real-time. In the next subsections, three practically feasi-
ble approaches are proposed to reduce the requirement of full
state information for the control design.
C. Control Scheme II—Using a Subset of
State Measurements
A partial state feedback controller that requires only measur-
able signals is more desirable from a practical implementation
standpoint. In this control design, one follows the same steps
as the controller design of control scheme I except that the pole
assignment in Step ii) cannot be performed due to the restric-
tions on the matrix K imposed by requirement 2) below. In
the new control scheme, choose the gain matrix K = Kp to
fulfill the following requirements:
1) All of the eigenvalues of matrix Asys + Bsys Kp are on the
open left-half plane;
2) The columns corresponding to the unmeasurable states in
matrix Kp are set to zero. In this study, only 12 of the total 73
states are required to be measurable. These measurable states
correspond to the dq components of the current injections from
the microgrid loads and converters. As a result, matrix Kp
contains 12 nonzero columns.
The matrix Kp can be selected to help further improve the
system dynamic performance, even though all eigenvalues of
matrix Asys are already on the open-left half plane. Once a
suitable matrix Kp is found, a controller that requires only the
measurable states is given by:
419
elements of matrix Kp . The GA-based optimization problem
is briefly described as follows.
Fitness function:
minimize λ i − λ ∗ 2
i
That is, the fittest candidate matrix Kp will minimize
the sum of squares of the distances between eigenvalues of
Asys + Bsys Kp and the desirable eigenvalues. There are two
constraints:
a) All the eigenvalues of Asys + Bsys Kp are on the open
b) Controller u is within the normal operating range.
The GA-based optimization procedure involves selection of
initial solution candidate population, fitness evaluation of can-
through genetic crossover and mutation until convergence.
Implementation of the algorithm procedure is supported by
many available solver tools such as the Matlab Optimization
Toolbox.
D. Control Scheme III—Without State Measurements
It is noted that system (10) is already asymptotically stable
without state feedback. If the gain matrix Kp is set to zero,
then no state measurement information will be required. The
controller design now reduces to:
u = w (19)
Using only information on the disturbance and tracking ref-
erences, the controller design according to eq. (19) is the most
economical. In this control design, the system is stable since
all eigenvalues of matrix Asys are on the open left half plane; a
proper selection of the matrix  can help reduce the overshoot
of system transients.
E. Control Scheme IV—Using Measurement Feedback
To further improve the transient performance and the accu-
racy of the regulation of the voltage and frequency of the
linearized system (10), one can apply the so-called error feed-
back control strategy [24]. This strategy can be summarized
as follows: 1) use only the measurable signals to estimate
the unmeasurable components of the state x in (10) and
w = [Idk Iqk ω∗ Vb∗ ]T by developing a linear observer,
and then 2) implement the controller (17) by its estimated
signals (x̂, ŵ) instead of the unmeasurable signals (x, w). The
price one has to pay is the complexity of the error feedback
controller due to the introduction of an observer. A realizable
dynamic controller is given by

  ξ̇ = Fξ + Ge
u = Kp x +  − Kp
w (20)
(18) u = Hξ
where the matrices
and  are selected following step iii) where the matrices F, G, H are determined by the following
of control scheme I. algorithm:
For further improvement of the controller performance, Step i): Verify that the pair (Asys , Bsys ) is stabilizable and
an evolutionary optimization algorithm such as the Genetic A P
the pair ( sys , [C Q]) is detectable.
Algorithm (GA) [28] is well suited for selecting the non-zero 0 S
420 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 10, NO. 1, JANUARY 2019

Step ii): Construct a stabilizing feedback law u = Kx such

that all the eigenvalues of (Asys + Bsys K) are on the open left-
half plane by the pole assignment technique.
Step iii): Construct the following asymptotic observer,
driven by the measurable error e, to estimate (x, w).

  
x̂˙ Asys P G0   x̂
= − CQ
ŵ˙ 0 S G1 ŵ
 T  T
+ G0 G1 e + Bsys 0 u (21)
where G0 and G1 are designed

  so that all the eigenvalues of

Asys P G0  
− C Q are on the open left-half plane.
0 S G1
Fig. 5. Eigenvalue spectrum of the microgrid system.
Step iv): Solve eq. (16) to find matrices
and . Here the
same matrices
and  obtained from control scheme I is
used. Set u = Kx + ( − K
)w and
  
x̂˙ A − G0 C + BK P − G0 Q + B( − K
) x̂
=
ŵ˙ −G1 C S − G1 Q ŵ
 T   T
+ G0 G1 e , with u = K  − K
x̂ ŵ (22)
Different from the previous three control schemes, con-
trol scheme IV is designed only based on the error signals
while the control signal is to drive error signal e back to zero.
Without the full knowledge of the system state, the controller
based on the output error information can also achieve the Fig. 6. System response of the disturbance without control.
same control objective.
the local P-f droop controls of the synchronous generators are
IV. C ASE S TUDIES
key for ensuring system stability. There are, however, some
A. MATLAB Simulink Model Implementation active modes that are close to the imaginary axis and can
The system (11) has been implemented in MATLAB result in poor system dynamic performance. Therefore, an
Simulink where the essential system parameters are described important goal of controller design is to mitigate harmful tran-
as follows. The per unit parameters of the synchronous gen- sients in voltage and frequency to ensure power quality during
erators and converters are described in Tables I and II of disturbance events.
Appendix C, with the power basis being 1000 kVA and the
voltage bases being 4.16 kV and 0.48 kV, respectively. The C. Simulation Studies for Control Schemes I, II, III and IV
system line and load parameters are consistent with those In the following simulation case studies, the disturbance is
of the IEEE 13 bus model [29] and are summarized in a sudden loss of load in the amount of 130 kW with 0.92
Tables III and IV of Appendix C. The total generation capacity power factor lagging, at bus 670 and time t = 2s. The system
of the microgrid system of Fig. 1 is about 4.3 MW (Table V response without any of the control schemes implemented is
of Appendix C), which is adequate to support the microgrid first simulated. As shown in Fig. 6, the system remains stable
system in the standalone mode of operation (Tables VI of but settles at a new steady state with significant voltage and
Appendix C). The resultant microgrid system model as repre- frequency deviations, i.e., ω = 2.25 HZ and V = 0.01 p.u.
sented by eq. (11) contains 73 state variables and 10 control Next, the 4 control schemes proposed in Section III are imple-
variables. There are also 2 tracking references (set points) for mented in the Simulink model and the system response under
the voltage at bus 670 and the system frequency. Due to their each of the control schemes is simulated and analyzed.
high dimensions and the page limit, the matrices in the numer- 1) Control Scheme I: By the PBH test, the pair (Asys , Bsys )
ical models of both system (11) and the control schemes of is stabilizable. Using the pole assignment technique, the gain
Section IV-C are not listed. matrix K is first constructed. And then based on eq. (16),
the matrices
and  are each calculated. (Matrices

B. System Stability Under Small Disturbances
Before the control strategies are implemented, the eigen-
values of the matrix Asys of (11) are first calculated. The
eigenvalues determine the stability of the system at an oper-
ation equilibrium under small system disturbances. As shown
in Fig. 5, all eigenvalues are on the open left half plane.
Therefore, the microgrid system is asymptotically stable under
small disturbances. A further parametric analysis shows that
and  will be similarly calculated for control schemes II,
III and IV.) Finally, the full state feedback control law is
computed using eq. (17). After the controller is implemented,
voltage and frequency are regulated to the reference set points
of ω∗ = 60 HZ, Vb∗ = 0.97 p.u. by t = 15s, as shown in
Fig. 7-a. In the meantime, voltage and frequency deviations
from the set points are mitigated to under 1% p.u. during the
event.
ZHAO et al.: VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY REGULATION OF MICROGRID WITH BESSs 421

Fig. 7. System responses of (a) control scheme I (b) control scheme II Fig. 8. Synchronous generator control signals of (a) control scheme I
(c) control scheme III (d) control scheme IV. (b) control scheme II (c) control scheme III (d) control scheme IV.

2) Control Scheme II: The controller using a subset of state

measurements is obtained based on eq. (18) where the zero
columns of the matrix Kp correspond to the unmeasurable
states, and the nonzero columns of Kp correspond to the mea-
surable states, i.e., the current injections from the microgrid
loads and converters. Using the GA-based optimization pro-
cedure, an optimal solution of matrix Kp is found. After the
controller is implemented, the regulated voltage and frequency
responses are seen to have similar dynamic performance to
that of control scheme I (Fig. 7-b). As discussed before, the
main benefit of the partial state feedback is that voltage and
frequency regulation can be achieved with a few measurable
states required for feedback control.
3) Control Scheme III: The controller without using state
measurements is constructed based on eq. (19). The derived
control signals are constant and represent the step offsets in the
control signals to achieve voltage and frequency regulations.
As shown in Fig. 7-c, the regulated voltage and frequency can
settle at the reference set points by t = 15s. Without any state
feedback, the voltage transient appears to be more significant
(4 − 5% p.u.) during the first 3 seconds. Fig. 9. Converter control signals of (a) control scheme I (b) control scheme II
(c) control scheme III (d) control scheme IV.
4) Control Scheme IV: Using only the measurable error
signal e for feedback design, an observer is constructed based
and therefore cannot be practically implemented. Nonetheless,
on the strategy described in Section III-E. Specifically, the
it is a basic building block for control scheme IV where a
gain matrix K, and matrices
and  are the same as in
linear observer is added to help estimate the system states.
control scheme I; the matrix G is calculated following step iii).
The observer only requires the error signals to be measured.
With the aid of the observer, a dynamic controller is obtained
In comparison, the controllers of control schemes II and III
based on eq. (22). As shown in Fig. 7-d, the regulated voltage
also use only measurable signals and the designs are simpler.
and frequency signals settle by t = 15s, and the transient
The trade-off, however, can be poorer transient performance
performance (both overshoot and settling time) is comparable
or additional requirement for parameter optimization as com-
to that of control scheme I.
pared with control schemes I and IV.
The control signals for the synchronous generator and con-
verter corresponding to the four control schemes are separately
shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9. D. Potential Practical Applications
Among the proposed control schemes, the controller of con- Control schemes II, III and IV can be considered for prac-
trol scheme I requires measurements for all the system states tical implementation. A potential area of application is the
422 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART GRID, VOL. 10, NO. 1, JANUARY 2019

wide-area special protection schemes (SPS) [30] for microgrid

voltage and frequency regulations against the loss of a major
generation resource or load. The design and implementation of
such a wide-area control system will require efforts in system
modeling, central controller design, and technology selections
for embedded real-time control system and high-bandwidth Fig. 10. Reference frame transformation.
communication links.
Depending on the operating capacity of protected equip-
ment and severity of transients, one of the control reference frame is performed through
schemes II, III and IV may be selected. For a moderate loss   
vdcom cosδi −sinδi vdi
of generation or load where system transients can be toler- = (23)
vqcom sinδi cosδi vqi
ated, control scheme III would be the most appropriate as it
incurs the lowest communication cost with no real-time feed- where δi is the angle that the d-axis of the local reference
back control involved. For more severe disturbances that can frame leads that of the common reference frame (Fig. 10).
result in harmful transients, control schemes II or IV should be
selected as they can mitigate the system transients. Real-time
feedback controls are involved in these two control schemes A PPENDIX B
and communication latency will be a key challenge to over- S YSTEM C OMPONENT M ODELS
come. An important future effort of this work is to model and A. Synchronous Generator
mitigate communication latencies in the controller design. For the synchronous generator in microgrid MGi (i = 1, 2),
under the common dq reference frame:
V. C ONCLUSION
This work has first developed a dynamic model for δ̇DGi = ωDGi − ωcom (24)
a microgrid system that consists of multiple facility-scale E qi vdDGi
M ω̇DGi = Pmi − D(ωDGi − ωcom ) −
microgrids with on-site battery energy storage systems and are X  di

E di vqDGi
interconnected through the MV distribution system network.
+ (25)
A primary control strategy is then developed based on output X  qi
regulation theory to regulate the microgrid system voltage and Xdi Xdi − X  di
frequency while managing the system dynamic performance T  d0 Ė qi = Efi − E qi  + vqDGi (26)
X di X  di
following disturbances. The fast-response converter controls in 
Xqi Xqi − X qi
addition to the conventional generator controls not only help T  q0 Ė di = −E di  + vdDGi (27)
to track the regulation set point targets, but also effectively X qi X  qi
improve the system dynamic performance. τg Ṗei = −kdi (ωDGi − ωcom ) + Prefi − Pei (28)
The proposed control strategy is centralized and requires τt Ṗmi = Pei − Pmi (29)
high-bandwidth communication. There are significant oppor- 
TR V̇Ai = −VAi + Vrefi − v2dDGi + v2qDGi (30)
tunities, however, to reduce the communication requirements   
and associated implementation cost through developing control V̇Bi = (KP /TR ) −VAi + Vrefi − v2dDGi + v2qDGi
schemes that involve fewer measurement signals (e.g., control
schemes II, III and IV). Furthermore, the existence of multiple + KI VAi (31)
solutions to the regulator equation [eq. (16)] may allow iden- Ts Ėfi = −Efi + Ks VB (32)
tification of control strategies that only involve measurement
input and control output signals from the local subsystems. where eq. (24) - (27) describes the electromechanical dynam-
In other words, it is possible that the controls can be further ics of the generator; eq. (28) and (29) are the turbine governor
decoupled under certain network configurations and operating dynamics with active power and frequency (P-f) droop con-
conditions. trol; and eq. (30) - (32) represent excitation control for the
Our future work will also focus on identifying decou- regulation of terminal voltage.
pled control schemes using the centralized microgrid system
model and novel solution techniques. The study will pro- B. Converter
vide important guidance for the development of effective
1) Phase Lock Loop (PLL): The PLL output frequency
non-centralized microgrid control strategies that can ensure
ωCNVi is an input to the current control loop, and the phase
both the steady-state and dynamic performance of microgrid
angle δCNVi helps to define the dq reference frame for the con-
systems.
verter inner control loops. The additional variable i does not
have a physical meaning but is defined to facilitate the model
A PPENDIX A development [31]. For microgrid MGi (i = 1, 2, 3):
C OORDINATE T RANSFORMATION

Using voltage as an example, transformation of the dq ˙ i = voqCNVi

(33)
components from a local reference frame i to the common δ̇CNVi = Kp voqCNVi + Ki i .
ZHAO et al.: VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY REGULATION OF MICROGRID WITH BESSs 423

TABLE I TABLE II
S YNCHRONOUS G ENERATOR PARAMETERS C ONVERTER PARAMETERS

TABLE III
M ICROGRID L OAD PARAMETERS

2) Current Controller: Two new variables γd and γq are

introduced to describe the model. The dynamics of the current
controller is described by [27]: TABLE IV
N ETWORK B RANCH AND L OAD PARAMETERS

γ̇di = i∗ldCNVi − ildCNVi

(34)
γ̇qi = i∗lqCNVi − ilqCNVi

together with the algebraic constraints:

⎧ ∗  
⎪
⎪ vidCNVi = − ωDGi  + Kp voqCNVi +Ki  Lfi ilqCNVi
⎪
⎨ + ∗ TABLE V
∗
 Kpc ildCNVi − ildCNVi +Kic γdCNVi O UTPUT P OWER OF M ICROGRIDS IN N ORMAL O PERATION
⎪ v = ω + K v + Ki  Lfi ildCNVi (35)
⎪
⎪
iqCNVi DGi
 p oqCNVi 
⎩ + Kpc i∗ − ilqCNVi + Kic γqCNVi .
lqCNVi

3) LC Filter and Coupling Inductance: The model of the

filter can be represented by the following equations, assuming
TABLE VI
that the pulse-width modulation (PWM) produces the required T OTAL D EMANDS OF THE MV M ICROGRID S YSTEM
voltage v∗idCNVi = vidCNVi and v∗iqCNVi = viqCNVi :
⎧ −r
⎪
⎪ i̇ = Lfifi ildCNVi + ωDGi ilqCNVi
⎪ ldCNVi
⎪
⎨ + L1fi (vidCNVi − vcdCNVi )
−r (36)
⎪
⎪ i̇lqCNVi = Lfifi ilqCNVi − ωDGi ildCNVi
⎪
⎪  
⎩ + L1fi viqCNVi − vcqCNVi
⎧
⎪
⎪ v̇ = C1fi (ildCNVi − iodCNVi ) + ωDGi vcqCNVi
⎪ cdCNVi
⎨  
+ rd i̇ldCNVi − i̇odCNVi
 E. Network Lines
(37)
⎪
⎪ v̇cqCNVi = C1fi ilqCNVi − ioqCNVi − ωDGi vcdCNVi
⎪
⎩   The dynamic system line model is described by the differ-
+ rd i̇lqCNVi − i̇oqCNVi ential equations:
⎧
⎪
⎪ i̇odCNVi = −r
Lci iodCNVi + ωDGi ioqCNVi
ci 
⎪
⎨ i̇dLNl = −R
LLNl idLNl + ωDG1 iqLNl + LLNl (vdm − vdn )
LNl 1
+ L1ci (vcdCNVi − vodCNVi )   (41)
⎪ i̇oqCNVi = −r ci
− ωDGi iodCNVi
(38) i̇qLNl = −R
LLNl iqLNl − ωDG1 idLNl + LLNl vqm − vqn .
LNl 1
⎪
⎪ Lci ioqCNVi
 
⎩ + Lci vcqCNVi − voqCNVi .
1
A PPENDIX C
S YSTEM PARAMETERS
C. Microgrid Load
See the Tables I–IV.
The dynamic load model is described by the differential
equations:
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Huiying Zhao (S’15) received the B.S. and
M.S. degrees in electrical engineering from Tianjin
University, Tianjin, China, in 2011 and 2014 respec-
tively. She is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree
with the Department of Electrical Engineering
and Computer Science, Case Western Reserve
University, Cleveland, OH, USA. Her current
research interests include microgrid modeling and
controls, power system analysis and simulation, and
smart grid engineering.
Mingguo Hong (S’93–M’98) received the B.E.
degree in electrical engineering from Tsinghua
University in 1991, the M.S. degree in mathe-
matics from the University of Minnesota in 1993,
and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering
from the University of Washington in 1998. He
was a Power Systems Engineer with ALSTOM
Grid, Redmond, WA, USA, from 1998 to 2005,
an Associate Professor of mathematics with Valley
Forge Military College from 2005 to 2006, and a
Principle Market Engineer with the Mid-Continent
Independent System Operator, Carmel, IN, USA, from 2006 to 2012. He is
currently an Associate Professor with the Electrical Engineering and Computer
Science Department, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
His research interests are in power system analysis, electricity markets, and
smart distribution systems.
Wei Lin (SM’99–F’18) received the D.Sc. degree in
systems science and mathematics from Washington
University, St. Louis, MO, USA, in 1993, the B.S.
degree from the Dalian University of Science and
Technology in 1983, and the M.S. degree from the
Huazhong University of Science and Technology
in 1986, both in electrical engineering. From 1986
to 1989, he was a Lecturer with the Department
of Mathematics, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
From 1994 to 1995, he was a Post-Doctoral Fellow
and a Visiting Assistant Professor with Washington
University. Since 1996, he has been a Professor with the Department
of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Case Western Reserve
University, Cleveland, OH, USA. His research interests include nonlinear
control, estimation and adaptive control with applications to power systems,
renewable energy, and smart grids. He has published over 200 papers in peer-
refereed journals and conferences in the above areas.
He was a recipient of the NSF CAREER Award, the Warren E. Rupp
Endowed Professorship, and the Robert Herbold Faculty Fellow Award. He
has served as an Associate Editor of Automatica, the IEEE T RANSACTIONS
ON AUTOMATIC C ONTROL , and the Journal of Control Theory and
Applications, a Subject Editor and an Associate Editor of the International
Journal of Robust and Nonlinear Control.
Kenneth A. Loparo (F’99–LF’16) received the
Ph.D. degree in systems and control engineering
from Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland,
OH, USA, in 1977. He is the Nord Professor of
engineering, and the Chair with the Department of
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Case
Western Reserve University. His current research
interests include stability and control of nonlin-
ear systems with applications to large-scale electric
power systems, nonlinear filtering with applications
to monitoring, fault detection, diagnosis, and recon-
figurable control.
He is an Editor of the IEEE T RANSACTION ON P OWER S YSTEMS and has
held numerous positions in the IEEE Control System Society.